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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 1 CONTENTS LABORATORY PAGE NO. LAB 1 Neurons 3 LAB 2 Neurophysiology 15 LAB 3 The Spinal Cord and Spinal Cord Tracts 21 LAB 4 Brain Anatomy 30 LAB 5 Sagittal Section of the Brain 41 LAB 6 Nerve Structure 48 LAB 7 Cranial Nerves 51 LAB 8 Brachial Plexus 57 LAB 9 Lumbosacral Plexus 61 LAB 10 Nervous System Tracts 70 LAB 11 The Endocrine System 75 LAB 12 Blood Components 82 LAB 13 The Cardiovascular System–Blood Vessels 90 LAB 14 The Cardiovascular System–The Heart 99 LAB 15 Heart Function and Conduction 109 LAB 16 The Respiratory System 119 LAB 17 Respiratory Lung Volumes 133 LAB 18 The Urinary System 139 LAB 19 Urinalysis 149 LAB 20 The Digestive System 153 LAB 21 The Reproductive System 169 Answer Key 184 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 2 OBJECTIVE To learn about the important structural components of a neuron and relate each to a functional role. PART A—NEURON STRUCTURE Study the laboratory models and diagrams in your text to identify the following structures. Write a brief definition or description of each item. a. cyton (cell body, soma) b. dendrite c. Nissl body d. nucleus e. axon hillock f. axon g. myelin h. neurilemma and Schwann cell nucleus i. Schwann cell j. node of Ranvier k. axolemma l. collateral axon m. axon terminal or synaptic knob n. vesicles ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 3 PART B—CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS OBJECTIVE To classify neurons structurally and functionally. Neurons can be categorized either by their appearance (structural) or by what they do (functional). View the laboratory models, consult your textbook, lecture notes, talk to your colleagues, and then complete the chart below. STRUCTURAL TYPES NO. OF PROCESSES LOCATION (CNS/PNS) SPECIFIC LOCATION 1. 2. 3. FUNCTIONAL TYPES 1. 2. 3. PART C—NEURON QUESTIONS Answer the following questions to determine what you have learned. 1. The nucleus of a neuron is located in the . 2. Myelin is made of the membranes of . 3. carry impulses away from the cell body of a neuron. 4. neurons are always sensory. 5. neurons can be found in the retina of the eye. 6. Schwann cells are only found in the 7. Myelin nervous system. conduction velocity. 8. The is an interruption in the myelin sheath which enhances conduction velocity by allowing saltatory conduction. 9. Membranes and therefore myelin are made of ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS and . Page 4 10. Vesicles are membrane-bound sacs that contain . 11. The cell bodies of neurons often cluster together. Clusters of cells bodies in the CNS are called .and in the PNS these clusters are called 12. Synonyms for sensory and motor are . and 13. Nissl bodies are clusters of . responsible for synthesis of . PART D—MULTIPOLAR NEURON Label the indicated structures on the typical multipolar neuron diagram below. 1 2 4 3 9 6 5 7 10 8 11 12 13 14 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 5 PART E—MULTIPOLAR NEURON QUESTIONS 1. What is the outer membrane of structure #8 called? 2. What is contained in the vesicles in structure #15? 3. What cell forms the myelin sheath in the PNS? CNS? 4. What is structure #3 composed of? 5. What is the function of regions such as #11? 6. What is the significance of region #6? 7. Draw how a bipolar neuron would differ from this one. 8. Draw how a unipolar neuron would differ from this one. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 6 PART F—MULTIPOLAR MOTOR NEURON SLIDE Observe under the microscope the slide of a multipolar motor neuron and draw what you see in the space below. Label the following structures: axon, cell body, dendrite, nucleus, Nissl bodies, and glial cells. PART G—NEUROGLIAL CELLS OBJECTIVE To learn about the different types of glial cells. Neuroglial cells protect, nurture, and support neurons but they do not conduct electricity like neurons. Complete the table below as you learn about the neuroglia. TYPE CNS/PNS FUNCTION 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 7 PART H—NEURON PHYSIOLOGY OBJECTIVE To learn about electrical potentials including the membrane potential and the action potential. Check out a laptop and work as a group. Go to www.interactivephysiology.com and enter your login information. If you do not have a log in you may access the same tutorials at nedbook.adam.com/pages/IPWeb/home/index2.html to begin. Open the Nervous System I interactive tutorial. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 8 Work through these topics: Membrane Potentials, The Action Potential and Ion Channels. QUESTIONS (Answer these questions as you view the tutorials.) 1. What is an ion? 2. Can ions move in and out of cells? 3. How do ions move in and out of cells? 4. What is an ion channel? 5. What factors determine in which direction ions will move through an open channel? 6. What two factors contribute to the existence of a resting membrane potential? 7. What maintains the concentration gradients of Na+ and K+ across the membrane and how is this achieved? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 9 Dendrites Nucleus Nucleolus Cell body Nissl bodies Axon hillock Axon Schwann cell Neurilemma Schwann cell nucleus Axolemma Axon terminals Node of Ranvier Axon collateral Telodendria ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 10 Nucleus Dendrite Cell body Nucleolus Nucleus of neuroglia Axon Myelin sheath Neurilemma Node of Ranvier Axon fibrils Axolemma ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 11 capillary ASTROCYTES neuron Cling to neurons and capillaries Help with the exchange between neurons and capillaries Pick up excess K+ and neurotransmitters astrocyte axon OLIGODENDROCYTES Form myelin insulation on axons of neurons in CNS myelin sheath oligodendrocyte fluid-filled cavity EPENDYMAL CELLS Ciliated cells Line brain ventricles Cilia circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) ependymal cells MICROGLIA Special type of macrophage Migrate to damaged area and engulf invading organisms and cell debris microglia ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 12 myelin sheath SCHWANN CELLS Wrap around axons of neurons in PNS to form myelin sheath axon Schwann cell nucleus Schwann cell SATELLITE CELLS Surround cells bodies of neurons within ganglia (PNS) for support satellite cell cell body axon ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 13 MULTIPOLAR NEURONS BIPOLAR NEURONS Many dendrites and one axon Motor neurons Association neurons Most common type in CNS 1 axon and 1 dendrite extending from opposite sides of the cell Very rare Found in special sensory organs (olfactory mucosa, retina) UNIPOLAR NEURONS 1 extension serving as axon and dendrite Mostly afferent sensory Found in PNS (dorsal root ganglia and sensory ganglia on cranial nerves AFFERENT (SENSORY) NEURONS Carry sensory information in skin or internal organs toward CNS Mainly unipolar EFFERENT (MOTOR) NEURONS Carry outgoing information from CNS to effector organs of body (away from CNS) Mainly multipolar ASSOCIATION (INTERNEURONS) NEURONS Link other neurons together Mainly multipolar Confined to CNS STIMULUS RECEPTOR RESPONSES EFFECTOR ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS SPINAL CORD (CNS) Sensory Neuron Association Neuron (unipolar, afferent) Motor Neuron (multipolar, efferent) Page 14 OBJECTIVE To understand the physiology of the neuron and the processes involved with generation and conduction of an action potential. PART A—ACTION POTENTIAL Use diagrams A, B and C to answer the questions 1-8 on the following page. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 15 1. Which diagram illustrates a neuron axon that is beginning depolarization? 2. Which diagram illustrates a resting neuron? 3. Which diagram has an area illustrating the beginning of repolarization? 4. Which diagram depicts the process of propagation? 5. Which of the processes mentioned above is a part of the action potential? 6. What type of ion channel is opening in the highlighted circle of diagram B? How are they gated (what causes them to open)? 7. What type of ion channels are opening and/or closing in the non-highlighted region of diagram C? How are they gated? 8. What contributes to the negative RMP in diagram A? Use diagrams D and E to answer the questions 9-16 on the following page. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 16 9. Which ion channel (D or E) is voltage-gated? 10. Where on the neuron would you find the ion channels pictured in diagram E? 11. What would cause the ion channels in diagram D to open? What do you call this type of channel? 12. Where on the neuron would you find the ion channels in diagram D? 13. If the ion channels in diagram E opened just long enough to cause a small positive change in the RMP, but alone not a great enough change to result in the generation of an action potential, what would you call this occurrence? 14. If a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on a postsynaptic membrane channel resulting in the entrance of chloride ions, what would happen to the RMP of the postsynaptic neuron? What is it called when this happens to the RMP? 15. If a postsynaptic membrane had small regions of hyperpolarization, these local occurrences of hyperpolarization would be called ___________________________________________. 16. What type of neurotransmitter would cause resulting IPSP’s when bound to a postsynaptic receptor? 17. Name and describe the process occurring in diagram F. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 17 18. Name and describe the mechanism pictured in diagram G. 19. When is the process pictured above used to re-establish a negative RMP? 20. What causes the influx of calcium ions shown at #1 in the diagram below? 21. What is the result of the calcium influx? 22. Name the bubble-like structure #2 and give its function. 23. What is structure #4 (be specific)? 24. If a stimulatory neurotransmitter binds to structure #4, what will occur as a result? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 18 25. How many mV (approximately) would the RMP need to move in a positive direction before the electrically-gated sodium channels in the axon hillock would open to initiate an action potential? 26. Name each type of circuit below: A. B. PART B—TUTORIALS Check out a laptop and work as a group. Go to www.interactivephysiology.com and enter your login information to begin. If you do not have a login, you may access the same tutorials at nedbook.adam.com/pages/IPWeb/home/index2.html to begin. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 19 Open the Nervous System II interactive tutorial. Work through these topics: Synaptic Transmission and Synaptic Potentials. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 20 OBJECTIVE To examine the gross and microscopic structure of the spinal cord and the major spinal cord tracts and their functions. PART A—COVERINGS AND SPACES Utilize models and text book diagrams of the spinal cord to identify the following structures. Write a descriptive phrase for each. Dura mater Arachnoid membrane Pia mater Epidural space Subdural space Subarachnoid space PART B—DEPRESSIONS Observe the models of the spinal cord and identify the following structures. Write a descriptive phrase for each. Ventral (anterior) median fissure Dorsal (posterior) median sulcus ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 21 PART C—GRAY AND WHITE MATTER Observe the models of the spinal cord and identify the following structures. Write a descriptive phrase for each. Ventral (anterior) gray horn Dorsal (posterior) gray horn Lateral gray horn Ventral (anterior) funiculus Dorsal (posterior) funiculus Lateral funiculus Gray commissure Central canal PART D—SPINAL ROOTS Observe the models of the spinal cord and identify the following structures. Write a descriptive phrase for each. Spinal nerve Dorsal root ganglion Sensory (afferent) root Motor (efferent) root ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 22 PART E—SPINAL CORD DIAGRAM Label the structures on the spinal cord diagram. 18 5 1 2 17 16 3 15 14 4 13 5 12 6 7 11 8 10 9 PART F—SPINAL CORD STRUCTURE QUESTIONS Answer the following questions. 1. Together, the dura mater, pia mater, and arachnoid membrane are the _______________________________. 2. A fissure is a _______________________________________________. 3. A sulcus is a _______________________________________________. 4. The anterior gray horn contains ________________________________ neurons. 5. The difference between the gray horns and white columns is _______________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 6. The central canal is lined by _______________________________ cells. 7. The subarachnoid space contains ______________________________________ fluid. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 23 8. Functionally, a spinal nerve is an example of a ______________________________ nerve. 9. White columns carry impulses along pathways called _______________________________. 10. Information carried along these pathways is either ______________________ or _______________________. 11. Neuronal synapses would be most common in the _______________________________ matter. 12. Oligodendrocytes would be found in the ______________________________ matter or columns. 13. A lumbar puncture would remove fluid from what space? ____________________________________. PART G—GROSS ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL CORD OBJECTIVE To describe and identify the relevant structures of the spinal cord. Examine the human spine and the spinal cord models and answer the following questions. 1. Can you identify the dura mater? _________________________. 2. What is the filum terminale? _________________________________________. 3. How far down the vertebral column does the spinal cord extend? ______________________________. 4. What is the cauda equina? _________________________________________________. PART H—MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL CORD OBJECTIVE To learn the microscopic anatomy of the spinal cord. Examine the microscope slide with cross sections of spinal cord and identify the relevant structures below. Dorsal median sulcus Central canal with ependymal cells Ventral median fissure Ventral (gray) horn Dorsal funiculus Dorsal (gray) horn Ventral funiculus Alpha motor neuron cell bodies Lateral funiculus Incoming sensory axons Gray commissure Any visible meningeal layers ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 24 Answer the following questions: 1. Do all sections have gray horns? ________________ Explain. If so, how do the spinal cord grey horn regions differ? 2. What structures are most prominent in the anterior gray horn? _______________________________. 3. The gray areas on the right and left sides of the cord are connected by an area called the ______________________ which contains the central canal. PART I—SPINAL CORD TRACTS OBJECTIVE To identify the structure and function of the spinal cord tracts. Label the diagram below and answer the questions. Identify which ones are ascending and 1 2 4 3 descending, 1. Name (2 names): Function: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 25 2. Name: Function: 3. Name: Function: 4. Name: Function: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 26 Cervical enlargement C1 – C8 Cervical spinal nerves T1 – T12 Thoracic spinal nerves Lumbar enlargement Conus medullaris Cauda equina L1 – L5 Lumbar spinal nerves Sacral spinal nerves S1 – S5 Filum terminale CO1 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 27 Dorsal median sulcus Gray commissure Dorsal funiculus Dorsal horn Lateral funiculus Lateral horn Central canal Ventral funiculus WHITE COLUMNS Ventral median fissure Ventral horn Dorsal funiculus Dorsal horn Lateral funiculus Lateral horn Ventral funiculus Ventral horn ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS GRAY MATTER Page 28 White matter Dorsal root Dorsal root ganglion Gray matter Spinal nerve Arachnoid membrane Ventral root Pia mater Spinal nerve Subarachnoid space Arachnoid membrane Subdural space Dura mater ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 29 OBJECTIVE To examine and learn the anatomical structure of the human brain and the functions associated with its various regions. Review the cranial fossae and relate the positioning of the major portions of the brain to them. PART A—VENTRICLES Locate the parts listed below on the models and in diagrams from your text. Lateral ventricles Fourth ventricle Interventricular foramina Lateral apertures Third ventricle Median aperture Cerebral aqueduct Septum pellucidum Label the diagram below. 2 1 3 4 5 7 6 8 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 30 PART B—REGIONS AND ORGANIZATION Locate on the models the anatomical features listed below. Cerebrum Parieto-occipital sulcus (median sagittal view) Cerebral hemispheres Lateral sulcus Longitudinal fissure Temporal lobe Transverse cerebral fissure Insula Central sulcus Limbic system Frontal lobe Cerebellum Parietal lobe Pons Precentral gyrus Medulla oblongata Postcentral gyrus Calcarine sulcus (median sagittal view) Occipital lobe Label the diagrams below. 2 1 3 5 4 6 7 9 8 11 10 12 14 15 13 16 17 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 31 PART C—MENINGES Locate on the models the anatomical features listed below. Dura Mater Arachnoid mater Falx cerebri Subdural space Falx cerebelli Subarachnoid space Tentorium cerebelli Arachnoid villi Diaphragma sellae Pia mater Superior sagittal sinus Label the diagrams below. 1 2 3 4 8 1 5 6 9 (space) 10 (space) ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS 7 Page 32 PART D—CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF) Locate and learn the following structure on the models. Choroid plexus Answer the following questions. 1. What is CSF? 2. What produces CSF? How? 3. What is the composition of CSF? 4. Trace the circulation of CSF beginning in the lateral ventricles. 5. What structure “absorbs” the CSF back into the circulatory system? 6. What does the condition hydrocephalus have to do with CSF? 7. What does a lumbar puncture have to do with CSF? What is the clinical use of a lumbar puncture? 8. What is an epidural? At what vertebral level and into what region is it administered? What is the effect of an epidural? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 33 12 2 3 8 4 11 7 1 9 5 10 6 PART E—FUNCTIONAL AND STRUCTURAL AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX Put the number of the corresponding brain region next to the matching statements below. Be able to name each region numbered on the brain diagram. Sounding out unfamiliar words Speech production Primary motor cortex Somatosensory association area Cingulate gyrus Primary auditory cortex Primary sensory cortex Visual association area Intellect, recall, personality Learned, repetitious motor skills Primary visual cortex Auditory association area Answer the following questions. 1. How many lobes are present in the human brain? 2. What is a fissure? 3. What is a gyrus? 4. What is the function of the precentral gyrus? 5. What is the function of the postcentral gyrus? 6. What is the function of the superior temporal gyrus? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 34 7. What lobe is most closely related to the function of vision? 8. What is the function of dura mater? 9. What is the relationship between dura mater and “sinuses”? 10. What is the cortex of the brain? PART F—SHEEP BRAIN DISSECTION OBJECTIVES To identify the principal structures of the sheep brain in a preserved specimen. Locate the following structures on the DORSAL and LATERAL aspects of the sheep brain: Cerebrum Postcentral gyrus Cerebral hemispheres Occipital lobe Longitudinal fissure Lateral sulcus Transverse cerebral fissure Temporal lobe Central sulcus Cerebellum Frontal lobe Vermis Parietal lobe Spinal cord Precentral gyrus Locate the following structures of the sheep brain: Epithalamus Pineal gland (body) [dorsal side] Midbrain Corpora quadrigemina [exterior dorsal side] Superior colliculus Inferior colliculus Cerebral peduncles [ventral side and are also listed below] ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 35 Locate the following structures on the VENTRAL aspect of the sheep brain: Olfactory bulb Cerebral peduncles Optic tract Pons Optic chiasma Medulla oblongata Infundibulum Pyramids of medulla Mammillary body Cerebellum Midbrain Spinal cord ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 36 FRONTAL LOBE Precentral gyrus Postcentral gyrus Longitudinal fissure PARIETAL LOBE TEMPORAL LOBE OCCIPITAL LOBE Cerebellum Vermis DORSAL VIEW OCCIPITAL LOBE Pineal gland Superior colliculus Inferior colliculus Cerebellum DORSAL VIEW ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 37 FRONTAL LOBE Olfactory bulb Optic nerve (II) Optic chiasma Optic tract Mammillary body TEMPORAL LOBE Cerebral peduncle Oculomotor nerve (III) Pons Pyramids of medulla Medulla oblongata Spinal cord VENTRAL VIEW ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 38 Central sulcus Precentral Gyrus (Primary motor cortex) Postcentral Gyrus (Primary somatosensory cortex) Somatosensory association area Broca’s Area (Motor speech area) PARIETAL LOBE Visual association area Prefrontal Cortex (complex judgment & intellect) OCCIPITAL LOBE (Primary visual cortex) FRONTAL LOBE Transverse Fissure Cerebellum Wernicke ’s area (Recognition and interpretation of words) TEMPORAL LOBE Superior Temporal Gyrus (primary auditory cortex) Central Sulcus FRONTAL LOBE PARIETAL LOBE Cingulate Gyrus (emotions & visceral responses to emotion Parieto-occipital Sulcus Calcarine Sulcus FRONTAL LOBE Central Sulcus OCCIPITAL LOBE Longitudinal Fissure FRONTAL LOBE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Lateral Sulcus TEMPORAL LOBE Page 39 Choroid Plexus forms CSF LATERAL VENTRICLES Interventricular Foramen THIRD VENTRICLE Cerebral Aqueduct FOURTH VENTRICLE Central canal of Spinal Cord Lateral Apertures Subarachnoid Space Arachnoid Granulations (Villi) Dural Sinuses Internal Jugular Veins ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 40 OBJECTIVE To learn the internal structures of the brain and their functions. PART A—INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF THE SHEEP BRAIN Obtain the sheep brain used in Lab 4 and using a knife, cut the specimen along the longitudinal fissure to cut the brain into TWO equal sagittal sections. Use the diagram of the sagittal section on page 43 to locate, observe, and review the function of the following structures on the sheep brain sections: Cerebrum Cerebral white matter Corpus callosum Anterior commissure Posterior commissure (human model) Cerebral gray matter Septum pellucidum Lateral ventricles (with choroid plexus) Interventricular foramen (human diagram) Calcarine sulcus (human model or diagram) Cingulate gyrus Parieto-occipital sulcus (model or diagram) Fornix Diencephalon Brainstem Midbrain Cerebral peduncles Cerebral aqueduct Corpora quadrigemina Superior colliculus Inferior colliculus Pons Fourth ventricle (posterior) Medulla oblongata Pyramids (human model Cerebellum Arbor vitae Vermis Thalamus Intermediate mass (human model) Third ventricle Folia and fissures Spinal cord Central canal Choroid plexus Hypothalamus Mammillary body Infundibulum Pituitary gland (Hypophysis) Epithalamus (pineal body) Other Structures Olfactory bulbs Optic chiasma Diaphragma sellae ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 41 PART B—MIDSAGITTAL SECTION OF THE HUMAN BRAIN Label the structures of the human brain on the diagram below. 28 1 2 27 26 3 25 4 24 5 (space) 23 6 7 22 8 9 10 21 20 11 19 12 18 17 16 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS 13 14 15 Page 42 PART C—QUESTIONS Answer the following questions. 1. What are the basal nuclei and what is their main function? 2. What cerebral lobe is deep to the lateral sulcus? What is its function? 3. Differentiate between the following types of fiber tracts: a. Projection fibers b. Association fibers c. Commissural fibers (give two examples (regions) of this type of fiber 4. What structure is a large commissural tract connecting the two cerebral hemispheres? 5. What is the function of the choroid plexus? Where can you find it? 6. What is the function of a dural sinus? 7. In what space does the CSF flow? How is it emptied? 8. With what cerebral system is the cingulate gyrus associated? What is the function of this system? 9. What is the septum pellucidum? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 43 Fornix Dura mater Third ventricle (roof) Corpus callosum Pineal body (Epithalamus) Cingulate gyrus Superior colliculus Inferior colliculus Arbor vitae Septum pellucidum Cerebellum Thalamus Anterior commissure Fourth ventricle Central canal Spinal cord Optic chiasma Hypothalamus Mammillary body Pituitary gland (Hypophysis) ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Medulla oblongata Cerebral aqueduct Pons Midbrain Page 44 Fornix Intermediate mass of thalamus Pineal body (EPITHALAMUS) Corpus callosum Septum pellucidum (Lateral ventricle) Posterior commissure Corpora quadrigemina Interventricular foramen Anterior commissure Arbor vitae Cerebellum Fourth ventricle Pons HYPOTHALAMUS Optic chiasma Medulla oblongata Hypophysis Spinal cord Infundibulum Cerebral aqueduct Mammillary body MIDSAGITTAL VIEW Septum pellucidum Intermediate mass of thalamus Corpus callosum Choroid plexus THALAMUS Fornix Posterior commissure Anterior commissure HYPOTHALAMUS Pineal body (EPITHALAMUS) Optic chiasma Corpora quadrigemina Hypophysis Infundibulum Mammillary body ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Cerebral peduncle Pons Page 45 Pineal body Posterior commissure Superior colliculus Inferior colliculus Cerebral aqueduct Midbrain Tentorium cerebelli Arbor vitae Fourth ventricle Pons Cerebellum Reticular formation Folia Medulla oblongata Choroid plexus Spinal cord Central canal of spinal cord MIDSAGITTAL VIEW ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 46 Optic Nerve (II) Infundibulum of pituitary Mammillary body Oculomotor (III) Trigeminal (V) Abducens (VI) Middle cerebellar peduncle Cerebral peduncle Pons Facial (VII) Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Glossopharyngeal (IX) Vagus (X) Hypoglossal (XII) Accessory (XI) Pyramid of medulla Medulla oblongata Atlas vertebra VENTRAL VIEW Pineal body Superior colliculus Inferior colliculus Cerebral peduncle Superior cerebellar peduncle Middle cerebellar peduncle Midbrain Trochlear (IV) Pons Inferior cerebellar peduncle Medulla oblongata Atlas vertebra DORSAL VIEW ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 47 OBJECTIVE To describe and learn about the structure of a nerve. PART A—MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF A NERVE A NERVE is a bundle of myelinated nerve fibers (processes) wrapped in layers of connective tissue. Obtain a microscope slide of a nerve and view its structure. On most slides, there will be both a cross section and a longitudinal section. Consider what structures might be visible on each section and then identify, define, distinguish between these structures. axon myelin fascicle endoneurium perineurium epineurium node of Ranvier vasa nervorum neurilemma Schwann cell nucleus ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 48 PART B—NERVE STRUCTURE Label the structures on the diagram below. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 PART C—QUESTIONS Answer the following questions. 1. What is a nerve? 1. What functional types of nerves can you name? 2. From what CNS structures do all nerves arise? 3. The nerves that arise from CNS structures are categorized as either ______________ or ______________. 4. Spinal nerves are formed by ___________ and ___________ roots. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 49 5. In what two structures might the soma associated with the axons of spinal nerves be found? 6. In terms of function, spinal nerves are classified as ______________________? 7. Spinal nerves exit the vertebral column by passing through openings called_____________________? 8. Write the name and number of each pair of Cranial nerves: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 50 OBJECTIVE To learn the name of all 12 pairs of cranial nerves and indicated the body region and structures innervated by each. PART A—CRANIAL NERVES OF THE SHEEP BRAIN Obtain a sheep brain and flip your brain over to the ventral side. On this side you will have to be extremely CAREFUL not to pull off the cranial nerves that are still attached to the dura mater. Gently lift the meninges 1 mm off the ventral side of the brain and look under the meninges for cranial nerves that are being pulled up. CUT the cranial nerves as close to the meninges as you can, i.e. leaving as much of the nerve attached to the brain as possible (REMEMBER they are in pairs, one on each side). Travel around the room to observe other sheep brains that may still have the nerves not found on your specimen. Review the function of each nerve. PART B—CRANIAL NERVES OF THE HUMAN BRAIN Label the numbered structures on the human brain diagram below. 1 3 2 4 5 6 7 9 8 10 11 13 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS 12 Page 51 PART C—CRANIAL NERVES QUESTIONS Refer to the diagram on the previous page to answer the following questions. 1. Why is the function of structure #11 so crucial to normal life function? 2. Name structures #4, #8, #10, and #11. What do these four nerves have in common? 3. Name the nerves that are sensory only. 4. Which nerve innervates four of the six extrinsic eye muscles? 5. Which two nerves transmit impulses regarding taste from the tongue? Describe which area of the tongue is innervated by each nerve. 6. Which nerve innervates the trapezius muscle? 7. Damage to which nerve might result in difficulty swallowing and loss of salivation from the parotid gland? 8. What non-parasympathetic function does the Vagus nerve have? 9. Which nerve innervates the muscles of the tongue? 10. Name the three branches of structure #6 and differentiate between the region and function of each PART D—CRANIAL NERVES CHART Fill in the charts on the following pages. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 52 LOCATION AND FUNCTION OF CRANIAL NERVES NAME NUMBER MOTOR, SENSORY OR BOTH? SPECIFIC AREA SUPPLIED AUTONOMICS? (Yes or No and what is supplied if yes) I II III IV V1 V2 V3 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 53 LOCATION AND FUNCTION OF CRANIAL NERVES NAME NUMBER MOTOR, SENSORY OR BOTH? SPECIFIC AREA SUPPLIED AUTONOMICS? (Yes or No and what is supplied if yes) VI VII VIII IX X XI XII ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 54 CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORY RECEPTORS FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION STRUCTURE LOCATION STIMULUS TYPE BODY LOCATION Free Nerve Endings Exteroreceptors, Interoreceptors Nociceptors (pain), thermoreceptors (temperature), and mechanoreceptors (pressure) Most body tissues; abundant in epithelia and connective tissues Merkel Discs Exteroreceptors Mechanoreceptors (light pressure) At base of epidermis of skin Root Hair Plexuses Exteroreceptors Mechanoreceptors (hair deflection) In and surrounding hair follicles Meissner's Corpuscles Exteroreceptors Mechanoreceptors (light pressure and discriminative touch) Dermal papillae of hairless skin (lips, nipples, and fingertips) Krause's End Bulbs Exteroreceptors Mechanoreceptors (light pressure and discriminative touch) Connective tissue of mucosae (mouth, conjuctiva, and of hairless skin near body openings of lips) Pacinian Corpuscles Exteroreceptors, Interoreceptors Mechanoreceptors (deep pressure and stretch) Subcutaneous tissue of skin, periostea, mesentery, tendons, ligaments, joint capsules, fingers, soles of feet, external genitalia, and nipples Ruffini's Corpuscles Exteroreceptors Mechanoreceptors (deep pressure and stretch) Deep dermis, hypodermis, and joint capsules Muscle Spindles Proprioceptors Mechanoreceptors (muscle stretch) Skeletal muscles, particularly those of the extremities Golgi Tendon Organs Proprioceptors Mechanoreceptors (tendon stretch) Embedded in tendons ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 55 Optic chiasma Olfactory Nerve (I) Olfactory tract Optic Nerve (II) Oculomotor Nerve (III) Trochlear Nerve (IV) Abducens Nerve (VI) Facial Nerve (VII) Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) Accessory Nerve (XI) Trigeminal Nerve (V) Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII) Vagus Nerve (X) Hypoglossal Nerve (XII) ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 56 OBJECTIVE To identify and learn the major structures composing the brachial plexus. To identify and learn the major nerves arising from the plexus and what each nerve innervates. PART A—BRACHIAL PLEXUS AND UPPER LIMB The brachial plexus is a large nervous system structure that is formed from the ventral rami of spinal nerves C5C8, and T1. These nerves enter the plexus, branch; reconstitute themselves as nerves with fibers from multiple spinal nerves. Study a diagram of the brachial plexus and observe the relationship between the roots, trunks, divisions and cords as they form the nerves of the plexus. Answer the following questions. 1. What is the advantage of forming nerves from a mix of many spinal nerves rather than from individual spinal nerves? 2. The roots of the plexus are actually _______________________ of spinal nerves. 3. Name the major nerves arising from each of the cords below: a. Posterior cord b. Lateral cord c. Medial cord d. Formed from branches of the lateral and medial cords PART B—MAJOR NERVES OF THE UPPER LIMB On the CAT, locate and study the following: Nerves of the brachial plexus Medial, lateral and posterior cords ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 57 Using diagrams of the human brachial plexus, determine which areas each nerve innervates. 1. Radial nerve 2. Musculocutaneous nerve 3. Median nerve 4. Ulnar nerve 5. Medial and lateral pectoral nerves 6. Axillary nerve 7. Thoracodorsal nerve 8. Long thoracic nerve 9. Subscapular nerves 10. Suprascapular nerve Name the nerve or cord most likely to be damaged if the following symptoms occur: 1. Wrist drop 2. Weakness or loss of elbow flexion 3. Difficulty picking up a penny with pincher grasp 4. “Claw hand” 5. Weakness in wrist extension, forearm supination and abduction at the shoulder joint 6. What nerve from the cervical plexus innervates the diaphragm for breathing? What are its spinal roots? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 58 PART C—ROOTS, TRUNKS, DIVISIONS AND CORDS DIAGRAM Label the numbered structures on the diagram below. 2 3 1 (Blue) 4 5 6 10 7 8 9 12 13 11 14 15 16 Answer the following questions. 1. Which spinal nerves form the roots of the plexus in the diagram above? 2. From what branch of a spinal nerve are all plexuses formed? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 59 C1 C2 Suprascapular C3 C4 First Subscapular Axillary C5 Second Subscapular ROOTS C6 Musculocutaneous Radial C7 C8 Median Ulnar T1 Phrenic Nerve Thoracodorsal Nerve Vagus Nerve Long Thoracic Nerve VENTRAL VIEW ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 60 OBJECTIVE To identify and learn the major structures composing the lumbosacral plexus. To identify and learn the major nerves arising from the plexus and what each nerve innervates. PART A—LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS AND LOWER LIMB The lumbosacral plexus is a large nervous system structure that is formed from the ventral rami of spinal nerves L1-S4. These nerves supply the lower abdomen, pelvis, gluteal region and lower limbs. Study a diagram of the lumbosacral plexus and observe the intermingling of the roots as they form the nerves of the plexus. Answer the questions below. 1. What is the lumbosacral trunk? What does it do? 2. Why are the lumbar and sacral plexuses often grouped together as the lumbosacral plexus? PART B—MAJOR NERVES OF THE LOWER LIMB On the CAT, locate and study the nerves listed below. Also, locate the Vagus nerve (X) in the neck and the Phrenic nerve (from the cervical plexus) in the thoracic cavity. 1. Femoral nerve 2. Obturator nerve 3. Sciatic nerve 4. Common fibular (peroneal) nerve 5. Tibial nerve 6. Deep fibular (peroneal) nerve ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 61 7. Superficial fibular nerve 8. Saphenous nerve 9. Medial and lateral plantar nerves (on diagrams only) 10. Pudendal nerve 11. Lumbosacral trunk (on diagrams only) Answer the following questions: 1. The medial and lateral plantar nerves branch off what nerve? 2. The sciatic nerve is composed of the ______________________ and ___________________________ nerves. 3. With the exception of the anterior thigh, what nerve branches supply the entire lower limb? 4. Which nerve is responsible for voluntary control of urination? Name the nerve most likely to be damaged if the following symptoms occur: 5. Loss of the ability to extend the knee 6. Weakness or loss of dorsiflexion of the foot and extension of the toes 7. Inability to support the weight of the body when stepping forward on the foot (weakness or loss of plantar flexion) ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 62 PART C—MAJOR BRANCHES FROM THE LUMBAR PLEXUS DIAGRAM Label the numbered structures on the diagram below: Answer the questions below. 1. Name the plexus pictured below. 2. What region does nerve #1 supply in the lower limb? 3. What region does nerve #2 supply? L1 L2 L3 Ventral Rami of Spinal Nerves L4 1 L5 2 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS 3 Page 63 PART D—MAJOR BRANCHES FROM THE SACRAL PLEXUS DIAGRAM Label the numbered structures on the diagram below: Answer the questions below. 1. Name the plexus pictured below. 2. What is sciatica? What are the typical symptoms? L4 L5 S1 Ventral Rami S2 1 S3 2 S4 S5 3 4 3 1 2 5 6 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 64 L1 L2 Sympathetic Trunk L3 Sympathetic Ganglion L4 ROOTS Iliopsoas L5 Femoral Nerve Lumbosacral Cord S1 Obturator Nerve S2 S3 Rectus Femoris Adductor longus Sartorius Adductor femoris Saphenous Nerve Gracilis VENTRAL VIEW ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 65 Gluteus minimus Gluteus medius Sartorius Inferior gluteal nerve Tensor fasciae latae Gluteus maximus Superior gluteal nerve Vastus lateralis Sciatic nerve Adductor femoris Biceps femoris Common peroneal nerve Semitendinosus Semimembranosus DORSAL VIEW ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 66 Spinal ganglion Obturator nerve Lumbosacral cord Gluteus minimus Tensor fasciae latae Superior gluteal nerve Vastus lateralis Inferior gluteal nerve Pudendal nerve Sciatic nerve Common peroneal nerve Semimembranosus Tibial nerve DEEP DORSAL VIEW ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 67 PLEXUSES PERIPHERAL NERVE CERVICAL PLEXUS Phrenic Nerve BRACHIAL PLEXUS Musculocutaneous Nerve Median Nerve LOCATION AREAS INNERVATED from ventral rami of C1-C4 innervate muscles of neck, shoulder and skin on back of the head, on neck and shoulders from ventral rami of C3-C5 both sensory and motor fibers to diaphragm RESULT OF INJURY from ventral rami of C5-C8 and innervates muscles of upper limbs, neck & causes weakness or paralysis of upper limbs T1 shoulders innervates flexor muscles in anterior arm from lateral cord [biceps, brachialis, and coracobrachialis] innervates flexor muscles of forearm, the first loss of pincher grasp (oppose thumb and from a branch of lateral and two fingers, pronates forearm, flexes wrist and medial cord index finger), thus can't pick up small objects fingers and opposes thumb from medial cord innervates some flexor muscles in forearm and intrinsic hand muscles; also adducts and abducts medial fingers results in claw hand (last 2 fingers become hyperextended), thus can't spread fingers (abduct) and can't make a fist or grip objects Radial Nerve from posterior cord innervates extensors of forearm and hand (elbow extension, supination of forearm, extension of wrist and fingers, and abduction of thumb); extends forearm [triceps, brachioradialis] results in wrist drop (unable to extend hand at wrist) Axillary Nerve from posterior cord innervates deltoid and teres minor muscles Ulnar Nerve LUMBAR PLEXUS from ventral rami of L1-L4 Femoral Nerve innervates lower limb, some of abdomen and pelvis supplies skin and anterior thigh muscles [thigh flexors and knee extensors--quadriceps & sartorius] Saphenous Nerve serves skin of lower leg Obturator Nerve innervates adductor muscles of thigh [adductor magnus, longus, brevis and gracilis] ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 68 PLEXUSES PERIPHERAL NERVE SACRAL PLEXUS LOCATION RESULT OF INJURY from ventral rami of L4-S4 innervates hamstrings (thigh extensors and knee flexors) and part of adductor magnus pain radiating down leg along branches of sciatic nerve as a result of herniated disc; transected sciatic nerve results in inability to flex foot and ankle movements are lost, thus foot drops into plantar flexion (dangles) branches off sciatic proximal to knee supplies skin and muscles of posterior calf and sole of foot calf muscles can't plantar flex resulting in shuffling gait lateral to fibula supplies muscles of anterolateral lower leg (extensors that dorsiflex foot), knee joint, skin of lateral calf and dorsum of foot causes foot drop Sciatic Nerve Tibial Nerve AREAS INNERVATED Medial and Lateral Plantar Common Fibular Nerve Superficial Peroneal Deep Peroneal Pudendal ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Supplies skin and muscles of perineum; external anal sphincter Page 69 PART A—MATCHING Place the number of the indicated structure on the diagrams (pp. 71-72) in front of the letter. a. Postganglionic parasympathetic cell body y. Preganglionic sympathetic axon [2] b. Central canal z. White ramus communicans c. Preganglionic sympathetic cell body [2] aa. Postganglionic sympathetic axon [2] d. Gray ramus communicans bb. Sensory (afferent) axon e. Ventral median fissure cc. Afferent cell body f. Somatic motor cell body dd. Postganglionic parasympathetic axon g. Dorsal ramus of spinal nerve ee. Sympathetic splanchnic nerve h. Lateral gray horn ff. Prevertebral (collateral) ganglion) i. Preganglionic parasympathetic axon gg. Sympathetic trunk j. Posterior gray horn hh. Ventral ramus of spinal nerve k. Synapse ii. Gray commissure l. jj. Dorsal root Ventral funiculus m. Parasympathetic (intramural) ganglion kk. Arachnoid membrane n. Ventral gray horn ll. Axon hillock o. Postganglionic sympathetic cell body [2] mm. Schwann cell nucleus p. Dorsal median sulcus nn. Meninges q. Preganglionic parasympathetic cell body oo. Myelin sheath r. Somatic motor neuron axon pp. Dendrite s. Association neuron cell body qq. Pia mater t. Dorsal funiculus rr. Dura mater u. Dorsal root ganglion ss. Nissl body v. Ventral root tt. Node of Ranvier w. Lateral funiculus uu. Telodendria x. Paravertebral (sympathetic chain) ganglion vv. Synaptic knob ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 70 26 9 28 9 24 51 43 21 22 27 44 23 41 29 30 35 20 19 40 25 42 36 17 14 37 16 15 39 38 13 52 12 49 18 45 11 50 9 10 47 48 46 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 71 4 (blue) 5 4 (blue) 6 8 (space) 5 7 (covering) 1 1 1 2 3 34 31 33 32 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 72 PART B—SYMPATHETIC TRUNKS AND PATHWAYS On the following drawing, put in FOUR possible routes that a postganglionic sympathetic neuron could follow. Draw in the preganglionic neuron and show the synapse ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 73 ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PARASYMPATHETIC AND SYMPATHETIC DIVISIONS OF ANS CHARACTERISTICS SYMPATHETIC PARASYMPATHETIC Origin Thoracolumbar outflow: lateral gray horn of spinal cord segments T1-L2 Craniosacral outflow; brain stem nuclei of cranial nerves III, VII, IX, & X; spinal cord segments S2-S4 Location of Ganglia Ganglia within a few cm of CNS: alongside vertebral column (paravertebral ganglia) and anterior to vertebral column (prevertebral ganglia) Ganglia in (intramural) or close to visceral organ served Short preganglionic; long postganglionic Long preganglionic; short postganglionic Rami Communicantes Gray and white rami communicantes. White rami contain myelinated preganglionic fibers; gray contain unmyelinated postganglionic fibers None Degree of Branching of Preganglionic Fibers Extensive Minimal Functional Goal Prepares body to cope with emergencies and intense muscular activity Maintenance functions; conserves & stores energy Neurotransmitters All preganglionic fibers release Ach (cholinergic); most postganglionic fibers release norepinephrine (adrenergic); postganglionic fibers serving sweat glands and some blood vessels of skeletal muscles release Ach; neurotransmitter activity augmented by release of adrenal medullary hormones (norepinephrine & epinephrine) All fibers release Ach (cholinergic) Relative Length of Preganglionic and Postganglionic Fibers ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 74 OBJECTIVE To understand the important role of the endocrine system in regulating the activity of body cells. To explain the function of the various hormones and the results of their hyposecretion or hypersecretion. PART A—OVERVIEW OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM The endocrine system works with the nervous system in controlling much of what goes on in the body. REVIEW these basic facts regarding the endocrine system: It is composed of glands. Glands produce hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers that are released directly into the blood (no ducts). Hormones work at specific locations (targets). Hormones work by attaching to receptors at the target. Receptors may be on the target cell membrane or inside the target cell (intracellular). The pituitary is often called the master gland of the body since it oversees much of the action of other glands. The pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland is functionally and structurally related to the hypothalamus. Structural relationships include direct axonal connections between the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary and a specialized “portal” system (a capillary network). Functional relationships include release of releasing and inhibiting hormones by the hypothalamus which affect the anterior pituitary and the production of oxytocin and ADH by the hypothalamus which are stored and released as needed by the posterior pituitary. PART B—GROSS ANATOMY OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Using your book, models, and CAT, name and locate all of the endocrine glands. Using your notes and textbook fill in the table below. GLAND HORMONES PRODUCED Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 75 GLAND HORMONES PRODUCED Thyroid Parathyroid Adrenal Pancreas Testes Ovaries Pineal Thymus PART C—HISTOLOGY OF SELECTED ENDOCRINE GLANDS Obtain slides of these glands and observe the histological features listed. Be able to identify EACH tissue. 1. THYROID GLAND a. Find follicles. What is produced by the follicles? How? b. Find parafollicular or “C” cells. What is produced here? c. What chemical element is critical in the production of the major thyroid hormones? d. What is the target of the hormone produced by the parafollicular cells? 2. PARATHYROID GLAND a. What is the physical relationship between this gland and the thyroid? b. Normally, how many parathyroid glands are there? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 76 c. How can one distinguish the parathyroid gland from the thyroid? d. What hormone is produced by the parathyroid gland? What is its target? 3. ADRENAL (SUPRARENAL) GLAND a. Differentiate between the cortex and the medulla. b. How many zones are present in the cortex? Identify them. c. What hormones are produced in each of the cortical zones? (Fill in the following table). CORTICAL ZONE HORMONE CLASS SPECIFIC HORMONES PRODUCED d. What is the importance of the medulla? e. What histological feature allows the medulla to do its work quickly and efficiently? f. Why is the medulla often referred to as a “postganglionic sympathetic neuron.” 4. ISLETS OF LANGERHANS (PANCREAS) a. How many cell types make up the Islets of Langerhans? b. What hormones are produced by each of the cell types? CELL TYPE IN ISLET ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS SPECIFIC HORMONES PRODUCED Page 77 c. What is the major function of the Islets of Langerhans? 5. PITUITARY GLAND (HYPOPHYSIS) a. How can one distinguish between the anterior and posterior pituitary? Why? b. What hormones are produced by the posterior pituitary? c. What are the chemical “signals” that cause the anterior pituitary to release its hormones? d. Where do these “signals” come from? e. How do these “signals” get to the anterior pituitary? PART D—REGULATION AND EFFECTS OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS Complete the table on the following pages. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 78 ENDOCRINE GLANDS―REGULATION AND EFFECTS GLAND POSTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONE STIMULATED INHIBITED TARGET ORGAN EFFECTS OF HORMONES Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) [supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus] Oxytocin (Paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus) Growth Hormone (GH) Prolactin (PRL) ANTERIOR PITUITARY Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Luteinizing Hormone (LH) THYROID GLAND PARATHYROID GLAND Thyroxin (T4) Tri-iodothyronine (T3) (Follicular cells) Calcitonin (Parafollicular cells) Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) secreted by chief cells ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 79 ENDOCRINE GLANDS―REGULATION AND EFFECTS GLAND HORMONE STIMULATED INHIBITED TARGET ORGAN EFFECTS OF HORMONES Glucocorticoids (Cortisol) ADRENAL GLAND (CORTEX) Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone) Gonadocorticoids (Sex hormones) ADRENAL GLAND (MEDULLA) PANCREAS TESTES Epinephrine and Norepinephrine Insulin (Beta cells in islets of Langerhans) Glucagon (Alpha cells in islets of Langerhans) Testosterone Estrogen OVARIES Progesterone PINEAL GLAND THYMUS GLAND ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 80 Supraoptic nucleus Paraventricular nucleus Optic chiasma *Hypophyseal Portal System *Primary Capillary Plexus *Hypohyseal Portal Veins Infundibulum *Secondary Capillary Plexus Hypothalamic-Hypophyseal Tract Adenohypophysis Neurohypophysis Thyroid Gland Kidneys TSH ADH ACTH Oxytocin GH Bones Prolactin Adrenal Cortex FSH LH Testes Uterus Ovary Breasts ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 81 OBJECTIVE To observe and identify the components of blood including all formed elements. To accurately use commonly performed tests, which determine blood type, hemoglobin content, clotting time, and concentrations of various blood cell types. To review common blood disorders and their symptoms. PART A—BLOOD COMPOSITION AND FUNCTION Observe the two hematocrits in the diagram below and use the information to answer the questions. A B C PATIENT 1 PATIENT 2 1. Which patient has an abnormal hematocrit? What is abnormal about it? 2. Give some possible causes for the abnormality you mentioned above. 3. What does region B represent? 4. What might cause a larger than normal B region? (Give several possible causes) ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 82 5. What test could you perform to help determine which of the causes you listed in question 4 was the actual cause? PART B—BLOOD HISTOLOGY–FORMED ELEMENTS Obtain a prepared slide of peripheral blood smear and identify the formed elements listed below. Give the function of each. 1. Erythrocyte– 2. Granulocytes a. Neutrophil– b. Eosinophil– c. Basophil– 3. Agranulocytes a. Lymphocyte– b. Monocyte– c. Platelet– Label the formed elements below: 5. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS 6. 7. Page 83 8. 9. 10. 11. Answer the following questions. 1. Which of the above formed elements would most likely be elevated in number with each of the following conditions? a. Mononucleosis– b. Bacterial infection– c. Allergic reaction– d. Parasitic invasion– PART C—BLOOD TYPES Determine your blood type by testing YOUR OWN blood with the aid of a blood typing kit. Obtain the following supplies and follow instructions per pamphlet. (1) Blood card (3) Mixing combs (1) Alcohol prep pad (1) Blood Lancet (1) Instruction pamphlet Record your results below. BLOOD TYPE: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Rh: Page 84 Answer the following questions. 1. What is an antigen? Where would you find antigens in blood? 2. What antigens are present in type O negative blood? What type of antibodies would you expect to find in type O negative blood? Why are these people often called universal donors? 3. What is the Rh factor? What does it mean to be Rh positive? 4. What is erythroblastosis fetalis? Explain the cause and results. 5. What type of antibodies would you expect to find in type AB positive blood? Why? PART D—HEMOGLOBIN CONTENT Use the Tallquist paper and hemoglobin charts to determine the hemoglobin content of your blood. Record the reading below. HEMOGLOBIN CONCENTRATION: Answer the following questions. 1. Was your hemoglobin reading in the normal range? If not, was it high or low? 2. How do hemoglobin concentrations vary between males and females? 3. What might cause an abnormally low hemoglobin reading? PROPER DISPOSAL OF BIOHAZARD WASTE When you are done handling blood products, CAREFULLY follow the ensuing procedures for proper disposal of biohazard waste. USED BLOOD LANCETS AND COAGULATION TUBES Discard used blood lancets in the RED SHARPS CONTAINER. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 85 USED BLOOD CARDS, MIXING COMBS, ALCOHOL PADS, AND TALLQUIST PAPER Discard these items in the BIOHAZARD DISPOSAL BIN. PART E—HEMOSTASIS Review the process of hemostasis in your text and learn the major factors involved in the clotting process. Answer the questions below. 1. What is considered a normal clotting time? How can this be easily tested? 2. What is hemophilia? How do you get it? What is the most common cause? 3. What is a clotting factor? Where are most of them produced? Where do you find them? PART F—DIFFERENTIAL WHITE BLOOD CELL COUNT Obtain a prepared blood cell smear and scan the slide on low power (10X) to find a THIN area where blood cell distribution is best (cells are evenly spread out and not clustered together). They should have a central pallor. Avoid the outside edges of the smear where, in some slides, the cells have an abnormal appearance. On high power (40X) bring the slide into focus and begin the count in the thin area of the slide as shown in the diagram below. Identify and count each leukocyte as you scan until 100 white cells have been counted. Record the results of your differential on the following table. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 86 TYPE OF LEUKOCYTE TALLY TOTAL PERCENT Neutrophils Lymphocytes Monocytes Eosinophils Basophils Answer the following questions. 1. Which cell type would you expect to be most numerous in a differential count? Was this cell type most numerous on your slide? If not, explain what may have caused the unexpected results. 2. Which cell type would you expect to be the least numerous? 3. When might you need to use a differential count? 4. What is the pH of blood under normal conditions? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 87 CELL TYPE ILLUSTRATION ERYTHROCYTES (Red blood cells) LEUKOCYTES DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF CELLS/mm3 (L) OF BLOOD Biconcave, anucleate disc Salmon-colored Diameter = 7-8 m 4-6 million Spherical, nucleated cells 4,000 - 11,000 Purple, multilobed nucleus Inconspicuous, pink cytoplasmic granules Diameter = 10-14 m 3,000 - 7,000 DURATION OF DEVELOPMENT (D) & LIFE SPAN (LS) D: 5 - 7 days LS: 100 - 120 days FUNCTION Transport O2 and CO2 (White blood cells) GRANULOCYTES Neutrophils 100 - 400 Eosinophils Blue-purple, bilobed nucleus Coarse red-orange cytoplasmic granules Diameter = 10-14 m 20 - 50 Basophils Blue-black, bilobed nucleus Large blue-purple cytoplasmic granules Diameter = 10-12 m ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS D: 6 - 9 days LS: 6 hours to a few days Phagocytize bacteria D: 6 - 9 days LS: 8 - 12 days Kill parasitic worms Destroy antigen-antibody complexes Inactivate some inflammatory chemicals of allergy D: 3 - 7 days LS: ? (a few hours to a few days) Release histamine and other mediators of inflammation Contain heparin (anticoagulant) Page 88 CELL TYPE ILLUSTRATION DESCRIPTION NUMBER OF CELLS/mm3 (L) OF BLOOD DURATION OF DEVELOPMENT (D) & LIFE SPAN (LS) FUNCTION LEUKOCYTES (White blood cells) AGRANULOCYTES Deep blue or purple spherical or indented nucleus Pale blue cytoplasm Diameter = 5-17 m 1,500 - 3,000 100 - 700 Monocytes Blue or purple, kidney-shaped or U-shaped nucleus Large blue-gray cytoplasm Diameter = 14-24 m Platelets Discoid cytoplasmic fragments containing granules Stain deep purple Diameter = 2-4 m Lymphocytes ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS D: days to weeks LS: hours to years Mount immune response by direct cell attach or via antibodies Phagocytosis; develop into macrophages in tissues D: 2 - 3 days LS: months 250,000 to 500,000 D: 4 - 5 days LS: 5 – 10 days Seals small tears in blood vessels; instrumental in blood clotting Page 89 OBJECTIVE To compare and contrast the histological structure common to blood vessels. To identify major arteries and veins and learn the areas they supply. PART A—HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF BLOOD VESSEL WALLS Observe a prepared slide of an artery and vein. Identify the regions listed below noting the differences between the structure of an artery and vein. Make a drawing of each vessel. Artery Tunica intima Tunica media Tunica adventitia Vein Tunica intima Tunica media Tunica adventitia Vasa vasorum Answer the following questions. 1. Which tunic is notably thicker in arteries compared to veins? 2. What is an elastic artery? How does the structure of an elastic artery differ from a typical artery? Give two examples of elastic arteries in the human. 3. Most of the arteries we are studying are _____________________ arteries. 4. Another name for the tunica intima is _____________________________. 5. What is a lumen? What type of vessel generally has the largest lumen? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 90 6. What is a capillary? What is its function? 7. What is the purpose of a precapillary sphincter? PART B—CAT DISSECTION Dissect your cat, locating the major vessels listed below. Learn the regions supplied by each major artery. Circle of Willis (arteries) Brachial (a, v) Renal (a, v) Common carotid (a) External and Internal carotid (a) Radial and ulnar (a, v) Cephalic (v) Gonadal (a, v) Superior mesenteric (a) Internal jugular (v) [larger in humans] External jugular (v) [larger in cats] Thoracic and abdominal aorta (a) Aortic arch (a) Superior vena cava (v) Inferior vena cava (v) Azygos (v) Basilic (v) [not in cat] Celiac trunk (a) Celiac trunk (a) branches: (L) Gastric Splenic Hepatic Hepatic portal system: Inferior mesenteric (a) External iliac (a, v) Internal iliac (a, v) Common iliac (a, v) [no artery in cat] Femoral (a, v) Greater Saphenous (v) Popliteal (a, v) Brachiocephalic (a, v) Subclavian (a, v) Axillary (a, v) Hepatic portal (v) Superior mesenteric (v) Inferior mesenteric (v) Anterior and posterior tibial (a, v) Answer the following questions. 1. How do the arteries branching from the aortic arch differ in the human and the cat? 2. Name the vessels or structures with the following functions: a. Returns blood from trunk and lower extremities to heart b. Supplies the small intestine and proximal colon with blood c. Network of anastomoses supplying the brain d. Branch of abdominal aorta supplying lower limbs (via femoral artery) e. Supplies the stomach, liver and spleen via branches ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 91 f. Returns blood from thoracic regions to SVC g. Supplies distal colon 3. What is an anastomosis? What is the advantage of having anastomosis? 4. What is a pulse? (Explain what causes it) 5. What type of vessels has valves? Why do these vessels need valves when the other vessels don’t? PART C—MAJOR SYSTEMIC ARTERIES Label the diagram of the major arteries on the next page. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 92 1 2 4 6 8 3 5 7 9 9 15 10 11 13 12 14 17 16 19 18 21 20 22 23 24 25 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 93 PART D—HEPATIC PORTAL CIRCULATION Label the diagram below. 1 2 3 4 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 94 (R) Internal carotid artery (L) External carotid artery (R) Radial artery (L) Common carotid artery (R) Ulnar artery (R) Brachial artery (R) Subclavian artery Brachiocephalic artery ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS (L) Axillary artery (L) Subclavian artery Aortic arch Page 95 Celiac trunk (L) Gastric artery (R) Hepatic artery Splenic artery Superior mesenteric artery (L) Renal artery (R) External iliac artery (L) Internal spermatic or (L) ovarian artery Inferior mesenteric artery Abdominal aorta (L) Internal iliac artery (R) Femoral artery (R) Popliteal artery (R) Posterior tibial artery (R) Anterior tibial artery ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 96 (L) External jugular vein (R) Radial vein (R) Ulnar vein (R) Cephalic vein (L) Internal jugular vein (R) Brachial vein (R) Axillary vein (L) Subclavian vein (R) Subclavian vein (L) Brachiocephalic vein (R) Brachiocephalic vein Superior vena cava Azygos vein Inferior vena cava ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 97 DIAPHRAGM (R) Hepatic vein (L) Renal vein (R) Internal spermatic or (R) ovarian vein Inferior vena cava (R) Common iliac vein (R) External iliac vein (L) Common iliac vein (L) Internal iliac vein (R) Femoral vein (R) Greater saphenous vein (R) Popliteal vein (R) Posterior tibial vein (R) Anterior tibial vein ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 98 OBJECTIVE To identify the internal and external structures of the heart and to learn their function. To identify cardiac muscle and name the characteristic features of this muscle type. PART A—MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE HEART Observe a prepared slide of cardiac muscle on high power. Make a drawing of what you observe below and label the listed structures Branching cardiac fibers (cells) Intercalated discs Striations Nuclei (number per cell?) Answer the following questions. 1. Name three features of cardiac muscle that allows you to distinguish it from skeletal muscle. 2. What initiates contraction of cardiac muscle cells? 3. What controls the rate of contraction in cardiac muscle? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 99 PART B—HEART ANATOMY Use models and diagrams of the external heart and pericardial layers in your text to study the listed external features. Locate as many of the features listed below on your sheep heart prior to dissection. Fibrous pericardium Serous pericardium Parietal layer Visceral layer (epicardium) Right and left ventricles Right and left atria and auricles Atrioventricular sulcus Locate as many of the major blood vessels listed below on your sheep heart prior to dissection. Aortic arch Coronary vessels (cont.) Pulmonary artery (trunk) Pulmonary veins Superior and inferior vena cava Coronary sinus Coronary vessels: (R) and (L) coronary arteries (R) Marginal artery Anterior interventricular artery Posterior interventricular artery Circumflex artery Great cardiac vein Middle cardiac vein Answer the following questions. 1. Locate each structure listed below. For any heart chamber or blood vessel listed below, determine whether it contains blood high in oxygen or blood low in oxygen (just returned from the body) and designate which it contains by placing an ‘H’ (high) or an ‘L’ (low) next to each structure on the list. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Right ventricle Left ventricle Right atrium Left atrium Atrioventricular sulcus Interventricular sulcus Aortic arch h. Pulmonary artery (trunk) i. Pulmonary veins j. Superior vena cava k. l. m. n. o. p. q. Inferior vena cava Coronary sinus (R) coronary arteries (L) coronary arteries (R) marginal artery Anterior interventricular artery Posterior interventricular artery r. Circumflex artery s. Great cardiac vein t. Middle cardiac vein 2. Into what heart chamber do the following vessels dump their blood? a. Coronary sinus ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 100 b. Inferior and superior vena cava c. Pulmonary veins 3. Where do the following vessels take their blood? a. Pulmonary arteries b. Aorta c. Coronary arteries 4. Which side of the heart is involved in systemic circulation? Which side of the heart is involved in pulmonary circulation? PART C—SHEEP HEART DISSECTION Use models, diagrams from your text and the sheep heart to locate and study the following structures of the heart. Cut your sheep heart as directed by your instructor. Endocardium, myocardium and epicardium Right atrium Pectinate muscles Left atrium Pectinate muscles Pulmonary vein orifices SA and AV nodes (model) Coronary sinus orifice (model) SVC and IVC orifice Fossa ovalis (foramen prior to birth)(model) Auricle Right ventricle Auricle Left ventricle Bicuspid (mitral) valve Trabeculae carneae Chordae tendineae Opening to aorta w/ aortic semilunar valve Tricuspid valve Trabeculae carneae Papillary muscles Chordae tendineae Moderator band (sheep) Pulmonary trunk opening w/ pulmonary semilunar valve ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Apex (external feature) Other Structures Interatrial septum Interventricular septum Ligamentum arteriosum Page 101 Answer the following questions. 1. What is the function of the papillary muscles and the chordae tendineae? 2. Within what cavity is the heart located? (Be more specific than thoracic cavity!) 3. The fossa ovalis is a remnant of what fetal structure? What is a patent foramen ovalis and what is the problem caused by it? 4. Which coronary artery usually gives rise to nodal arteries that supply both the SA and AV nodes? 5. Which heart chamber has the thickest myocardium? Why? 6. To what vessel do all of the coronary veins return blood? Where does this vessel empty the blood? 7. The ligamentum arteriosum is a remnant of what structure? Where do you find it? 8. Name the two valves that are open as the ventricles contract. 9. The endocardium is continuous with the walls of vessels as which tunic? PART D—GROSS ANATOMY OF THE HEART Label the indicated structures on the diagrams that follow. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 102 6 5 1 3 2 4 8 7 9 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 103 10 11 12 13 16 14 18 15 19 21 17 20 22 25 23 26 24 28 27 30 31 29 32 33 35 34 37 39 36 38 40 (flap) 41 43 42 44 45 46 48 47 49 50 51 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 104 52 53 55 54 56 57 58 59 60 63 61 64 62 67 65 68 66 69 70 72 71 73 74 75 76 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 105 Ascending aorta Superior vena cava Brachiocephalic artery Left subclavian artery Azygos vein Aortic arch RIGHT ATRIUM Pulmonary trunk Left pulmonary artery LEFT ATRIUM Left coronary artery Anterior longitudinal sulcus RIGHT VENTRICLE LEFT VENTRICLE ANTERIOR VIEW Apex Brachiocephalic artery Superior vena cava Azygos vein Left subclavian artery Aorta RIGHT ATRIUM Left pulmonary artery Right pulmonary artery Left Pulmonary veins Right Pulmonary veins LEFT ATRIUMB Inferior vena cava LEFT VENTRICLE RIGHT VENTRICLE Apex ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS POSTERIOR VIEW Page 106 Left subclavian artery Aortic arch Brachiocephalic artery Superior vena cava Pulmonary veins Pectinate muscle Fossa ovalis RIGHT ATRIUM Inferior vena cava Tricuspid valve Papillary muscles Chordae tendineae Trabeculae carneae Papillary muscles RIGHT VENTRICLE Superior vena cava Aorta Azygos vein RIGHT ATRIUM Aortic semilunar valve LEFT ATRIUM Mitral (bicuspid) valve Chordae tendineae Myocardium LEFT VENTRICLE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Papillary muscle Page 107 Left common carotid artery Brachiocephalic artery Aorta Right pulmonary artery Left subclavian artery Pulmonary trunk Left pulmonary artery Left coronary artery Superior vena cava Circumflex artery Right coronary artery (anterior) Anterior interventricular artery Circumflex artery Marginal artery (posterior) Right coronary artery (posterior) Posterior interventricular artery ANTERIOR VIEW (posterior) Brachiocephalic artery Aorta Left subclavian artery Pulmonary trunk Left pulmonary artery Superior vena cava Great cardiac vein (anterior) Anterior cardiac vein Small cardiac vein (posterior) Marginal vein Coronary Sinus (posterior) Small cardiac vein (anterior) Middle cardiac vein (posterior) ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 108 OBJECTIVE To learn about blood pressure, its influences and regulators. To review and understand the cardiac conduction system, the cardiac cycle and heart sounds associated with it. To identify normal and abnormal wave configurations on an ECG. PART A—RADIAL PULSE As blood is forced out of the heart from ventricular contraction, it causes a surging movement of blood through the arteries as the ventricles contract (systole) and then relax (diastole). These waves in blood flow are called pulses. Pulses are normally felt or palpated at pressure points and are more easily palpated in areas where an artery runs over a bony prominence. Use the index and middle finger on one hand to palpate your pulse on the opposite wrist. The radial pulse is palpable just lateral to the tendons on the ventral side of the wrist. Once you obtain a pulse, count the number of pulses that occur in 15 seconds and record your pulse below: _________ pulses 4 = ___________ pulses/min. Record the pulse of a lab partner using the same method as above. Record the results for each of the circumstances listed below: Pulse while lying down ____________ /min Pulse while sitting _________ /min Pulse while standing _________ /min Pulse after hyperventilating for 30 seconds (breathing rapidly and deeply) ____________ /min. Answer the following questions. 1. What happened to the pulse rate as your partner sat up? When they stood? 2. What specific receptors were most likely responsible for triggering the change in pulse rate as the body position changed? Where in the body can you find these receptors? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 109 3. What happened to the pulse rate after hyperventilation? 4. What receptors were most likely responsible for the change in pulse that occurred following hyperventilation? To what do these receptors respond? PART B—ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE Blood pressure is the force exerted on the interior walls of vessels by blood as it surges through them. Pressure exerted during contraction of the ventricle (systole) is higher than the pressure exerted when the ventricles are relaxed (diastole). Measure the blood pressure of your LAB PARTNER using a stethoscope and a sphygmomanometer. First, practice listening for blood pulsing through the brachial artery by placing the stethoscope on a lab partner's brachial artery, which is located in the antecubital region. Once you are able to hear the blood flow, you may begin taking the blood pressure reading using the following procedure: Place the cuff of the sphygmomanometer over your lab partner’s upper arm. Slowly, pump air into it by using the rubber bulb. When you can no longer hear the blood flow (approx. 150 mm Hg), stop the inflation. You have compressed the brachial artery to the point that blood is no longer flowing through it. Gradually, release air from the cuff as you listen to the brachial artery through the stethoscope. When you hear a sharp, clear sound as the blood flow resumes record the pressure at this time as the systolic pressure. Systolic pressure _____________ mm Hg Continue releasing the cuff. The point at which you can no longer hear the blood pulsing through the artery is the systolic pressure. Record the pressure at the first point the sound disappears. Diastolic pressure ____________ mm Hg Written in the conventional method, the blood pressure of your lab partner is ___________________. Answer the following questions. 1. Is the blood pressure reading you just took a systemic or pulmonary reading? 2. How does pulmonary blood pressure compare to systemic (higher or lower)? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 110 PART C—BLOOD FLOW THROUGH THE HEART Study the diagram of the blood flow through the heart and give a brief description of what is taking place in each of the labeled steps. When done you should be able to draw and describe the structures and blood flow of the heart on a blank diagram. Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 111 Step 7 Step 8 Step 9 Step 10 Step 11 PART D—CARDIAC CONDUCTION Study the diagram of the cardiac conduction system. Label the numbered structures. Learn the function of each of the structures. 1 2 3 4 5 6 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 112 Answer the following questions. 1. What are structures #1 and #2 composed of? 2. What causes depolarization of the cells in structures #1 and #2? 3. Depolarization of the cells in structure #1 leads to contraction of which heart chambers? 4. Which valves are open and which are closed during the above process? 5. When the atrioventricular valves (tricuspid and mitral) close, which heart chambers are contracting? 6. Which structure is the only electrical connection between the atria and ventricles? 7. The AV valves will be held tightly shut due to the impulse reaching structure #_______, called a _________ _____________________, which causes contraction of the __________________ muscles. PART E—THE CARDIAC CYCLE AND ELECTROCARDIOGRAMS (ECGS) ) Use the typical ECG reading below to answer the following questions: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 113 Answer the following questions: 1. What cardiac cycle event is occurring at the P? 2. What event is occurring during the QRS complex? 3. What event does the T wave represent? 4. Why isn’t there a visible wave during atrial repolarization? 5. What is the normal time duration for one complete cycle? 6. What is the quiescent period? Where is this period on the ECG reading above? 7. A patient who has recently suffered a myocardial infarction shows no P wave on the ECG. What region do you suspect has been damaged? Why? Complete the on-line exercises and questions on the computers (case study of Flo Jackson). PART F—HEART FUNCTION Define the following terms: Stroke volume Cardiac output (normal values?) Starling’s Law of the Heart Tachycardia ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 114 Bradycardia 2. What effect will each of the following have on stroke volume? a. Increased venous blood return to the heart b. Exercise (increased action of skeletal muscle contraction on veins) c. Blood loss d. Sympathetic innervation 3. What effect will each of the following have on heart rate or heart function? a. Sympathetic innervation b. Parasympathetic innervation c. Carotid and aortic sinuses (baroreceptors) d. Atrial (Bainbridge) reflex e. Epinephrine f. Thyroxin g. Hypocalcemia ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 115 h. Hypercalcemia i. Hyperkalemia (potassium) j. Hypokalemia 4. What is ventricular fibrillation? Can it be corrected? If so, how? 5. What is congestive heart failure? What might cause it? PART G—ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY (ECG) Name the arrhythmias and explain the cause of the ECG reading. CAUSE: 1. CAUSE: 2. CAUSE: 3. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 116 ATRIOVENTRICULAR BUNDLE (BUNDLE OF HIS) SINOATRIAL (SA) NODE BUNDLE BRANCHES ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV) NODE Interventricular septum PURKINJE FIBERS (SUBENDOCARDIAL CONDUCTING NETWORK) SEQUENCE OF EXCITATION 1. SINOATRIAL (SA) NODE = Pacemaker Mass of autorythmic cells located in right atrium just inferior to the entrance of the superior vena cava. Depolarizes spontaneously 70-80 times/min, consequently it sets the pace for the heart as a whole. Depolarization spreading throughout atria causes them to contract. 2. ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV) NODE Located just above the tricuspid valve in the inferior interatrial septum. Depolarization wave passes from SA node throughout the atria to the AV node. Passes impulses to AV bundle. 3. ATRIOVENTRICULAR BUNDLE (Bundle of His) Runs from AV node to interventricular septum where it branches into right and left bundle branches. From AV node, the impulse sweeps to the AV bundle. 4. BUNDLE BRANCHES Right and left bundle branches course along the interventricular septum toward apex of the heart. 5. PURKINJE FIBERS Carry impulses from bundle branches to the heart apex, ventricle walls, and papillary muscles. Supply the papillary muscles before supplying lateral walls of ventricles, thus ensuring closure of the AV valves. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 117 ATRIAL SYSTOLE SVC LA RA LV IVC RV Ventricular Filling Atrial Contraction Pressure in the heart is low, and blood returning from circulation is flowing passively through atria and into ventricle. Aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves are closed. AV valves (tricuspid and bicuspid) are open. Atria contract propelling blood into ventricles. Duration is 0.1 sec. VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE Contraction Phase Ejection Phase Begins as the atria go into diastole (relaxing state). AV and semilunar valves are closed until pressure forces semilunar valves open and blood is pushed from ventricles into pulmonary trunk and the aorta. Duration is 0.3 sec. VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE Occurs following ventricular contraction. Ventricles relax. AV valves reopen and filling begins. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 118 OBJECTIVE To identify and learn histological features of various respiratory regions. To locate and understand the function of anatomical structures within the respiratory system. PART A—HISTOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Locate and observe each of the following regions and its associated structures on the microscope. Learn the distinguishing features of each region. TRACHEA Mucosa (epithelium) Submucosa (connective tissue) Smooth muscle (Trachealis muscle) DRAW and label what you see. Answer the following questions regarding the trachea. 1. What type of cartilage is found in the trachea? What shape is the cartilage section? 2. What type of epithelium lines the trachea? Are there goblet cells present? What is their function? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 119 3. What is the name of the smooth muscle? 4. What is the reason for presence of smooth muscle in this region? 5. What is the innervation of this smooth muscle and what is its effect? LUNGS Bronchi Cartilage present? Smooth muscle present? Type of epithelium DRAW and label what you see. Bronchioles Cartilage present? Smooth muscle present? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 120 Type of epithelium DRAW and label what you see. Alveoli Cartilage present? Smooth muscle present? Type of epithelium DRAW and label what you see. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 121 Answer the following questions regarding changes in tissue composition in the lungs. 6. How does the epithelial cell type change as the respiratory system gradually progresses from trachea to alveoli? 7. How does the frequency of goblet cells change from trachea to bronchioles? Why? 8. How does the size and shape of hyaline cartilage sections change from trachea through bronchioles? 9. What is the function of cilia in the trachea? 10. What is surfactant? What produces it? When does production begin? PART B—FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Using diagrams from the text and models, identify and learn the function of each of the following structures. Locate each of the structures with an asterisk (*) in the dissected cat. EXTERNAL NOSE *Nares NASAL CAVITY Nasal conchae Meati Nasal vestibule Internal nares *Hard and soft palate PARANASAL SINUSES PHARYNX (THROAT) Nasopharynx Uvula Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube Oropharynx Palatine tonsils (2) Lingual tonsil Laryngopharynx ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 122 *LARYNX (VOICE BOX) Laryngeal cartilages (9) Thyroid (1) Laryngeal prominence Cricoid (1) Arytenoid (2) Cuneiform (2) Corniculate (2) Epiglottis (1) Laryngeal spaces Auditus *TRACHEA (WINDPIPE) Carina *BRONCHI *(R) and (L) Primary bronchi Lobar (secondary) bronchi Segmental (tertiary) bronchi Bronchioles *LUNGS *Lobes Superior, middle and inferior Apex and base of lungs Vestibule Ventricle Glottis Aryepiglottic fold Vocal folds *True vocal folds *False vocal folds Laryngeal muscles Posterior cricoarytenoid Vocalis Oblique and horizontal fissures Hilum Cardiac notch Lingula Blood vessels *Pulmonary arteries *Pulmonary veins Pleurae Parietal pleura Visceral pleura Answer the following questions. 1. What muscles contract to cause inspiration? 2. What muscles contract to cause normal/passive expiration? 3. What muscles contract to cause forced or labored expiration? 4. What is the function of tonsils? How do the locations of the various tonsils aid in this function? 5. What muscle is the only abductor of the vocal folds? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 123 6. What muscle controls the tension of the vocal folds? 7. Name the four pair of paranasal sinuses. What is their function? 8. What is the clinical significance of the size and position of the right primary bronchus? PART C—GROSS ANATOMY Label the structures on the following diagrams. 1 2 3 5 8 4 6 9 10 7 11 12 13 15 14 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 124 16 17 19 21 22 18 20 24 23 25 27 26 28 29 30 31 33 32 34 35 36 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 125 Superior meatus Middle choncha Superior choncha Middle meatus Choanae Inferior choncha Pharyngeal tonsil Inferior meatus Pharyngotympanic tube Nasopharynx Vestibule Uvula Vibrissae hairs Upper lip Oral cavity Tongue Oropharynx Fauces Lower lip Palatine tonsil Laryngopharynx Lingual tonsil Hyoid bone False (vestibular) vocal folds Esophagus True vocal folds Larynx Trachea SAGITTAL VIEW ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 126 EPIGLOTTIS Hyoid bone THYROID CARTILAGE Laryngeal prominence (Adam’s apple) CRICOID CARTILAGE ANTERIOR VIEW CUNEIFORM CARTILAGE Vestibular fold (false vocal cord) CORNICULATE CARTILAGE Arytenoideus muscle THYROID CARTILAGE CORNICULATE CARTILAGE Vocal fold (true vocal cord) CRICOID CARTILAGE SAGITTAL VIEW ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 127 EPIGLOTTIS E EPIGLOTTIS E THYROID CARTILAGE CUNEIFORM CARTILAGE AA CARTILAGE CORNICULATE CARTILAGE AA CARTILAGE ARYTENOID CARTILAGE AA CARTILAGE CRICOID CARTILAGE AA CARTILAGE Trachea POSTERIOR VIEW ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 128 Respiratory bronchiole Alveolus Trachea Pulmonary capillaries [L] Primary bronchus Secondary (Lobar) bronchus Tertiary (Segmental) bronchus Bronchiole ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 129 TB RB AD AD AD AS A AS A A TB = Terminal bronchiole RB = Respiratory bronchiole AS = Alveolar sac ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS AD = Alveolar duct A = Alveoli Page 130 Trachea Apex Superior lobe of right lung Superior lobe of left lung Horizontal fissure Middle lobe Oblique fissure Oblique fissure Inferior lobe of right lung Cardiac notch Inferior lobe of left lung Base ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 131 Parietal pleural INTRAPLEURAL PRESSURE (Pip) (756 mm Hg) Pleural cavity INTRAPULMONARY PRESSURE (Ppul) (760 mm Hg) Visceral pleural Diaphragm ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 132 OBJECTIVE To measure and learn the various lung volumes and to understand how they can be used to determine respiratory function. PART A—MEASUREMENT OF INDIVIDUAL LUNG VOLUMES Lung volumes vary with age, sex, size and respiratory health. Keep this in mind when measuring lung volumes. VITAL CAPACITY Obtain a dry spirometer and STERILIZE it as follows: Open the top portion of the spirometer by turning it CLOCKWISE. Spray 95% Alcohol inside the LOWER portion of the apparatus as well as the INSIDE of the mouthpiece nozzle. DRY the bottom half of the spirometer with paper towels. Use COTTON SWABS provided to dry the inside of the mouthpiece. Use the ALCOHOL PADS to wipe the surface of the UPPER portion of the spirometer. DO NOT spray alcohol on this part since it will damage the instrument. Measure your vital capacity. Obtain a mouthpiece from the bin and place it in the mouthpiece nozzle. Hold spirometer by one hand and confirm that indicator points at zero. If indicator does not point at zero, adjust to zero by moving upper outer ring to right or left. When using, DO NOT COVER UP THE SMALL HOLES which are at the side of the upper body with the hands. Inhale and exhale forcibly several times to warm up. Next, inhale deeply stretching body upward. When lungs are full, set mouthpiece between lips. Breathe out strongly in one motion, without leaking. It is a knack to breathe out as completely as possible, within 5-6 seconds. For fixed measurement, it is necessary to keep the same way of breathing out. After breathing out, read measurement on indicator. Repeat this procedure two more times for a total of THREE trials. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 133 When done, DISCARD MOUTHPIECES AND ALCOHOLS PADS IN THE TRASH BIN! Calculate your average vital capacity by adding up all three readings and dividing by three. Enter your average vital capacity into your table. Vital Capacity 1 Vital Capacity 2 Vital Capacity 3 TOTAL Avg. Vital Capacity (Total/3) Compare your vital capacity with the expected value for a person your age and size given in the vital capacity table. Enter the expected value into Table 1. Calculate your expected VC below. Show your calculations below and enter the % in Table 1. Your value % Expected VC = Expected value x 100 TIDAL VOLUME (TV) Tidal volume (TV-air inhaled or exahaled during normal resting breathing) is too small of a volume to measure with our spirometers. Therefore you must estimate your tidal volume. Calculate your average TV by taking your average vital capacity and multiplying it by 0.1 (TV is usually about 10% of your vital capacity). Enter the value into Table 1 Tidal Volume (VC x 0.1) EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (ERV) Determine your expiratory reserve volume (ERV). Do this by exhaling normally (not into the spirometer) then, forcefully exhale as much as you can into the spirometer. Again, be sure the spirometer is set at zero before you begin. Record the reading in Table 1 (ERV is usually about 25% of VC). INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (IRV) Calculate your inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) by plugging the known values into the equation below. SHOW your calculations below and enter the number in Table 1 (IRV is usually about 65% of VC). Vital Capacity = TV + ERV + IRV ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 134 MINUTE RESPIRATORY VOLUME (MRV) Calculate your minute respiratory volume. SHOW your calculations below and enter the value in Table 1. Respiratory rate (breaths/min) Minute Respiratory Volume = TV Respiratory Rate DEAD SPACE (DS) Calculate the dead space. SHOW your calculations below and enter the number in Table 1. Dead Space = TV x 30% ALVEOLAR VENTILATION RATE (AVR) The minute respiratory volume does not take into account the volume of air wasted in the dead space. To get a more accurate measurement of respiratory efficiency, calculate the alveolar ventilation rate (AVR). SHOW your calculations below and enter the number in Table 1. AVR = (TV - Dead Space) Respiratory Rate RESIDUAL VOLUME (RV) Residual volume (RV) is an amount of air that remains in the lungs even after a forceful expiration. This air helps to keep the alveoli open and prevent lung collapse. Normally it is around 1200 mL. in males and 1100 mL in females. Keep this in mind as you calculate total lung capacity below and answer the following questions. TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY (TLC) Total lung capacity (TLC) is the sum of all lung volumes (normally around 6000 mL in males). Calculate your TLC. SHOW your calculations below and enter the number in Table 1. Use your text to write a formula to determine your total lung capacity. Write the formula, show the calculations and your lung capacity as calculated below. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 135 TABLE 1—SUMMARY OF RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES FORMULA DATA Average Vital Capacity Expected Vital Capacity (Table 2) % Expected VC Average Tidal Volume Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) Minute Respiratory Volume (MRV) Dead Space Alveolar Ventilation Rate (AVR) Total Lung Capacity (TLC) TABLE 2—NORMAL VITAL CAPACITY OF ADULTS* (cm3) AGE IN YEARS MALES FEMALES Height (inches) 20 30 40 50 60 70 60 3885 3665 3445 3225 3005 2785 62 4154 3925 3705 3485 3265 3045 64 4410 4190 3970 3750 3530 3310 66 4675 4455 4235 4015 3795 3575 68 4940 4720 4500 4280 4060 3840 70 5206 4986 4766 4546 4326 4106 72 5471 5251 5031 4811 4591 4371 74 5736 5516 5516 5076 4856 4636 58 2989 2809 2629 2449 2269 2089 60 3198 3018 2838 2658 2478 2298 62 3403 3223 3043 2863 2683 2503 64 3612 3432 3252 3072 2892 2710 66 3822 3642 3462 3282 3102 2922 68 4031 3851 3671 3491 3311 3131 70 4270 4090 3910 3730 3550 3370 72 4449 4269 4089 3909 3729 3549 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 136 PART B—PULMONARY VENTILATION QUESTIONS Answer the following questions. 1. What is vital capacity? 2. What is the significance of vital capacity? 3. What is the inspiratory reserve volume? 4. What is the expiratory reserve volume? 5. What is tidal air? 6. What volume of air is important in the Heimlich maneuver? 7. What physical principle is demonstrated when performing the Heimlich maneuver? (Review Boyle’s Law) 8. What is the difference between alveolar ventilation and minute respiratory volume? 9. What is dead space? Name the two types of dead space and distinguish between the two. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 137 PART C—OXYGEN-HEMOGLOBIN DISSOCIATION CURVE Use the graph below to answer the following questions. 1. What is being measured on the x-axis? _________________________________________ 2. What is being measured on the y-axis? _________________________________________ 3. Based on questions 1 and 2, what does the graph show? 4. What is the significance of a PO2 of 100 mm Hg? 5. What is the significance of a PO2 of 40 mm Hg? 6. At a PO2 of 100 mm Hg. what percentage of the total hemoglobin is saturated with O2________________ ? 7. At a PO2 of 40 mm Hg. what percentage of the total hemoglobin is saturated with O2________________ ? 8. What does the difference between the percentages in questions 6 and 7 represent? 9. What does it mean to shift the curve to the right and what is the result of doing so? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 138 OBJECTIVE To name, identify, and describe the gross structures of the urinary system. To describe the structure of the nephron and identify its parts. Trace the blood supply of the kidney. To identify the histological features of the kidney and its nephrons. PART A—KIDNEY ANATOMY Using models and diagrams, identify the following structures and learn their functions. EXTERNAL GROSS ANATOMY Cortex Medulla Renal hilum Pelvis Renal fascia Perirenal fat capsule Fibrous capsule INTERNAL GROSS ANATOMY Renal cortex Cortical nephrons (all the parts) Blood vessels (name all of them) Renal pelvis Major calyces Minor calyces Associated blood vessels Medulla Renal pyramids Renal columns (name associated vessels) Juxtamedullary nephrons Papillae NEPHRON STRUCTURE Renal corpuscle Renal tubule Glomerulus Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) Glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule) Nephron Loop (Loop of Henle) Parietal layer Descending limb Visceral layer Ascending limb Podocytes Distal convoluted Foot processes Collecting duct Filtration slits ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 139 NEPHRON STRUCTURE (CONT.) Capillary beds Juxtaglomerular complex (JGC) Afferent arteriole Macula densa Efferent arteriole Juxtaglomerular (granular) cells Vasa recta RENAL BLOOD SUPPLY Renal artery Segmental artery Interlobar artery Arcuate artery Glomerulus Efferent arteriole Vasa recta (peritubular capillaries) Cortical radiate vein Cortical radiate artery Afferent arteriole Arcuate vein Interlobar vein PART B—NEPHRON HISTOLOGY Find these structures on the slide of the kidney and any model that pertains. Describe the histological characteristics of each structure and define its function. 1. Cortex 2. Medulla 3. Renal corpuscle 4. Glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule) 5. Glomerulus 6. Proximal convoluted tubule ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 140 7. Distal convoluted tubule 8. Collecting duct PART C—KIDNEY DISSECTION Obtain a sheep kidney. Locate and identify external structures before cutting. Identify if it is a RIGHT or LEFT kidney. Remove the fascia (if present) and identify the capsules. Cut into sagittal sections and identify any visible internal structures. PART D—QUESTIONS 1. Define retroperitoneal. 2. Which renal artery is longest? Why? 3. Name two types of nephrons. 4. What parts of the nephron are associated with the cortex? 5. What parts of the nephron are associated with the medulla? 6. Trace the blood flow through the kidney. 7. What is the anatomical position of the kidneys? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 141 8. Distinguish between internal and external urethral sphincters. 9. What is the detrusor muscle? 10. What is the Juxtaglomerular apparatus and where is it located? Distinguish between the JG cells (location and function) and the macula densa cells (location and function). 11. Give the location and function of the peritubular capillaries. PART E—KIDNEY ANATOMY Label the structures on the following diagrams. 1 (region) 2 (region) 12 11 10 3 9 4 5 8 6 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS 7 Page 142 13 14 16 15 17 18 14 19 24 20 15 23 21 22 25 28 29 26 27 30 31 32 33 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 143 25 26 14 18 15 24 38 34 13 35 27 30 36 39 37 36 37 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 144 Renal capsule Renal pyramids Cortex Minor calyx Major calyx Renal artery Renal papilla Renal vein Major calyx Renal pelvis Renal sinus Ureter Renal columns CORONAL SECTION RENAL HILUS (HILUM) A depression or recess of the kidney where vessels (and nerves) enter and exit. RENAL COLUMNS Cortical substance entering medulla and separating the renal pyramids. Entrance to the RENAL SINUS. RENAL SINUS A deep concavity in the center of the medial surface. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS RENAL COLUMNS Apex of renal pyramids. Page 145 Afferent arteriole Bowman’s capsule (parietal layer) Bowman’s space Glomerulus Efferent arteriole Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) ENDOTHELIAL CAPSULAR MEMBRANE Podocyte (visceral layer of Bowman’s capsule) Foot processes Glomerular capillary Capillary endothelium Basement membrane Fenestrations Filtration slits ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 146 Peritubular capillaries Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) Bowman’s capsule Collecting duct Glomerulus Bowman’s space Afferent arteriole Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) Efferent arteriole Cortical radiate artery Cortical radiate vein Papillary duct Arcuate artery Arcuate vein Ascending loop of Henle Interlobar artery Vasa recta Interlobar vein Descending loop of Henle ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 147 DECREASED BLOOD PRESSURE DECREASED BLOOD PRESSURE DCT Decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR) Decreased solute concentration in fluid of DCT Reduced stretching of JG cells Macula densa cells (osmoreceptors) JG cells (mechanoreceptors) Release of renin into blood Angiotensinogen II (vasoconstrictor) Vasoconstriction of efferent arteriole and systemic arterioles Angiotensin I (converting enzyme in lungs) Angiotensinogen (plasma globulin) Adrenal cortex Release of aldosterone Increased blood volume and systemic blood pressure Increased GFR Increased Na2+ and H2O reabsorption Increased blood volume and systemic blood pressure Increased GFR ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 148 OBJECTIVE To learn and measure the various characteristics of urine and to analyze these findings to determine any possible abnormalities. PART A—URINALYSIS Using a STERILE specimen jar, obtain a sample of your own urine and perform the following tests. Enter your results below. CHARACTERISTIC NORMAL Color/transparency Pale yellow to deep yellow; clear Acidity (pH) 4.5–8.0 Specific gravity 1.001–1.035 Odor Ammonia odor only after left for a period of time SAMPLE PART B—URINALYSIS USING CHEMSTRIP 10 Obtain a ChemStrip, insert it into your urine sample, and observe the results. Make sure that you read the instructions on the bottle since the time to obtain accurate results varies for each test. DO NOT PLACE STRIPS DIRECTLY IN CONTACT WITH THE BOTTLE! Record your results below. TEST RESULT (+ OR - ) SIGNIFICANCE (normal or if abnormal, possible cause) Leucocytes Nitrite pH Protein Glucose ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 149 TEST RESULT (+ OR - ) SIGNIFICANCE (normal or if abnormal, possible cause) Ketones Urobilinogen Bilirubin Blood Specific Gravity When done, EMPTY VOIDED URINE IN THE TOILET, NOT IN THE SINK!! DISCARD TEST STRIPS IN THE TRASH! PART C—URINALYSIS OF UNKNOWN URINE SAMPLES WORK IN GROUPS OF 4 for this part. Obtain a small sample of each of the unknowns in FOUR different 3 oz paper cups and label each cup with the markers provided. Use ChemStrip 10 test strips to test the unknown urine samples and determine any abnormalities and possible causes. Record your results on the table on the following page. When done, discard unknown urine samples in the SINK and paper cups in the trash bins. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 150 CONTROL Sample Specific Gravity pH Leukocytes Nitrite Protein Glucose Ketones Urobilinogen Bilirubin Blood Color & Transparency Normal = 1.01-1.040 Normal = pH 5-9 Avg. = 6 Normally Negative Positive = >25 cells/L Normal = <0.05 mg/dL Positive = >0.05 mg/dL Normal = <30 mg/dL Positive = >30 mg/dL Normal = Negative Positive = >90 mg/dL Normal = <10 mg/100 mL Positive = >10 mg/100 mL Normal = <0.4 mg/dL Positive = >0.4 mg/dL Normal = <0.05 mg/dL Positive = >0.05 mg/dL Normal = <5 cells/L Positive = >5 cells/L Straw, yellow or amber A B C CAUSES YOURS D ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 151 PART D—URINALYSIS QUESTIONS Answer the following questions. 1. Were any of the urine samples abnormal? If so, which ones? 2. What would most likely be the cause of a urine sample with a positive test for nitrites, leukocytes and a slightly higher than normal pH? 3. Are proteins or blood normally found in urine? If they are present, how might they get there? 4. If the urine sample tests positive for ketones and glucose, for what disease should the patient be checked? 5. Elevated levels of urobilinogen and bilirubin may indicate problems with what organ? 6. What dietary habits may cause an acidic urine sample (more acidic than normal)? What would cause a basic urine sample? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 152 OBJECTIVE To locate and identify anatomical and histological structures of the digestive system and to learn their function. PART A—GROSS ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ORGANS Identify and learn the functions of the following structures on the lab models and diagrams. Structures in bold print should be located on the dissected cat. MOUTH Palate Uvula Tonsils PHARYNX Oropharynx Laryngopharynx ESOPHAGUS STOMACH Cardia Fundus Body Pyloric Greater curvature Lesser curvature Cardiac sphincter Pyloric sphincter Rugae SMALL INTESTINES Duodenum Plica circulares or circular folds Villi Hepatopancreatic ampulla Hepatopancreatic sphincter Duodenal papillae Jejunum Ileum Ileocecal valve LARGE INTESTINES Ascending colon Right colic (hepatic) flexure Transverse colon Descending colon Sigmoid colon Rectum Cecum Appendix Anal canal Internal and external anal sphincters Haustra Tenia coli ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 153 PART B—GROSS ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ACCESSORY ORGANS Identify and learn the functions of the following structures on the lab models and diagrams. Structures in bold print should be located on the dissected cat. LIVER Lobes Right lobe Left lobe Caudate lobe Quadrate lobe Falciform ligament Round ligament or ligamentum teres Hepatic artery Hepatic portal vein Hepatic veins Right and left hepatic duct Common hepatic duct GALL BLADDER Cystic duct Common bile duct PANCREAS Main pancreatic duct SALIVARY GLANDS Parotid gland Submandibular gland Sublingual gland PART C—HISTOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Identify and learn the functions of these structures on the microscope slides, models and diagrams. STOMACH SMALL INTESTINE Mucosa Gastric pits Gastric glands Parietal cells Chief cells Lamina propria Muscularis mucosae Subucosa Submucosal plexus Mucosa Villi Columnar epithelial cells (enterocytes) Microvilli (brush border) Goblet cells Lacteal Lamina propria Muscularis mucosae Intestinal crypts (crypts of Lieberkuhn) Muscularis externa Inner oblique layer Circular layer Outer longitudinal layer Myenteric plexus Serosa Submucosa Duodenal glands (Brunner’s glands) Peyer’s patches (lymph nodules) Circular folds (Plicae circularis) Muscularis externa Circular muscle layer Longitudinal muscle layer Serosa ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 154 LARGE INTESTINE Mucosa Columnar epithelial cells Goblet cells Intestinal crypts Lymph nodules Subucosa Muscularis externa Circular muscle layer Tenia coli (longitudinal muscle bands) Serosa LIVER Liver lobules Hepatocytes Central vein Portal triad Hepatic artery Hepatic portal vein Bile duct Sinusoids PANCREAS Acini Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) Pancreatic ducts PART D—DIGESTIVE SYSTEM SUMMARY TABLE Fill in the tables on the following pages ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 155 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM SUMMARY TABLE ORGAN pH SUBSTANCE PRODUCED Mouth Salivary amylase Esophagus None Stomach PRODUCING CELLS Gastrin Enteroendocrine cells Serotonin Enteroendocrine cells Histamine Enteroendocrine cells Somatostatin Enteroendocrine cells Endorphins Enteroendocrine cells HCl Parietal cells Intrinsic Factor Parietal cells Pepsinogen Chief cells Lipases Chief cells Mucus Mucous neck cells ACTION OF SUBSTANCE Intestinal gastrin Cholecystokinin (CCK) Duodenum Secretin Mucus Goblet cells Intestinal juice Crypt cells Lysozyme Paneth cells BOLD PRINT = HORMONES ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 156 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM SUMMARY TABLE ORGAN pH SUBSTANCE PRODUCED PRODUCING CELLS ACTION OF SUBSTANCE Jejunum Ileum Colon Liver ProcarboxylaseCarboxypeptidase ChymotrypsinogenChymotrypsin TrypsinogenTrypsin Pancreas Amylase Lipases Nucleases Bicarbonate Gallbladder ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 157 Upper lip Gingiva (gum) Hard palate Soft palate Uvula Oropharynx Palatine tonsil Tongue Gingiva (gum) Lower lip Lingual tonsils Fungiform papillae Palatine tonsil Sulcus terminalis Circumvallate papillae Filiform papillae Fungiform papillae ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 158 Masseter muscle Parotid glands (2) Sternocleidomastoid muscle Sublingual glands (2) Submandibular glands (2) ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 159 Cardia Esophagus Fundus Lesser curvature Duodenum Body Pylorus Greater curvature Serosa Esophagus *MUSCULARIS EXTERNA *Outer longitudinal muscle *Middle circular muscle *Inner oblique muscle Duodenum Rugae ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 160 Epithelial cells Gastric pit Lamina propria Mucus neck cells Parietal cells Gastric gland Chief cells Enteroendocrine cells Muscularis mucosae Submucosa Oblique layer Muscularis externa Circular layer Longitudinal layer Serosa ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 161 Stomach Spleen Liver D Pancreas Duodenum D J J J Ascending colon Jejunum I I Veriform appendix I J Ileum Pyloric sphincter Accessory pancreatic duct Pancreas Common bile duct Hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater) Main pancreatic duct ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 162 Villi Microvilli Simple columnar cells Lamina propria Lacteal Capillaries Goblet cell MUCOSA Intestinal crypts Crypts of Lieberkuhn Peyer’s patch Duodenal (Brunner’s) glands Muscularis mucosae SUBMUCOSA Inner circular muscle Outer longitudinal muscle ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS MUSCULARIS EXTERNA Page 163 Liver Gallbladder Cystic duct Duodenum Left and right hepatic ducts Common hepatic duct Common bile duct Pancreas Lesser duodenal papilla Main pancreatic duct Accessory pancreatic duct Major duodenal papilla Jejunum Hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater) ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 164 Left colic (splenic) flexure Transverse colon Right colic (hepatic) flexure Tenia coli Tenie coli Epiploic appendages Descending colon Ascending colon Haustrae Ileum Ileocecal valve Cecum Vermiform appendix Sigmoid colon Rectum Anus Ascending colon Haustrae Epiploic appendages Tenia coli Ileocecal valve Ileum Cecum Vermiform appendix ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 165 Inferior vena cava Coronary ligament Coronary ligament Left lobe Falciform ligament Right lobe Round ligament (Ligamentum teres) ANTERIOR VIEW Inferior vena cava Caudate lobe Coronary ligament Left lobe Quadrate lobe Right lobe Gallbladder POSTERIOR VIEW ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 166 Coronary ligament Inferior vena cava Coronary ligament Caudate lobe Left lobe Hepatic portal vein Right lobe Hepatic artery Hepatic duct Quadrate lobe Falciform ligament Round ligament (Ligamentum teres) Gallbladder INFERIOR VIEW Inferior vena cava Coronary ligament Caudate lobe Right lobe Left lobe Falciform ligament SUPERIOR VIEW ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 167 Kupffer cell Bile canaliculi Kupffer cell Sinusoids **Bile duct BLOOD FLOW TO HEPATIC VEIN Sinusoids **Hepatic portal vein **Hepatic artery Hepatocyte plates Central vein Bile canaliculi ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 168 OBJECTIVE To locate and identify anatomical and histological structures in the male and female reproductive systems and to learn their functions To review the process of oogenesis, follicle development and spermatogenesis with the use of diagrams and slides. PART A—ANATOMY OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Identify and learn the location, structure and functions of the following structures on the lab models and diagrams of the female reproductive system. OVARIES Ligaments Ovarian ligament Suspensory ligament Broad ligament Mesovarium UTERINE (FALLOPIAN) TUBES Isthmus Ampulla Infundibulum Fimbriae Ligaments Broad ligament Mesosalpinx VAGINA Vaginal fornix Anterior fornix Lateral fornix Posterior fornix EXTERNAL GENITALIA Vulva (pudendum) Mons pubis Labia majora Labia minora Greater vestibular glands Clitoris URETHRA External urethral orifice UTERUS Body Fundus Cervix Cervical canal Internal os External os Ligaments Broad ligament Mesometrium Round ligaments ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 169 PART B—ANATOMY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Identify and learn the location, structure and functions of the following structures on the lab models and diagrams of the male reproductive system. SCROTUM Dartos muscle TESTES Tunica albuginea Seminiferous tubules Rete testis Spermatic cord and contents Cremaster muscle DUCT SYSTEM Epididymis Ductus (vas) deferens Ejaculatory duct URETHRA Prostatic urethra Membranous urethra Spongy urethra SPERM Head Acrosome cap Midpiece Tail (flagellum) PENIS Erectile tissue Corpora cavernosa Corpora spongiosum ACCESSORY GLANDS Seminal glands (vesicles) Prostate gland Bulbo-urethral glands PART C—HISTOLOGY OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Identify the following reproductive structures on the microscope slide. GRAAFIAN FOLLICLE Ovum Corona radiata Zona pellucida CORPUS LUTEUM CORPUS ALBICANS Answer the following questions. 1. What is a Graafian follicle? 2. What is the function of the corpus luteum? ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 170 3. What is the duration of the corpus luteum? 4. What is the corpus albicans? PART D—HISTOLOGY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Identify the following reproductive structures on the microscope slide. TESTES AND EPIDIDYMIS Epididymis Seminiferous tubules Spermatozoa Insterstitial (Leydig) cells SPERM Head Midpiece Tail Answer the following questions. 1. What is the function of the interstitial or Leydig cells? 2. What is the function of the acrosome cap in the sperm? 3. What powers the movement of the tail/flagellum? PART E—REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Label the structures in the following diagrams. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 171 18 1 17 2 16 3 15 14 4 13 5 12 6 7 11 10 8 9 19 20 35 21 22 23 24 34 33 25 32 26 31 27 30 28 29 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 172 INTERPHASE centriole pairs nucleolus chromatin plasma membrane nuclear envelope Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are intact and visible Centrioles and chromosomes (DNA) replicate PROPHASE I METAPHASE I tetrad spindle nuclear envelope centromere sister chromatids (dyads) Chromosomes become visible Nuclear membrane disappears and spindle forms Synapsis of two homologous chromosomes to form a tetrad Crossing over (exchange of genetic material) occurs TELOPHASE I Tetrads align on the spindle equator ANAPHASE I Homologous chromosomes separate from each other (disjunction) Sister chromatids (dyads) move toward opposite poles of cell Nuclear membrane reforms and spindle breaks down Cytokinesis is completed Formation of 2 haploid (1 N) daughter cells ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 173 PROPHASE II METAPHASE II Daughter cells from Meiosis I Chromosomes become visible (not replicated) Nuclear membrane disappears and spindle forms TELOPHASE II Dyads align on the spindle equator ANAPHASE II Nuclear membrane reforms and spindle breaks down Cytokinesis occurs Sister chromatids separate and single chromatids (monads) move to opposite poles PRODUCTS OF MEIOSIS Formation of 4 haploid (1 N) cells with a full set of 23 chromosomes and each genetically different ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 174 Fimbriae Infundibulum Uterine (fallopian) tube Ovary Uterus (myometrium) Round ligament Endometrium Posterior fornix Urinary bladder Urethra Clitoris Labium minus Labium majus Cervix Anterior fornix Vagina SAGITTAL VIEW Lumen of uterus Fundus of uterus Ovarian ligament Uterine (fallopian) tube Corpus luteum Ovary Mesosalpinx Infundibulum Vesicular (Graafian) follicle Fimbriae Body of uterus Round ligament Broad ligament Isthmus of uterus Vagina Cervix Vestibule of vagina Greater vestibular gland Labia minus ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 175 BEFORE BIRTH Oogonium [stem cell] 2n MITOSIS Follicular cells Primary oocyte 2n Oocyte Growth Primary oocyte [arrested in Prophase I] present at birth 2n Primordial follicle CHILDHOOD [ovary inactive] MONTHLY OVARIAN CYCLE [Puberty to Menopause] 2n Primary oocyte [still arrested in Prophase I] Primary follicle Growing follicle MEIOSIS I [completed by 1 primary oocyte each month] Graafian follicle n First polar body MEIOSIS II [may or may not occur] Secondary oocyte [arrested in Metaphase II] MEIOSIS II n Polar bodies [degenerate] n [completed only if sperm penetration occurs] n Second polar body ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Ovulated secondary oocyte Ovum Page 176 Corona radiata START Antrum FINISH Zona pellucida Corpus luteum FOLLICULAR PHASE–Period of follicle growth, typically from the first to the tenth day of the cycle Primordial follicle (squamous cells) becomes a primary follicle (cuboidal cells) Follicular cells become granulosa cells (stratified epithelium) connective tissue forms around granulosa cells (thecal folliculi); thecal and granulosa cells produce estrogens transparent membrane forms around oocyte (zona pellucida); antrum (fluid-filled cavity) develops between granulosa cells primary follicle becomes secondary follicle; granulosa cells form the corona radiata at the edge of the follicle secondary follicle grows to full size and becomes a Graafian or vesicular follicle. OVULATORY PHASE–Occurs at mid-cycle, between day 10-14 Secondary oocyte with its corona radiata are released into the peritoneal cavity when the ovarian wall ruptures. Only one follicle outstrips the others to become the dominant follicle that will undergo ovulation; the others degenerate (atretic follicles). LUTEAL PHASE–Period of corpus luteum activity, typically occurring 10 days after ovulation. Corpus luteum (yellow body) develops from granulosa and thecal cells after secondary oocyte has been released secretes estrogen and progesterone for 10 days until fertilization occurs [1] if pregnancy occurs, corpus luteum persists until placenta takes over its hormone-producing duties [2] if pregnancy does not occur, corpus luteum degenerates in about 10 days to become corpus albicans (white body) and hormone secretion ceases ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 177 PUBERTY KEY Hypothalamus Hormone levels drop and uterine lining is shed Stimulates Inhibits GnRH Anterior pituitary Inhibitory effect on anterior pituitary release of FSH and LH [positive feedback] LH and some FSH surge at mid-cycle Slightly elevated estrogen levels inhibit FSH & LH release from anterior pituitary Anterior pituitary releases FSH and LH Corpus luteum degenerates (unless pregnancy causes production of human chorionic gonadotropin [HCG] by developing embryo High estrogen and progesterone levels Estrogen levels peak Estrogen Growing follicle FSH and LH stimulate follicular growth and maturation ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS LH Mature follicle Thecal and granulosa cells produce estrogens as follicle matures OVULATION LH surge causes resumption and completion of Meiosis I in primary oocyte and secondary oocyte formed continues on to metaphse II Corpus luteum LH promotes corpus luteum formation and thus secretion of estrogen and progesterone Page 178 Urinary bladder Ductus (vas) deferens Seminal vesicle Prostatic urethra Ejaculatory duct Prostate gland Membranous urethra Corpus cavernosum Bulbo-urethral gland Corpus spongiosum Spongy (penile) urethra Epididymis Testis Scrotum Glans penis Prepuce SAGITTAL VIEW Left ureter Urinary bladder Right ureter Seminal vesicle Left ejaculatory duct Right ejaculatory duct Prostate gland Bulbo-urethral gland Membranous urethra Corpora spongiosum Bulbo-urethral duct Ductus (vas) deferens Corpus cavernosum Spongy (penile) urethra Epididymis Glans penis Testis ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 179 Epididymis (head) Ductus (vas) deferens Efferent ductules Seminiferous tubules Lobule Duct of epididymis Rete testis Seminiferous tubules Testis Tunica albuginea Epididymis (tail) ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 180 Acrosome cap [contains hydrolytic enzymes] HEAD Nucleus [23 chromosomes; 1N] NECK MIDPIECE [contains mitochondria] TAIL [Flagellum] ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 181 Sertoli cells 2n 2n Spermatogonium (stem cells) Daughter cell remains at basal lamina as a precursor cell MITOSIS 2n Daughter cell 2n Primary Spermatocyte Basal lamina Sertoli cell nucleus MEIOSIS ENTERS MEIOSIS I MEIOSIS I COMPLETED n n Secondary Spermatocyte MEIOSIS II Early Spermatids n SPERMIOGENESIS n n n Late Spermatids Lumen of Seminiferous Tubules Spermatozoa ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 182 PUBERTY Hypothalamus Hypothalamus secretes GnRH Increased levels of testosterone inhibit hypothalamus secretion of GnRH and thus FSH release by anterior pituitary GnRH Testosterone LEYDIG CELLS Anterior pituitary Anterior pituitary secretes FSH and LH FSH Testosterone High sperm count prompts sertoli cells to release inhibin which inhibits hypothalamus release of GnRH and thus secretion of FSH and LH FSH stimulates development of seminiferous tubules and spermatogenesis Inhibin LH stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone which prompts spermatogenesis ABP SERTOLI CELL KEY Stimulates SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES Spermatogenesis Inhibits ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2B—REBECCA LOOMIS Page 183
