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HS1000-71 Human Growth & Social Environment Lecture 2: Overview of Human Growth and the Social Environment Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development 1 Contents Discussion: • Is human growth a science subject or a social science subject? • The commonalities and differences of different perspectives? 2 Contents Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Psychoanalytic perspective Learning / Behaviorism perspective Cognitive perspective Humanistic perspective Ecological / Contextual perspective 3 Psychoanalytic perspective Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Psychoanalytic theory Psychoanalytic theory: which views development as shaped by unconscious forces that motivate human behavior. unconscious forces act to determine personality and behaviour three aspects of personality: id, ego, and superego Id: operates according to the pleasure principle, the goal is to maximize satisfaction and reduce tension. 5 ID, EGO and SUPEREGO Ego: operates on the reality principle, in which instinctual energy is restrained / controlled in order to maintain the safety of the individual and help integrate the person into society Superego: represents a person’s conscience, incorporating distinctions between right and wrong. It begins to develop around age 5 or 6 and is learned from an individual’s parents, teachers, and other significant figures 6 Freud’s idea of the personality structure Ego Conscious mind Unconscious mind Superego Id Psychosexual development Psychosexual development a series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, is focused on a particular biological function and body part unable to gratify sufficiently or receive too much gratification during a particular stage, fixation(固定) may occur 8 Fixation Fixation: behaviour reflecting an earlier stage of development due to an unresolved conflict 9 Stage 1 – Oral 口腔-感覺期 (birth to 12 – 18 months). Baby’s chief source of pleasure involves mouth-oriented activities (sucking 吸、吮 and feeding). lead to unusually absorbed in oral activities – eating, talking, chewing gum Stage 2 – Anal 肌肉-肛門期 (12 -18 months to 3 years). Child derives sensual gratification from withholding (抑制 / 阻擋)and expelling (排出) feces (排泄物). Zone of gratification is anal region, and toilet training is important activity. 1. Stage 3 – Phallic 運動- 生殖期 ( 3-6 years). Child becomes attached to parent of the other sex and later identifies with same-sex parent. Superego develops. Zone of gratification shifts to genital (生殖器 ) region. Oedipus Complex (戀母情意結) Boy has an unconscious sexual desire toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred (憎恨) for the rival (敵手) father Stage 4 – Latency 潛伏期 ( 6 years to puberty). Time of relative calm between more turbulent / stormy (動蕩期 / 暴風期 / 混亂期) stages. Stage 5 – genital (兩性期)(puberty through adulthood) Recurrence (再現) of sexual impulses of phallic stage, directed into mature adult sexuality. Implication A key event in psychosexual development occurs in the phallic stage of early childhood. Boys develop sexual attachment to their mothers, and girls to their fathers, and they have aggressive urges toward the same-sex parent, whom they regard (注重) as a rival (競爭者). Children eventually resolve their anxiety over these feelings but identifying with the same-sex parent and move into the latency stage of middle childhood, a period of relative emotional calm and intellectual and social exploration. They redirect their sexual energies into other pursuits (追求), such as school work, relationships, and hobbies. The genital stage, the final stage, lasts throughout adulthood. The sexual urges represented during latency now resurface (重 新出現) to flow in socially approved channels, which Freud defined as heterosexual (異性) relations with persons outside the family of origin. Defense Mechanisms • Repression (抑壓): unacceptable wishes are barred from conscious thought Suppression (無意識的壓抑) 壓抑/抑制(英文術語Suppression/Repression): 「壓抑」指當一 個人的某種觀念、情感或衝動不能被超我接受時,下意識的將極度痛 苦的經驗或慾望就被潛抑到無意識中去,以使個體不再因之而產生焦 慮、痛苦, 這是一種不自覺的主動性遺忘(不是否認事實),有時表 現為口誤筆誤。「抑制」則為有意識的進行同樣工作。但需要注意的 是,壓抑在潛意識中的這些慾望還是有 可能會無意識的影響人類的行 為。 例如:一位中年婦女的獨生女於十八歲時死於車禍,事情發生在十月 份。當時她非常痛苦,經過一段時間以後,她把這不堪忍受的情緒抑 制、存放到潛意識 中去, 「遺忘」了。可以說感情留在意識之中, 而觀念卻被忽視了。這些潛意識中的情緒不知不覺地影響她的情緒, 果然她每年十月份均會出現自發抑鬱情緒,自己不知道 為什麼,藥物 治療也無效。 18 Projection (投射): unacceptable wishes are attributed to someone else Reaction formation (反向): unacceptable feelings are expressed by the opposite feelings Regression (倒退): one avoids confronting conflicts and stresses by reverting to behaviours that were effective and comforting at an earlier life stage 19 http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90% 86%E9%98%B2%E5%8D%AB%E6%9C%BA%E5% 88%B6 Displacement (轉移/ 移置): unacceptable impulses are expressed toward a substitute target Rationalization (合理化): unacceptable feelings and actions are justified by logical or pseudo logical(偽 邏輯) explanations Denial (否認): parts of external reality are denied Sublimation(昇華): unacceptable wishes are channeled to socially acceptable behaviours 20 21 Psychodynamic Perspective Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994) 22 Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson, a German born psychoanalyst, modified and extended Freudian theory by emphasizing the influence of society on the developing personality. Erikson was a pioneer in taking a life-span perspective. Freud maintained that early childhood experiences permanently shape personality but Erikson contended that ego development is lifelong. Psychosocial Development encompasses changes in our interactions with and understandings of one another, as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society eight stages that emerge in a fixed pattern and are similar for all people each stage presents a crisis or conflict that the individual must resolve 24 e.g. the generatively (生產) versus stagnation (停滯) stage: their contributions to family, community, and society can produce either positive feelings about the continuity of life or a sense of stagnation and disappointment about what they are passing on to future generations 25 Stage 1 birth to 12-18 months Basic trust (信任) versus mistrust (不信任). Baby develops sense of whether world is a good and safe place, virtue: hope. Stage 2 12-18 months to 3 years Autonomy(自主) versus shame and doubt (羞怯懷疑). Child develops a balance of independence and self-sufficiency over shame and doubt. Virtue: will Stage 3 3-6 years Initiative (進取)versus guilt (罪惡感). Child develops initiative when trying out new activities and is not overwhelmed by guilt. Virtue: purpose Stage 4 6 years to puberty Industry (勤勉)versus inferiority (自卑). Child must learn skills of the culture or face feelings of incompetence. Virtue: skill Stage 5 – puberty to young adulthood 12-18 Identity(自我認同) versus identity confusion (角色混淆). Adolescent must determine own sense of self (Who am I?) or experience confusion about roles. Virtue: fidelity(盡責) Stage 6 – young adulthood 18-35 Intimacy (親密) versus isolation (疏離). Person seeks to make commitments to others; if unsuccessful, may suffer from isolation and self-absorption. Virtue: love Stage 7 – middle adulthood 35-55 Generativity(生產建設)versus stagnation(停滯). Mature adult is concerned with establishing and guiding the next generation or else feels personal improvement. Virtue: care Stage 8 – late adulthood 55- 死亡 Integrity (自我統整) versus despair (絕望). Older adult achieves acceptance of own life, allowing acceptance of death, or else despair over inability to relive life. Virtue: wisdom 30 31 Implication The resolution of later crises or conflicts depends on the resolution reached in previous stages. Erikson’s theory is important because of its emphasis on social and cultural influences and on development beyond adolescence. Strengths and limitations Strengths of Psychodynamic Perspective Psychoanalytic theory: contemporary researchers study memory and learning suggests that we carry with us memories of which we are not consciously aware - that have a significant impact on our behaviour Psychosocial theory: development continues throughout the lifespan is highly important, and received considerable support 35 Learning / Behaviorism perspective J. B. Watson(1878 – 1958) 36 Perspective 2 –Learning Learning theories have helped to make the study of human development more scientific. Their terms are defined precisely, and their theories can be tested in the laboratory. Two important learning theories are behaviorism and social learning theory. Behaviorism Behaviorism is a mechanistic theory, which describe observed behavior as a predictable response to experience. They hold that human begins at all ages learn about the world the same way other organisms do: by reacting to conditions, or aspects of their environment, that they find pleasing, painful, or threatening. Two kinds of associative learning are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov devised experiments in which dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell that rang at feeding time. These experiments were the foundation for classical conditioning, in which a response (salivation) to a stimulus (the bell) is evoked after repeated association with a stimulus that normally elicits the response (food). The American behaviorist John B. Watson applied such stimulus-response theories to children, claiming that he could mold(塑造)any infant in any way he chose. Classical conditioning occurs throughout life. Food likes and dislikes may be a result of conditioned learning. Fear of drowning or of heights may arises from fallen off a diving board or from the top of a slide. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning Baby angel lies in his crib. When he starts to babble (Ma-ma-ma), his mother smiles and repeats the syllables. Angel learns that his behavior (babbling) can produce a desirable consequence (loving attention from a parent), and so he keeps babbling to attract his mother’s attention. An originally accidental behavior (babbling) has become a conditioned response. •B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) The American psychologists B. F. Skinner, who formulated the principles of operant conditioning, worked primarily with rats and pigeons. He found that an organism will tend to repeat a response that has been reinforced by desirable consequences and will suppress a response that has been punished. Reinforcement is the process by which a behavior is strengthened, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. Punishment is the process by which a behavior is weakened, decreasing the likelihood of repetition. Operant conditioning (B. F. Skinner)(1904 – 1990) a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences Behaviour modification is a form of operant conditioning used to gradually eliminate undesirable behaviour or to instill positive behaviour Positive reinforcement: consists of giving a reward, such as food, a bonus, or praise in order to strengthen the behaviour, thus increase the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated 48 Negative reinforcement: encourages repetition of a behaviour by removing or avoiding an aversive(嫌惡) event Punishment: suppresses a behaviour to bring on an aversive event, or by withdrawing a positive event Extinguish: behaviour that receives no reinforcement or is punished, likely to be discontinued (extinguished) 49 Social-Cognitive Learning Theory Albert Bandura (1925 - ) Social learning theory The American psychologist Albert Bandura developed many of the principles of social learning an approach that emphasizes learning by observing the behaviour of another person, called a model Classical social learning theory maintains that people learn appropriate social behavior chiefly by observing and imitating models – that is by watching other people, such as parents, teachers, or sports heroes. This process is called observational learning or modeling. Four steps of observational learning 1. pay attention and perceive the most critical features of a model’s behaviour 2. successfully recall the behaviour 3. reproduce the behaviour accurately 4. must be motivated to learn and carry out the behaviour 52 53 Implication Through feedback on their behavior, children gradually form standards for judging their actions and become more selective in choosing models who exemplify those standards. They also begin to develop a sense of self-efficacy, the confidence that they have what it takes to succeed. Cognitive perspective Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) 55 Jean Piaget’s Cognitive-stage theory Piaget suggested that cognitive development begins with an inborn ability to adapt to the environment. This cognitive growth occurs through three interrelated processes: organization, adaptation and equilibration Organization – according to Piaget, people create increasingly complex cognitive structures called schemes, ways of organizing information about the world that govern the way the child thinks and behaves in a particular situation. As children acquire more information, their schemes become more and more complex. Adaptation – adaptation occures through two complementary processes (1) assimilation (吸收), taking in new information and incorporating it into existing cognitive structures, and (2) accommodation (適應/ 調 節) , adjusting one’s cognitive structures to fit the new information. Equilibration – a constant striving for a stable balance, or equilibrium, dictates the shift from assimilation to accommodation. Piaget described cognitive development as occurring in four universal qualitatively different stages. Stage 1 - Sensorimotor感知運動階段(birth to 2 years) Infant gradually becomes able to organize activities in relation to the environment through sensory and motor activity Stage 2 – Preoperational前運算階段( 2-7 years) Child develops a representational system and uses symbols to represent people, places and events. Language and imaginative play are important manifestation of this stage. Thinking is still not logical. Stage 3 – Concrete operations具體運算階段 ( 7-11 years) Child can solve problems logically if they are focused on the here and now but cannot think abstractly. Stage 4 – Formal operations形式運算階段 (11 years through adulthood) Person can think abstractly, deal with hypothetical situations, and think about possibilities. 62 Humanistic perspective Carl Rogers (1902 – 1987) 63 a. Carl Rogers all people have a need for positive regard that results from an underlying wish to be loved and respected our view of ourselves and our self-worth is a reflection of how we think others view us b. Abraham Maslow: self-actualization is a primary goal in life 64 Theory contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behaviours Self-actualization: a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way Initially applied to only a few select, famous people such as Eleanor Roosevelt, Abraham Lincoln, and Albert Einstein Later expanded the concept to apply to any person who realizes his or her own potential and possibilities 65 Hierarchy of Needs 66 67 68 Ecological / Contextual perspective Jacques Jacob Bronfenbrenner (1883-1953) Ecological / Contextual perspective Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917 – 2005): The theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds According to the contextual perspective, development can be understood only in its social context. Contextualists see the individual, not as a separate entity interacting with the environment, but as an inseparable part of it. The American psychologists Urie Bronfenbrenner’s (布朗芬布倫納) bioecological theory identifies five levels of environmental influence, ranging from very intimate to very broad: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. A microsystem Is the everyday environment of home, school, work, or neighborhood, including face-to-face relationships with spouse, children, parents, friends, classmates, teachers, employers, or colleagues. The Mesosystem Is the interlocking of various microsystem – linkages between home and school, work and neighborhood. The exosystem Consists of linkages between a microsystem and outside systems or institutions that affect a person indirectly. The macrosystem Consists of overarching cultural patterns, such as dominant beliefs, ideologies, and economic and political systems The chronosystem Adds the dimension of time: change or constancy in the person and the environment. This can include changes in family structure, place of residence, or employment, as well as larger cultural changes such as wars and economic cycles. Implication A person is not only an outcome of development, but it also a shaper of it. People effect their development through their biological and psychological characteristics, talents and skills, disabilities, and temperament. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory Microsystem a setting in which a child interacts with others on an everyday, face-to-face basis. E.g. parents, peers, family, school and neighborhood Mesosystem linkages between two or more microsystems. E.g. experiences of family – school, school – church, family – peers Exosystem linkages between two or more settings, one of which does not contain the child. E.g. husband – wife links with husband/wife’s work experience Macrosystem a society’s overall cultural patterns. E.g. culture of an individual 77 lives, socioeconomic status, poverty, and ethnicity 78 Questions for reflection What are your feelings toward these perspectives? If you are asked to formulate your own theory of human behaviour and development, which one would you choose? Why? 79 Each perspective emphasizes somewhat different aspects of development Same developmental phenomenon can be looked at from a number of perspectives simultaneously Some developmentalists use an eclectic approach, drawing on several perspectives When considering the perspectives together, we can come to a fuller understanding of the area 80