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Habituation in Spirostomum ambiguum • Habituation: A response decrement to repetitive stimulation • Spirostomum is a ciliated protozoa Habituation in Spirostomum ambiguum • Are multiple cells required for learning • Chemical bases of learning Habituation in Spirostomum ambiguum • Place individuals on a slide • Tap slide with a mechanical stimulus each 4 seconds • Animal shows a response decrement (habituation) after 12 to 15 stimuli • Other studies show that Spirostomum can remember for a least 10 minutes Ivan Pavlov • A Russian physiologist • Discovered the conditioned reflex by chance E. B. Twitmyer • A Beauty Never to See Flower • A discoverer of the conditioned reflex Pavlov’s Basic Procedure • Present the CS without the US-The UR is observed • Pair the CS with the US for a number of trials • The CR is observed just prior to the US onset Stages Of Pavlovian Conditioning Mower’s Bell and Pad Pavlovian procedure used to treat enuresis Taste Aversion Pavlovian procedure causes people to avoid certain foods E. L. Thorndike’s Puzzle Box Law of Effect B. F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning 1. My introduction to B.F. Skinner 2. Skinner and society Operant Conditioning Four Critical Definitions Positive Reinforcement-The application of a stimulus that increases the probability of the response it follows. Negative Reinforcement-The withdrawal of a stimulus that increases the probability of the response it follows. Punishment-Reinforcement-The application of a stimulus that decreases the probability of the response it follows. Extinction-The withdrawal of a stimulus that decreases the probability of the response it follows. Some Negative Side Effects Of Punishment 1. Person who is punished avoids the punisher. 2. Punishment may model inappropriate aggressive behavior. 3. Punishment can reduce self-esteem. 4. Punishment teaches you what not to do but not what to do. 5. Punishment teaches people to do the minimum. 6. The use of aversive stimuli are hard to control. Abu Graib Schedules of Reinforcement Caswell Center Caswell Center A New Orleans Story Goal Of Behavior Therapy And A Few Definitions Goal: To provide the individual with better control over themselves or their environment. Baseline: Behavior prior to intervention. Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior. Prompt: A stimulus used to increase the probability of a correct response. Fading: Gradual removal of a prompt. Chaining: Reinforcing the last behavior in the sequence, the next to last behavior, etc. Four Types Of Prompts Physical Assistance: Moving an individual through the desired responses. Modeling: Imitating the desired behavior. Pointing: Designating a location. Verbal Instruction: Describing how to perform a particular behavior. Goal of Behavior Therapy To give the individuals increased control over their lives and/or environment. Mary Cover Jones: Counterconditioning Greg and the empty toilet paper roll What Is Automation ? Any sensing, detection, information-processing, decision-making, or control action that could be performed by humans but is actually performed by a machine” (Moray, Inagaki, & Itoh, 2000) Automation is usually viewed as a continuum, ranging from manual control to full automation. Some Quotes About Technology But lo!! Men have become the tools of their tools. - Henry David Thoreau Some Quotes About Technology It has become appallingly obvious that our technology has exceeded our humanity. - Albert Einstein Some Quotes About Technology We live in a time when automation is ushering in a second industrial revolution. - Adlai E. Stephenson Some Quotes About Technology The first rule of a technology used in a business is that automation applied to an efficient operation will magnify efficiency. The second is that automation applied to an inefficient operation will magnify inefficiency. - Bill Gates Four Generations of Artificial Environments (AEs) Where we have been, where we are, and where we are going First Generation Unidirectional Communication-Information moves from the machine to the person but not the person to the machine. Second Generation Bidirectional Communication-Information moves from the machine to the person and from the person to the machine. Third Generation Virtual Reality-Information moves from the machine to the person and from the person to the machine. Ideally, the synthetic environment is indistinguishable from the actual environment. Fourth Generation Life Simulation-The synthetic and actual environments are indistinguishable and the person does not know whether they are in an actual or synthetic world. Automation Usage Decisions (AUDs) AUDs: Choices in which a human operator has the option of using manual control or one or more levels of automation (LOAs) to perform a task. Some AUDs Are Commonplace Checkbooks may be balanced with a calculator or by mental computation Automobiles can be set to cruise control or the driver may operate the accelerator pedal Stock purchases may be based on the output of software programs or investors may depend upon their subjective assessment of the market Some AUDs Have Historic Consequences Casey Jones Pearl Harbor Three Mile Island Some AUDs Have Historic Consequences USS Greenville 2000 Election Types of Automation • Static: Level of automation is set a the design stage •Adaptive: Level of automation varies depending upon the situation Optimal And Suboptimal AUDs If it is assumed that the objective is to perform a task, the optimal AUD is to employ the level of control, manual through full automation, that maximizes the likelihood of a successful outcome. A suboptimal AUD is a choice to use a level of control that does not maximize the likelihood of successfully performing a task. Types of Suboptimal AUDs Misuse is over reliance, employing automation when manual control or a relatively low LOA has a greater likelihood of success Disuse is the under utilization of automation, manually performing a task that could best be done by a machine or a higher LOA. Errors Resulting in Misuse and/or Disuse Recognition Errors-Operator fails to recognize that an alternative, either automated or manual, is available. Appraisal Errors-Operator inaccurately estimates the utilities of the options. Intent Errors (also called action errors)Operator knowingly selects the alternative that does not maximize the likelihood of task success. Two Images of an Operator An operator is a single minded individual whose sole object is to maximize task performance An operator‘s decision to rely on automation is based on a number of contingencies only one of which is to achieve a successful performance. Intent Errors and Decision Aids: Doing It Your Way When Your Way Is Obviously Wrong Decision Aids And Intent Errors Probably no area of automation has proved more problematical than the introduction of decision aids Beck, Dzindolet and Pierce contended that much of the disuse of decision aids is due to intent errors That is, operators refuse “advice” from a decision aid that they know would improve their performance 200 “Training” Trials Participants viewed a series of slides on the computer screen, half of which contained a soldier in camouflage. Machine Absent: Pressed a “button” to indicate if the soldier was present or absent Machine Present: 1) Pressed a “button” to indicate if the soldier was present or absent and 2) Received the decision aid’s response 100 “Test” Trials Participants viewed a series of slides on the computer screen, half of which contained a soldier in camouflage. Machine Absent: Pressed a “button” to indicate if the soldier was present or absent Machine Present: 1) Received the decision aid’s “recommendation” and 2) Pressed a “button” to indicate if the soldier was present or absent Results 12 Errors 10 8 6 4 2 0 Aid Absent Aid Present Number of Operators Operators In Machine Present Condition 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Disagreed Agreed Estimated Accuracy Machine Present Condition: Estimated Accuracies 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Own Accuracy Aid Accuracy To Shoot Or Not To Shoot To Shoot Or Not To Shoot Since 1900, 10% to 25% of US war fatalities in resulted from fratricide Targeting Decisions: Possible Outcomes 1) Soldier and CID detect a friend. 2) Soldier and CID fail to detect a friend. 3) Soldier detects a friend and CID fails to detect a friend. 4) Soldier fails to detect a friend and CID detects a friend. Automation Usage Decisions (AUDs) AUDs- Choices in which a human operator has the option of relying upon manual control or one or more levels of automation (LOAs) to perform a task. Optimal AUD-Soldier relies upon the form of control that is most likely to result in a correct decision. Types of Suboptimal AUDs Misuse is over reliance, soldier employs automation when manual control or a relatively low LOA has a greater likelihood of success Disuse is the under utilization of automation, soldier manually performs a task that could best be done by a machine or a higher LOA. Beck, Dzindolet, & Pierce (2002) Appraisal Errors-Soldier misjudges the relative utilities of the automated (CID) and nonautomated (e.g., view through gun site) options. Intent Errors-Soldier disregards the utilities of the alternatives when making AUDs. Intent Errors: Two Images of an Operator An operator is a single-minded individual whose sole object is to maximize task performance An operator‘s decision to rely on automation is based on a number of contingencies only one of which is to achieve a successful performance. John Henry Effect John Henry Effect: Operators respond to automation as a challenger, competitor, or threat Increasing the operator’s personal involvement with the non-automated alternative augments the likelihood of a John Henry Effect. John Henry Effect Variables that increase the strength of a John Henry Effect augment operators‘ preference for the non-automated over the automated alternative Heightened preference for the non-automated option should: 1) increase disuse and 2) decrease misuse Design 2 (Operator: Self-reliant, Other-reliant) x 2 (Machine Performance: Inferior, Superior) x 14 (Trial Blocks) design Dependent Variable: Suboptimal AUDs (Superior Machine: Basing credit point on the operator’s performance; Inferior Machine: Basing credit on the machine’s performance) Credit Choice Screen Sample Helicopter Photograph Sample Helicopter Photograph Operator Response Screen CID Response Screen Results Screen Hypotheses • Self-reliant operators will be less likely to base credit points on the CID than other-reliant operators • Therefore – Disuse will be greater in the self-superior than in the other-superior condition – Misuse will be higher among other-inferior than self-inferior persons Disuse 15 14 13 12 Mean Suboptimal AUDs 11 Self 10 9 8 7 Other 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Trial Blocks (20 Trials Per Trial Block) • Figure 1. Mean suboptimal automation usage decisions (AUDs) as a function of operator and trial block for persons working with the superior machine. Misuse 9 8 Mean Suboptimal AUDs 7 6 5 Other 4 3 2 Self 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Trial Blocks (20 Trials Per Trial Block) • Figure 2. Mean suboptimal automation usage decisions (AUDs) as a function of operator and trial block for persons working with the inferior machine. Conclusions 1) Self-reliant and other-reliant operators were yoked. Each had the same information. It seems reasonable to conclude that the difficulty in determining the optimal AUD was approximately equal in both conditions. Thus, the large differences in suboptimal AUDs were probably due to intent rather than appraisal errors. 2)Results support the hypotheses that factors which augment the degree of personal involvement or challenge from automated devices will increase the probability of disuse and decrease the likelihood of misuse A Few Implications 1) Operator training programs should attempt to attenuate intent as well as appraisal errors. 2) At least on this task, intent errors were a significant source of suboptimal AUDs 3) Both appraisal and intent errors are sufficient to produce suboptimal AUDs although neither is necessary 4) It will be a hollow achievement if advances in our knowledge of hardware and software are not matched by an equally sophisticated comprehension of the causes and control of misuse and disuse.