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Chapter 06
Lecture Outline
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6.1 Skeleton: Overview
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A. Functions of the Skeleton
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Support
Protection of soft body parts
Blood cell production
Storage of fats and minerals
Movement using muscles and joints
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B. Anatomy of bones
1. Classification of bones
a. Long – longer than
they are wide
b. Short – cube
shaped
c. Flat – plate-like,
with broad
surfaces
d. Irregular – varied
shapes
e. Round – circular in
shape
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2. Anatomy of a long bone
a. Periosteum – tough, connective tissue covering that
contains blood vessels
b. Epiphysis – expanded portion at the ends of bones;
made of spongy bone
c. Diaphysis – portion between the epiphyses; the
shaft; made of compact bone
d. Medullary cavity – hollow portion of diaphysis
containing yellow marrow
e. Articular cartilage – layer of hyaline cartilage where
bones join together
f. Endosteum – lines the medullary cavity and the
spaces of spongy bone
g. Red bone marrow – found in spongy bone in adults;
where hematopoiesis occurs
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Anatomy of a Long Bone
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3. Compact bone structure
a. Osteons are made of concentric layers of
matrix, called lamellae, containing collagen
fibers and mineral salts
b. Lacunae – contain bone cells (osteocytes)
c. Central canal – contains blood vessels and
nerves
d. Canaliculi – small canals that connect
lamellae and osteocytes to blood supply
and nerves
e. Perforating canals – run from the
periosteum to the central canal of each
osteon
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Compact bone structure
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4. Spongy bone structure
a.
b.
Contains bony bars and plates called
trabeculae
Trabeculae follow lines of stress, giving
bones strength
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C. Physiology of bones
1.
Types of bone cells
a. Osteoprogenitor cells – unspecialized
cells
b. Osteoblasts – bone forming cells
c. Osteocytes – mature bone cells
d. Osteoclasts – bone resorption
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2. Bone development and growth
a.
Ossification – formation of bone
1) Intramembranous ossification
a) Spongy bone forms between two
sheets of fibrous connective tissue
b) Forms bones of the skull
2) Endochondral ossification
a) Forms most bones of the human
body
b) Hyaline cartilage models are
replaced by spongy bone, and then
compact bone
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Endochondral ossification
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Bone growth and development, cont
b.
Epiphyseal plate
1) Band of hyaline cartilage in the
epiphyses of long bones
2) Allows the bone to growth in length
3) Long bone growth continues until plate is
ossified
c. Appositional growth – increase in bone
diameter
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3. Remodeling of bones
a. Bone is continually being broken down and built
up again
b. Osteoclasts remove worn cells and deposit
calcium in the blood
c. Osteoblasts remove calcium from the blood and
form new bone
d. Three important hormones regulating bone
growth
1) Parathyroid hormone
2) Calcitonin
3) Growth hormone
e. Proper levels of calcium are needed to prevent
osteoporosis
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4. Bone repair
a. Required after it fractures (breaks)
b. Steps involved in bone repair
1) Hematoma formation
2) Fibrocartilaginous callus
3) Bony callus
4) Remodeling
c. Reduction – repair of a fracture
1) Closed reduction – re-aligning bone
fragments without surgery
2) Open reduction – surgical repair of the
bone using plates, screws, or pins
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Repair of a broken bone
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d. Naming of fractures
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Complete – bone is broken through
Incomplete – bone is not separated into
two parts
Simple – does not pierce the skin
Compound – pierces the skin
Impacted – broken ends are wedged into
each other
Spiral – ragged break due to twisting of
bone
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D. Surface features of bones
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6.2 Axial Skeleton
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A. Introduction
1.
Tissues of the skeleton – compact and
spongy bone, cartilage, and dense
connective tissue
2. Axial skeleton
a. Lies in the midline of the body
b. Bones of the axial skeleton – skull,
hyoid bone, vertebral column,
thoracic cage, and middle ear bones
3. Appendicular skeleton
a. Bones of the extremities
b. Includes the pectoral girdle, upper
limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs
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Major bones of the skeleton
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B. Skull
1. Formed by the cranium and the facial bones
2. Sinuses - air spaces within the bones
a. Lined by mucous membranes
b. Reduce the weight of the skull
c. Give the voice a resonant sound
d. Paranasal sinuses – connected to nasal cavity
1) Maxillary
2) Frontal
3) Sphenoidal
4) Ethmoidal
e. Mastoid sinuses – connected to middle ear
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Sagittal section of the skull
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C. Bones of the cranium
1. Protects the brain
2. Sutures – immovable joints between cranial
bones
3. Fontanels – membranous regions in newborns
where cranial bones have not yet fused together
4. Composed of eight bones
a. Frontal bone (1)
b. Parietal bones (2)
c. Occipital bone (1)
1) Foramen magnum
2) Occipital condyles
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Bones of the cranium, cont
d.
Temporal bones (2)
1) External acoustic meatus
2) Mandibular fossa
3) Mastoid process
4) Styloid process
5) Zygomatic process
e. Sphenoid bone (1)
1) Sella turcica
f.
Ethmoid bone (1)
1) Crista galli
2) Cribriform plate
3) Perpendicular plate
4) Superior and middle nasal conchae
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Skull Anatomy
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Skull Anatomy
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D. Bones of the face
1. Maxillae (2)
a. Alveolar process
b. Palatine process
2. Palatine bones (2)
3. Zygomatic bones (2)
a. Temporal process
b. Zygomatic arch
4. Lacrimal bones (2)
5. Nasal bones (2)
6. Vomer bone (1)
7. Inferior nasal conchae (2)
8. Mandible (1)
a. Mandibular condyle
b. Coronoid process
c. Alveolar process
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Skull Anatomy
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Skull Anatomy
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E. Hyoid Bone
1. Superior to larynx
2. Only bone in the
body that does not
articulate with
another bone
3. Anchors the tongue
4. Site of attachment
for muscles
associated with
swallowing
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F. Vertebral Column (Spine)
1. Functions
a. Supports rib cage
b. Serves as a point of attachment for the
pelvic girdle
c. Protects the spinal cord
2. Consists of a series of separate bones
named for their location
a. Seven cervical (neck)
b. Twelve thoracic (chest)
c. Five lumbar (lower back)
d. Five sacral (fused)
e. Three to five coccygeal (fused)
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Curvatures of the Spine
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Vertebral Column, cont
3. Normal curvatures
a. Cervical and lumbar – convex anteriorly
b. Thoracic and sacral – concave anteriorly
c. Provide support and balance
4. Abnormalities
a. Lordosis – exaggerated lumbar curvature
b. Kyphosis – increased roundness of the
thoracic curvature
c. Scoliosis – abnormal lateral curvature
that occurs most often in the thoracic
region
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Abnormal Vertebral Curvatures
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Vertebral Column, cont
5. Intervertebral Disks
a. Fibrocartilage pads between the
bodies of the vertebrae
b. Prevent vertebrae from grinding
against one another
c. Absorb shock
d. Allow motion between vertebrae
e. Allows space for the exit of spinal
nerves from the spinal cord through
intervertebral foramina
f. Can slip or rupture
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6. General vertebrae structure
a.
b.
c.
Body – anterior portion
Vertebral foramen – canal for spinal cord
Bony projections serve as sites for muscle
attachment
1) Spinous process (spine) – posterior
projection
2) Transverse processes – lateral
projections
d. Vertebral arch – lamina and pedicle
e. Superior and inferior articulating processes
with vertebra above and below
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Vertebrae
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7. Characteristics of specific vertebrae
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Cervical vertebrae
1) Have transverse foramina and short spines
2) Atlas (C1) – supports the head; allows head
movement up and down
3) Axis (C2) - serves as a pivot for the atlas;
allows head movement from side to side
Thoracic vertebrae – have long, slender spines
and costal facets
Lumbar vertebrae – have massive bodies and
square spines
Sacrum – fused sacral vertebrae; forms posterior
wall of the pelvic cavity
Coccyx – formed from a fusion of three to five
vertebrae
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Atlas and axis
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G. The rib cage
1.Protects the heart and lungs, yet is flexible
2.Provides support for the bones of the
pectoral girdle
3.The ribs
a. Twelve pair that connect to the thoracic
vertebrae
b. True ribs – upper seven pairs connect
directly to the sternum by costal
cartilages (vertebrosternal)
c. False ribs – next five pair that attach
indirectly to the sternum or not at all
1) Ribs 8,9,10 – vertebrochondral
2) Ribs 11,12 – vertebral or floating ribs
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The rib cage, cont
4.
The sternum
a. Flat, blade-shaped bone
b. Composed of three bones that fuse –
Manubrium, Body, and Xiphoid process
c. Provides anatomical reference points for
healthcare professionals
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The Rib Cage
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6.3 Appendicular Skeleton
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A. Pectoral (shoulder) girdle
1.
Clavicles (collar bones)
a. Articulate medially with the
manubrium as the only attachment to
the axial skeleton
b. Articulates laterally with the scapula
c. Serves as a brace for the scapula and
stabilizes the shoulder
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Pectoral girdle, cont
2. Scapulae (shoulder blade)
a. Spine
b. Acromion process
c. Coracoid process
d. Glenoid cavity – articulates with the
head of the humerus
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Pectoral Girdle
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B. Upper limb
1.
Humerus
a. Long bone of the arm
b. Proximal end features
1) Head articulates with the glenoid cavity of
the scapula
2) Greater and lesser tubercles
3) Intertubercular groove
4) Deltoid tuberosity
c. Distal end features
1) Capitulum articulates with the head of the
radius
2) Trochlea articulates with the ulna
3) Coronoid fossa
4) Olecranon fossa
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Right Humerus
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2. Radius
a. Lateral side of the forearm (thumb side)
b. Head articulates with the capitulum of
the humerus and fits into the radial notch
of the ulna
c. Radial tuberosity
d. Ulnar notch
e. Styloid process
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3. Ulna
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Longer bone of the forearm
Coronoid process
Olecranon process
Trochlear notch articulates with the
trochlea of the humerus
Radial notch
Head
Styloid process
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Right Radius & Ulna
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4. Hand and wrist
a.
Wrist (carpus) contains eight small
bones
b. Five metacarpal bones form the palm
c. Phalanges
1) Bones of the fingers
2) The thumb has only two phalanges
(proximal and distal)
3) The other fingers have three
phalanges each (proximal, middle,
and distal)
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Right Wrist & Hand
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C. Pelvic Girdle (hip)
1.
Bony pelvis – two coxal bones, sacrum,
and coccyx
2. False and true pelvises
a. False pelvis - bounded laterally by
flared parts of ilium – large
b. True pelvis – ring bounded by
sacrum, lower ilium, ischium, and
pubic bones – smaller
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3. Coxal bones
a.
Ilium (superior bone)
1) Iliac crest
2) Anterior and posterior iliac spines
3) Greater sciatic notch
4) Sacroiliac joint with sacrum
b. Ischium (inferior & posterior bone)
1) Ischial tuberosity
2) Ischial spine
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Coxal bones, cont
c.
Pubis (anterior, inferior bone)
1) Pubic symphysis
2) Obturator foramen
d. The three bones meet in the acetabulum
– the socket articulation with the head of
the femur
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4. Pelvic gender differences
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Female has broader hips
Female pelvis is wider
Female inlet and outlet of the true pelvis
are wider
Female pelvic cavity is more shallow
Female bones are lighter and thinner
Female pubic arch is wider
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The Pelvis
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D. Lower Limb
1.
Femur
a. Longest and strongest bone in the body
b. Proximal end features
1) Head fits into acetabulum of coxal bone
2) Greater and lesser trochanters
3) Linea aspera
c. Distal end features
1) Medial and lateral epicondyles
2) Lateral and medial condyles articulate
with the tibia
3) Patellar surface articulates with the
patella
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Right Femur
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Lower limb, cont
2. Tibia
a. Medial bone of the lower leg
b. Bears the weight from the femur
c. Medial and lateral condyles articulate with
the femur
d. Tibial tuberosity
e. Anterior crest
f. Medial malleolus articulates with the talus
in the ankle
3. Fibula
a. Lateral to the tibia
b. Stabilizes ankle
c. Lateral malleolus
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Bones of the Right Leg
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Lower limb, cont
4. Foot and ankle
a. Seven tarsal bones
1) Only the talus can move freely
2) The calcaneus and the talus support the
weight of the body
b. Five metatarsal bones form the instep
c. The phalanges form the toes
1. Big toe has only two phalanges – proximal
and distal
2. Three phalanges in other toes – proximal,
middle, and distal
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The Right Foot
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6.4 Joints (Articulations)
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A. Classification of Joints
1.
Classification according to the amount
of movement
a. Synarthrosis – immovable
b. Amphiarthrosis – slightly moveable
c. Diarthrosis – freely moveable
2. Classification according to structure
a. Fibrous
b. Cartilaginous
c. Synovial
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B. Fibrous Joints
1. Fibrous connective tissue joins bone to bone
2. Typically immovable
3. Sutures of the cranium
a. Coronal – between the parietal bones
and the frontal bone
b. Lambdoidal – between the parietal bones
and the occipital bone
c. Squamosal – between each parietal bone
and each temporal bone
d. Sagittal – between the parietal bones
4. Joints formed by each tooth in its socket
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Sutures
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C. Cartilaginous Joints
1.
Bones are joined by fibrocartilage or
hyaline cartilage
2. Usually slightly moveable
3. Hyaline cartilage
a. Ribs to sternum
b. Epiphysis to diaphysis
4. Fibrocartilage
a. Between bodies of vertebrae –
intervertebral disks
b. Pubic symphysis
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D. Synovial joints
1.
General characteristics
a. Bones do not touch each other
b. Bones are separated by a joint cavity
c. Usually freely moveable
d. Joint cavity formed by extensions of the
periosteum called the joint capsule
e. Joint cavity lined by synovial membrane
that produces synovial fluid
f. Joint stabilized by the joint capsule,
ligaments, and tendons
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Synovial joints, cont
2.
Protection of joint surfaces
a. Articular cartilage
b. Bursae – fluid-filled sacs around the joint
c. Menisci – fibrocartilage pads in the knee
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General synovial joint
Knee Joint
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3. Types of synovial joints and examples
a. Saddle joint –carpometacarpal joint of
thumb
b. Ball-and-socket joint – shoulder and hip
c. Pivot joint – ends of ulna and radius,
atlas and axis
d. Hinge joint – elbow and knee
e. Gliding joint – within wrist and ankle
f. Condyloid joint – knuckles
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Types of Synovial Joints
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4. Movements permitted by synovial joints
a. Angular movements
1) Flexion
a) Dorsiflexion
b) Plantar flexion
2) Extension
a) Hyperextension
3) Adduction
4) Abduction
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Movements permitted by synovial joints, cont
b.
Circular movements
1) Circumduction
2) Rotation
3) Supination
4) Pronation
c. Special movements
1) Inversion and eversion
2) Elevation and depression
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Joint Movements
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E. Joint damage and repair
1.
2.
Joint inflammation and destruction
Arthritis
a. Osteoarthritis – deterioration of the
articular cartilage; most common
b. Rheumatoid arthritis – synovial
membrane becomes inflamed and
thickens; autoimmune disease
c. Gout – excessive buildup of uric acid
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Joint damage and repair, cont
3.
Treatments for arthritis
a. Main goal is to preserve function
b. Pain management, physical therapy, and
exercise
c. Autologous chondrocyte implantation
(ACI) surgery
d. Joint replacement
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Artificial joint replacement
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6.5 Effects of Aging
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A. Cartilage
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Cartilage deteriorates
Chemical nature and color changes
Chondrocytes die
Calcification occurs
Symptoms of arthritis appear
B. Bone
1. Bone deteriorates
2. Osteoporosis develops
3. Increased incidence of fractures
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6.6 Homeostasis
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A. Functions of the skeletal system
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Protection of internal organs
Bones assist in all phases of respiration
Bones store and release calcium
Bones assist the lymphatic system and
immunity
Bones assist digestion
The skeleton is necessary to locomotion
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B. Functions of other systems
1.
2.
3.
4.
The integumentary and the muscles
assist in protecting internal organs
The digestive system absorbs calcium
from food and the endocrine system
regulates the storage of calcium in the
bones
Cardiovascular system transports
oxygen and nutrients to bones and
wastes from bones
Movement of the bones is only possible
because of the contraction of skeletal
muscle
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