Download The largest, most impressive Empire in the history of the world

Republic to Empire: An Examination of Government in Ancient Rome
Jenna Topan
Mr Cotey
IDP4U
18-12-2009
Topan 0
The largest, most impressive Empire in the history of the world started with 10,000
square kilometres of land in 326 BCE. Triumphant expansion fed a growth rate so rapid, the end
result was 4,400,000 square kilometres in 390 CE.
Alongside growth and expansion, tyranny and corruption remained evident during each
of the three eras of government. A tyrannical monarchy, forcing the people to revolt, and then a
Republic full of men living the life of luxury, in society ruled by the elite. Finally, the last
administration was left standing, with only one man ruling over the entire populace. Citizens
were subject to the radical whims of the Emperor, occasionally blessed with a reasonable ruler.
Forty-three Emperors were murdered or executed. Thirty-three were deposed, exiled,
imprisoned, or received similar treatment. Of the first 12 emperors, seven died violently by
poison, stabbing, or suicide. Many Emperors of Rome faced tragic fates because they either went
recklessly into battle or were driven mad with power, forcing the people of Rome to revolt, and
depose or murder the Emperor.
Ancient Rome was a time of brilliant progress, and also terrible conflict. From the
tyrannical Etruscan Monarchy, to the extravagance of the Republic, and finally, the severe
Emperors, Rome has had a colourful and memorable history. Rome is a part of history that is
often overlooked, and given only cursory attention. When considering the past, it is clear that the
Roman civilization has influenced much of today’s society. Roman times mirror many of the
power conflicts and issues today’s world faces, and it is for these reasons that analyzing and
learning about Rome is crucial to understanding a large part of today’s world. Rome’s past is
divided into three eras with different forms of government, and a large question surrounding this
Topan 1
period of history concerns the impacts these eras has on Rome. Historians today consider, in
detail, the flaws within the Republic, and the faults of the Emperors.
In 509 BCE, the Roman Republic was in control. The Republic took over because the
people were discontent with the oppressive Etruscan monarchy. The Republic was made up of
Magistrates, Assemblies, the Senate, and the Plebeian Tribal Council and Tribunes. In 46 BCE,
Caesar appointed himself dictator of Rome, and the distribution of power within the Republic
started to falter. The people of Rome had many problems with the Republic’s actions, and in 27
BCE the Republic was finished. At this time, Octavian was in control of Rome. He claimed he
would return control of the Republic over to the Senate; however, Octavian kept most of the
control for himself, a prime example of power beginning to affect a ruler’s decisions. As an
Emperor, he was the commander in chief of the army. The Senate continued to exist to suggest
and approve the Emperor’s decisions. Many Emperors came and went, and while there were
flourishing periods in Rome, many Emperors went insane and caused much damage. After being
divided up, the Western portion of the Empire fell, and the East (or Byzantine Empire) continued
on for many years.
The study of Ancient Rome is a study of government: which of these systems worked
best? In the Republic, the citizens of Rome voted in people to be their leaders, and power was
diffused throughout different members of government. For example, at the top of the Republic’s
hierarchy, there were two Chief Magistrates, or consuls. Having two main leaders, as opposed to
one, sole leader, proved to be useful: the two were able to keep each other rational, provide
different opinions, and divide up power so dictatorship and tyranny could be avoided. The people
Topan 2
of Rome themselves consider the transition into this sensible government a blessing in Roman
history: this change presented the welcome opportunity of public voice in the government:
Because the Etruscan monarchy was now so abhorrent to the Romans, they decided to
replace it with elected officials known as consuls. The consuls, who were [at first] always
patricians, served one-year terms. The end of the monarchy marked the start of the
Roman Republic, which the Romans considered the high point of their history.1
While there are obvious benefits to a Republic, more people in the government can lead
to more corruption, and this is true of Ancient Rome. An article concerning rent-seeking and
taxation illustrates corruption in the Republic: “The Republic was theoretically democratic, but
the senators, their friends and families held power and made the rent seeking laws, including the
tax laws, to benefit themselves.”2
However, the same article goes on to say the following about the Empire:
The privileged, who received their titles usually by inheritance, lived and met in grand
buildings and attended games, festivals, gladiatorial combats, all evidence of the
prosperity of the wealthy few. Meanwhile, the peasants saw little improvement in their
standard of living.3
In fact, it is arguable that the Empire’s greed for excess money is what led to excessive
expansion, and eventually, the Empire’s downfall. Corruption is a difficult scale on which to
measure these government systems, simply because corruption was rampant throughout history;
however, it is true that the Roman Republic enacted many reforms to gain equality between
average citizens, patricians, and members of the Republic. The most important thing to stress
1
"ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL PERIODS, 3500 B.C.E.-500 C.E. - ROME - THE REPUBLIC, 264-70 B.C.E. ECONOMY, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE." Encyclopedia of World History (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
Publishing Company, 2001), 79-80.
2
Charles D. DeLorme, Jr., Stacey Isom, and David R. Kamerschen. "Rent seeking and taxation in the Ancient
Roman Empire." Applied Economics (2005): 705+.
<http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS&userGroupName=ko_k12hs_d73>.
3
Ibid.
Topan 3
concerning the Empire is this: citizens of Ancient Rome were unable to vote in their Emperor.
Often the title of Emperor passed through bloodlines, and so it was essentially a lottery to the
Roman people: would they have a sane, responsible Emperor or would they experience terror
and anguish because of this next Emperor’s reign? The only input concerning choosing the
Emperor later came from the army and this resulted in rivalry, murder plots, and power struggles.
Although the Senate remained, they did not have nearly as much power as the Emperor:
the entire Empire was subject to this one man’s whims, and they were often radical,
irresponsible, and caused more damage than a responsible Emperor could hope to fix. Often,
Rome’s rulers were unsure how to deal with the general unhappiness that plagued their Empire:
Rome's rulers offered entertainment in the arenas, such as bloody gladiatorial
competitions, to distract Rome's unemployed and unhappy citizens. With poor and weak
rulers, Romans lost faith in their government and Empire. The Empire was plagued with
disaster.4
The main advantage to the Roman Republic was the complexity of the administration: as
the historian Polybius wrote, it was the balance of monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy which
gave ancient Rome its greatest strength. The time of the Republic is a period in history often
unobserved in comparison to the legacies of the Emperors; however, upon closer examination, it
is clear the former government did a much finer job. Evidenced by positive legal reforms, a
successful economy, and triumphant campaigns, it is clear the Roman Republic was superior to
the united Empire.
4
Charles D. DeLorme, Jr., Stacey Isom, and David R. Kamerschen. "Rent seeking and taxation in the Ancient
Roman Empire." Applied Economics (2005): 705+.
<http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS&userGroupName=ko_k12hs_d73>.
Topan 4
There is one main opposing argument to this thesis: the Roman Empire was a time of
government superior to that of the Republic. This could be proved by either claiming the Roman
Empire was more successful because of positive events that occurred during that period, or
negative events that transpired during the Republic.
It is ignorant to claim the Empire had no positive impact on Rome. Second Century AD
brought a succession of wise Emperors, many of whom were born out of Italy. Emperor Hadrian
rebuilt Pantheon, Hadrian's Wall, and created special departments to control things such as
correspondence, justice, taxes and records. Hadrian’s legal reforms were some of the most
positive and beneficial of the Emperors. Rational Emperors, such as Trajan, Hadrian, and
Diocletian, developed a larger civil service and separated the governing of the empire into
military and civil affairs.
Historians argue the Roman Emperors also made great contributions to cultural and social
services, such as their architecture developments: Emperor Hadrian’s wall, Roman Aqueducts,
the Pantheon, thermal baths, and the Colosseum are all reputable developments that were created
by the Emperors.
Historians also argue Christianity is another large argument for the Emperors: Emperor
Constantine was the first Christian Emperor, after he claimed God had helped him win an
impossible battle. In passing the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, Constantine proclaimed the
Christians free from persecution. Christians had been persecuted for a long time, and many
Emperors were cruel and harsh: for example, Emperor Nero was known for his ridiculously
brutal punishments, including crucifying Christians and lighting them on fire, to use as garden
Topan 5
lights. However, Emperor Constantine did successfully free the Christians from persecution, and
established Constantinople (later Byzantium).
A large factor to consider in this argument is longevity: the Roman Republic began in
509 BCE and while the end of the Republic is debatable, this government lasted for
approximately four-hundred eighty-two years. The Roman Empire, arguably beginning in 27
BCE, was split into two in 293 BCE. Emperor Diocletian recognized that one man could not
possibly control such an Empire, and so the Empire was divided into the East and West (and
later, into four parts total). The split became permanent, and many historians argue that 293 BCE
was the end of the Roman Empire: the Western part of the Empire lost its Roman nature, while
the Eastern portion developed into the Byzantine Empire. It is for this reason the word “united”
is used: once Rome was divided into sections to be ruled separately, the system of government
changed. In fact, structuring multiple rulers for one area is similar to the organization of the
Republic: in the Republic, there were two chief rulers. This is not to say the argument for the
Republic cannot be made against such an Empire; however, the argument would no longer be a
study of government, as the Empire’s dynamic changed. At this time, Emperor Diocletian’s
reforms ended the Roman Empire, but created the West, which later fell, and the East, which
became known to historians as the Byzantine Empire.
In 5th century CE, invasions of barbaric, Northern tribes continued to rattle the Western
portion. The split Roman Empire was not strong enough to combat these invasions and in 476
CE, the German barbarian Odoacer deposed the historic line of emperors in Rome. Even if this
part of the Empire is compared to the Republic, both phases were similar in length. Moreover,
the end of the Republic was caused by Caesar’s resolve for power, and without his violent
Topan 6
interference and seizure of government, it is impossible to say how long the Republic would
have lasted.
The Eastern Roman Empire, at this time the Byzantine Empire, survived the loss of Syria
and Egypt, and lived on for many years, until its last remains were finally annexed by the
emerging Ottoman Empire. Due to the incredibly durability of the Byzantine Empire, some
historians argue the Empire under the Roman Emperors was more successful than the Republic.
Evidently, there are arguments for the Emperors and against the Republic; however, upon
examining the positive and negative aspects of both periods in history, it is clear the Empire was
a much more unstable and unpredictable era, regardless of how many years the Byzantine
Empire endured. The Republic was “the high point of [the Roman’s] history”5, and when
examining law, the economy, and military campaigns, it is clear the Republic was superior.
Changes in Roman law affected a large portion of the world. The Republic was definitely
superior to the Empire because they successfully improved Roman law concerning Plebeians,
legal awareness, citizenship, and gender laws.
An example of the Republic making law to be more inclusive concerns Plebeians. It is a
common argument against the success of the Republic that the dividing lines between the rich
and the poor contributed to the decline of Rome; however, during the Republic, many legal
reforms took place, with the goal of giving plebeians more rights.
5
"ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL PERIODS, 3500 B.C.E.-500 C.E. - ROME - THE REPUBLIC, 264-70 B.C.E. ECONOMY, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE." Encyclopedia of World History (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
Publishing Company, 2001), 79-80.
Topan 7
Plebeians were upset with the treatment they had received in the past. They had been
degraded and subject to unfair treatment. The First Succession of the Plebs took place, as many
lower class citizens decided to go on strike, withdrawing to hills outside of Rome. A large
counterargument refuting the success of the Roman Republic is that with this withdrawal of
peasants and farmers, the economy under the Republic suffered. However, these protests were
necessary in order to achieve more balance in Rome; the protests exemplify how the Plebeians
knew the Republic was a time open to consideration and negotiation.
The Plebeians were imperative in upholding the economy, and so members of the
Republic realized their mistreatment of the lower class citizens. They changed laws to be more
accommodating. Firstly, Patricians granted them the right to annually elect their own leaders in
the Republic, called Tribunes. Historians today question whether or not these leaders were taken
seriously in government; however, the Patricians eventually increased the Plebeian government
voices from two members to ten, showing the progress they were responsible for.6 Furthermore,
the significance of the Tribunes is exemplified through the quote, “The prime responsibility of a
tribune was to protect the rights of plebeians, [so] the position was a powerful one.”7
Another amendment made to Roman law concerned establishing awareness. Many
citizens realized patricians were much more aware of the law than the plebeians, so in 451 BCE
and 450 BCE, ten government members, called the decemviri, were appointed to publish a
codification of Roman law, the Twelve Tables. The Twelve Tables emphasized restorative
6
"ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL PERIODS, 3500 B.C.E.-500 C.E. - ROME - THE REPUBLIC, 264-70 B.C.E. ECONOMY, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE." Encyclopedia of World History (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
Publishing Company, 2001), 79-80.
7
Anthony R. Kugler, "For the people.(class conflict in Roman Republic)." Calliope Oct. 2002: 18+.
<http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS&userGroupName=ko_k12hs_d73>.
Topan 8
justice, something that is obviously still important today: “historical examples of punishment
systems based on restorative justice are the Roman Law of the Twelve Tables”.8 Codifying
Roman law made it easier for the citizens of Rome to understand and follow law, and thus, it was
obviously a large, positive improvement.
There are many other examples of improved law within the Republic. In 445 BCE,
Plebeians and Patricians gained the right to marry one another. In 367 BCE, Plebeians became
eligible for elections concerning consulship. These laws all reformed to put an emphasis on
human rights and equality. Later that year, laws were passed that limited the amount of land an
individual could possess, as some Plebeians felt Patricians were holding too much. In 367 BCE,
357 BCE, 352 BCE, 347 BCE, and 342 BCE, laws were passed to help alleviate the Plebeians
debts.9 Historians argue that the growing gap between the rich and poor citizens contributed to
the fall of Rome; however, these laws exemplify the attempts at creating a more balanced
society. While not all gaps between the Patricians and Plebeians were bridged, it is clear that
efforts were made throughout the Republic to aid in the Plebeian’s struggle and remove some of
the Patrician’s privileges.
Further amendments were established concerning equality in government and general
roles. In 356 BCE a plebeian dictator is elected, and further promoted to consul. In 342 BCE,
Plebeians were awarded the guarantee of one of the consular posts in any given year. In 300
8
Reginald A. Wilkinson, "Back to basics: modern restorative justice principles have their roots in ancient cultures."
Corrections Today 59.7 (1997): 6.
<http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS&userGroupName=ko_k12hs_d73>.
9
"ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL PERIODS, 3500 B.C.E.-500 C.E. - ROME - THE REPUBLIC, 264-70 B.C.E. ECONOMY, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE." Encyclopedia of World History (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
Publishing Company, 2001), 79-80.
Topan 9
BCE, Plebeians were given the right to hold places in two of Rome’s colleges (pontiffs and
augurs). The emergent equality was remarkable: “By 300 BCE, being a patrician was only a
slight political advantage. Debt-bondage was eliminated”.10 It is apparent these successful legal
reforms contributed to a balanced society. Unfortunately, many citizens who lived under
emperors could only dream about such equality.
Additional successful reforms concerned citizenship. During the time of the monarchy,
the only "true" citizens of Rome were those who lived in the city of Rome or those with
two Roman parents. This group of citizens formed a representational government under
the king. The king would summon the citizens only when he wanted to and would present
the issues that the citizens would vote on.11
This flawed system was overly selective: the requests and opinions of the majority were
not represented. Alternatively, voting in the Republic decided the public officers who would rule
over Rome. Citizens could hold public office, and were granted trading advantages not available
to other Italian villagers. Citizens of Rome enjoyed these exclusive privileges until the Latin
League, the Volscians, and other Italian tribes rebelled against Rome, and were defeated in 388
BCE. Rome granted some of these residents in these villages Roman citizenship, in order to keep
10
"ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL PERIODS, 3500 B.C.E.-500 C.E. - ROME - THE REPUBLIC, 264-70 B.C.E. ECONOMY, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE." Encyclopedia of World History (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
Publishing Company, 2001), 79-80.
11
Sara Ann McGill "Daily Life in Ancient Rome." Canadian Student Research Centre
<http://web.ebscohost.com/src/detail?vid=3&hid=7&sid=a1ddb537-cd6b-47de-be3878fee4323bfb%40sessionmgr13&bdata=JnNpdGU9c3JjLWNhbg%3d%3d#db=khh&AN=17948362>.
Topan 10
them from rebelling.12 The Republic’s “sharing of Roman citizenship encouraged the spread of
Roman language, law, and culture throughout the Italian peninsula”.13
Under the Empire, every province had large numbers of Roman citizens by the end of the
3rd century. In 212 the distinction between citizen and noncitizen was eliminated by the
constitutio Antoniniana, which granted Roman citizenship to virtually all free male inhabitants of
the Empire. One would think common Roman citizenship would be a good thing; however, as
Roman citizenship became more common, its privileges diminished. Two legal statuses
developed: upper class citizens were called honestiores and everyone else “citizen or not, fell
into the class of humiliores and were subject to harsh punishments—crucifixion, burning, the
arena, chained labour—which had previously been associated with servile punishments”.14 The
creation of common Roman citizenship further divided the classes of Rome, ending in torturous
inequality.
Upon examining these three eras of citizenship reform in Ancient Rome, it is clear the
Republic struck a relatively balanced deal. Roman citizens were given slight privileges in order
to keep divisions minimal (an unfortunately large oversight on the part of the Empire) and
Roman citizenship was used as a tool of appeasement to avoid conflict. Once again, the wise and
calming actions of the Republic further demonstrate the government’s ability to negotiate and
work towards a solution together, as opposed to everyone following a radical Emperor’s
12
Sara Ann McGill "Ancient Roman Government." Ancient Roman Government (2009).
<http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=khh&AN=17960485&site=ehost-live>.
13
"Roman Civilization, 509 B.C.-476 A.D." Student Resource Centre Canadian Edition. Gale, 2003.
14
"ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL PERIODS, 3500 B.C.E.-500 C.E. - ROME - THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 14-284
C.E. - ECONOMY, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE." Encyclopedia of World History (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
Publishing, Company, 2001), 88-89.
Topan 11
decisions. It is inarguable that even though the Empire saw some positive changes, “many of
Rome's rulers were despots, who used Rome's senate to pass laws that benefited only the
emperor's family and other patricians' families.”15
Also during the Republic, restrictions on women were slackened, something rarely seen
in the developing world. Restrictions on women were legislated—the lex Voconia limited the
amount a woman could inherit by will. However, by the 1st century these and other restrictions
could be circumvented by various legal dodges, and a woman who was independent could
acquire considerable freedom, such as the transfer property and the freedom to divorce, through a
legal device which permitted her to select her own guardian.
Overall, after examining legal reforms concerning class equality, legal awareness,
citizenship, and women’s laws, it is obvious the Roman Republic established a relatively fair and
balanced society, with improvements that lasted well into the iniquitous time of the Empire.
When comparing periods of history, it is important to look at the success of a civilization,
and the growth of their economy. The Republic was superior to the Empire because the Romans
experienced successful economic times, while under the Emperors, there was instability and
discontent.
An obvious counterargument to the success of the Republic is that war causes disruption
and chaos. While true, it is apparent that the wars fought during the Republic were advantageous.
Rome faced the disturbances of war; however, once Rome stabilized, trade revived: “The 2ndcentury conquests of Spain and Cisalpine Gaul, and then of the Aegean, opened up markets
15
Shilpa Mehta-Jones "The End of Rome." Life in Ancient Rome (2005): 30-31. History Reference Center. EBSCO.
Topan 12
which were fully exploited by Roman and Italian businessmen who brought wealth to the towns
of Italy, as well as to the capital.”16
The wars fought and won under the Republic brought wealth to the city. Also, imports
such as grains, metals, slaves, and wines were brought in, and at the end of the third century,
wines of Latium, Campania, and Etruria were exported to the Adriatic and Southern France.17 As
Rome’s land mass grew, so did its trade.
Another development during the Republic concerned money. The earliest Roman money,
created in the fourth century, was minted in bronze. The first silver coinage was created in 300
BCE, and the denarius, the standard silver coin, was first issued in 211 BCE.18 All of these
developments took place during the Republic, and the production of coinage facilitated the
collection of taxes and payments. In providing a set currency to trade by, coinage eliminated
some of the unfair bartering that would occur.
Also during the Republic, a technological revolution occurred, when flexible, cheap
concrete replaced the traditional method of building with stone. This was made possible
discovery of pozzolana mortar made from volcanic stone. By the end of the century, cement was
fully exploited in the construction of vaulted and terraced sanctuaries, and in high-rise urban
16
"ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL PERIODS, 3500 B.C.E.-500 C.E. - ROME - THE REPUBLIC, 264-70 B.C.E. ECONOMY, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE." Encyclopedia of World History (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
Publishing Company, 2001), 79-80.
17
"ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL PERIODS, 3500 B.C.E.-500 C.E. - ROME - THE REPUBLIC, 264-70 B.C.E. ECONOMY, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE." Encyclopedia of World History (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
Publishing Company, 2001), 79-80.
18
Ibid.
Topan 13
tenements.19 This was yet another one of the developments made during the Republic to further
the economy.
Although cement was used to lessen living expenses during the Republic, average
citizens of the Empire faced the dilemma of expensive and infrequent housing options:
Much of the space in a Roman city was taken up by public buildings and the large houses
and gardens of the rich. For the nonelite, urban living conditions were crowded and, by
modern standards, unsanitary, so life was lived outdoors during daylight hours. Most
private dwellings were not connected to the public sewers, and few had running water.
Although public baths were inexpensive and often sumptuous, they were also unhygienic,
since the water was infrequently changed.20
Due to the unsanitary conditions, the citizens of Rome also faced the plague and the
incredibly fast spread of disease: “The economy was further weakened when returning soldiers
brought the plague to Rome in 167 A.D. The plague killed about 2,000 people a day.”21
The deaths from the insanitation and the plague left the Empire with many problems.
Another problem was thrust upon farmers during the time of the Empire:
Hundreds of thousands of people lived in Rome, most of them in crowded slums. A
housing shortage, along with crime in the streets and soaring rents, meant that the
ordinary person lived a life of misery. Unemployment was a serious problem. Things
became worse when farm families flooded into the city. Food brought in from the
colonies was sold at lower prices than the crops grown around Rome, so farmers did not
make enough to survive.22
Yet another problem citizens of the Empire faced was the Barracks Emperors:
19
Ibid.
20
"ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL PERIODS, 3500 B.C.E.-500 C.E. - ROME - THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 14-284
C.E. - ECONOMY, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE." Encyclopedia of World History (Houghton Mifflin
Harcourt Publishing, Company, 2001), 88-89.
21
Shilpa Mehta-Jones "The End of Rome." Life in Ancient Rome (2005): 30-31. History Reference Center. EBSCO.
22
Ibid.
Topan 14
These emperors remained along the borders with their army to fight against the
barbarians. The emperors consequently lived short lives. Economic problems resulted as
an impact of the continued attacks of barbarians. Inflation became a problem and coinage
lost its value. Civil disorder was a problem as well, opening the way for Diocletian to
reform the Empire.23
Historians examining the Barracks Emperors agree that an entire Empire following a
single man can be disastrous. Regardless of whether or not positive changes are made under one
ruler, more often than not, the ruler is driven insane with power or loses his influence with the
people. Even if the ruler remains rational and influential, the sheer inconsistency of quality rulers
is dangerous: the fact remains that in Ancient Rome, regardless of what past Emperors had
enacted, the subsequent ruler was in a position to make any changes he desired, and the people,
short of attempting to murder the despots, had no authority over their rulers.
In essence, it is obvious many improvements were made to the Roman economy during
the time of the Republic. Conquests opened up trading options, the development of coinage aided
in necessary taxing and unfair bartering, and the concrete technological revolution took place. It
is apparent that Rome under the Emperors experienced poor living conditions, death, barbarian
invasion, and an overall unsuccessful economy, leaving the Republic the clear victor.
During the time of the Republic, Rome was very successful in their military campaigns
and defences. Their military success contributed to other aspects of Rome, such as trade and the
economy.
While the Roman Empire is regarded as a time of brilliant expansion and conquest, the
incredible growth of the Roman Republic is often overlooked. During this time in history, the
23
Sara Ann McGill "Ancient Roman Government." Ancient Roman Government (2009).
<http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=khh&AN=17960485&site=ehost-live>.
Topan 15
Romans were involved in the Punic Wars, a time of great bloodshed and triumph. The conflict
between Carthage and Rome lasted over a century; however, Rome was the clear conqueror and
poised itself to become a greater Empire than Carthage had ever been.24
In early third century BCE, the coasts of Africa, Spain, and parts of Sicily were
dominated by Carthage, and Rome ruled the network of cities in central Italy. As Rome’s power
was solidified, it became apparent the two superpowers were going to clash: as Rome moved into
southern Italy, Carthaginians feared their Sicilian colonies would come under Roman attack.
Rome, on the other hand, felt both its southern allies and its grain supplies from Sicily to be
under Carthaginian threat. The first Punic War broke out in 264 BCE. Rome had invested in their
army, and so they fell short to Carthage’s incredible navy; however, the intelligent Romans
constructed a new navy based on the design of a captured Carthaginian ship. With the new fleet,
Rome was able to capture Sicily and become present in Corsica and Sardinia. In 241 BCE,
Carthage sued for peace, and Rome reaped the rewards of their victory: Carthage ceded all their
possessions on Sicily, and Carthage was required to pay a large indemnity to cover Rome's cost
of war. Some argue that Rome was too harsh on Carthage, and their excessive punishments may
have caused Carthage to later revolt; however, the Carthaginians still had holdings in the
Mediterranean and Spain. If the Romans had been any less harsh, Carthage would have had more
resources to later fight the Romans. With more resources on Carthage’s side, it is possible they
could have won the Punic Wars, changing the course of history. In gaining Sicily and Sardinia,
24
"Roman Civilization, 509 B.C.-476 A.D." Student Resource Centre Canadian Edition. Gale, 2003.
Topan 16
Rome’s first provinces outside the Italian mainland were born, and with it, the beginning of
incredible expansion.
The second Punic war is remembered mostly for the efforts of famous Carthaginian
general, Hannibal. Hannibal was a passionate, fierce leader who had sworn a vengeance against
Rome since he was nine. Hannibal campaigned in the Italian countryside. Finally, Rome was
forced to respond to Carthage’s attack with a counterattack led by General Scipio, first in Spain
and then in North Africa.
Hannibal was forced to move his army back to Carthage, but in 202 B.C. he was defeated
by Scipio in the Battle of Zama. The battle ended the war and also changed the balance of
power in the entire region. Carthage turned over all her colonial possessions to Rome,
including Spain. Rome was now the foremost power in the western Mediterranean, but
more importantly she now set her sights on further expansion.25
After the second Punic war ended, Rome divided up the spoils of victory amongst their
soldiers. It is argued that this division of returns bred profit-driven leaders and fighters; however,
it is clear that rewarding the hard work of soldiers crucial to a successful campaign is a wise
decision. Furthermore, Rome had felt heavy losses from the second Punic war; to go home
without any reward would remove any national loyalty in the soldiers.
While some, such as Roman historian Livy, argue that “Hannibal lacked the troops
necessary to capture Rome”, others say that without their allies, Rome might have fallen to
Carthage: “The Republic depended on its allies for power and reinforcements. Without them,
Rome would weaken and Hannibal would have a good chance at gaining victory.”26 There is
25
"Roman Civilization, 509 B.C.-476 A.D." Student Resource Centre Canadian Edition. Gale, 2003.
26
"Second Punic War, 218-201 BC." Military History Encyclopedia on the Web.
<http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_punic2.html>.
Topan 17
truth to the former statement, as Rome had built itself an excellent army and an Empire not to be
trifled with. Even for those who argue Rome was nothing without its allies, it can be said that
Rome’s considerate expansion, power, and strength gained them the assistance necessary to
defeat Hannibal. Regardless of opinion, Rome’s efforts once again stamped out Carthage.
The third Punic war lasted three years, starting in 149 BCE and ending in 146 BCE. The
start of the third Punic war is still debated. Some argue that Roman official Cato convinced the
government to invade the weakened Carthage and put an end to the city, once and for all;
however, the third Punic war took place approximately fifty years after the second. Also, history
proves that Rome had only attacked when provoked: it was Hannibal who attacked first, while
Rome’s actions were retaliatory. The more plausible reason for the third Punic war is that
Carthage, once again, provoked Rome by insulting a Roman delegation. The Romans, angry at
their many losses due to Carthage’s restlessness, responded forcefully, and: “After a long siege,
the once-great city of Carthage finally fell to Rome. Remembering the victories of Hannibal, the
Roman soldiers felt little mercy.”27
Some argue that the Roman attitude towards the conquered was too harsh, as taxes,
recruitment, and other displeasing movements were imposed; however,
Rome's policies toward conquered peoples had several important effects. For one, they
enabled Rome to gain troops for further expansion. By the late third century B.C., over
half of the soldiers in Rome's legions were supplied by allies. In addition, the sharing of
Roman citizenship encouraged the spread of Roman language, law, and culture
throughout the Italian peninsula. By 265 B.C., Italy was for practical purposes a single
political entity governed and inhabited by people who called themselves Romans. 28
27
"Roman Civilization, 509 B.C.-476 A.D." Student Resource Centre Canadian Edition. Gale, 2003.
28
Ibid.
Topan 18
The largest counterargument concerning the success of expansion under the Republic
concerns expansion under the Empire.i While it is true that the Empire did bring Rome’s
conquests to the largest total mass of land, it is inarguable that the Republic experienced the most
amount of growth. From 326 BCE and 50 BCE, Rome’s total land went from 10,000 square
kilometres to 1,950,000 square kilometres, amounting in a total growth of 1,940,000 square
kilometres. From 25 BCE to 390 CE, the Empire went from 2,750,000 square kilometres to
4,400,000 square kilometres, amounting to a total growth of 1,650,000 square kilometres.29 It is
also probable that without the Republic’s expansion, conquests, and accumulation of allies, the
Empire would not have had the resources nor military strength to combat opposing forces or
expand at all. It is obvious Rome was hindered by the inconsistency of the emperors: “Between
200 A.D. and 300 A.D., no single Roman emperor lived long enough to command the army and
successfully push back the barbarians, a group of people who fought for control of Rome's
territories.”30
In addition, the rapid expansion of the Roman Empire fueled by greed for more taxes and
money, arguably led to the Empire’s downfall: it became expensive and difficult to manage the
excess provinces.
Before the Punic wars, Rome's power was limited to the Italian peninsula; by the end of
the wars, Rome was the dominant power in the Mediterranean and was poised on the brink of
even greater imperial expansion. During the 400 years following the expulsion of the Etruscans
29
JSTOR. Web. 10 Dec. 2009. <http://www.jstor.org/pss/1170959>.
30
Shilpa Mehta-Jones "The End of Rome." Life in Ancient Rome (2005): 30-31. History Reference Center. EBSCO.
Topan 19
and the end of the Republic, Rome completely unified the Italian Peninsula, defeated Carthage,
gained control of North Africa and Carthage’s provinces in Spain, conquered Macedonia,
conquered Greece, conquered Southern Gaul, and developed the first Roman province in Asia,
Pergamum (or Asia Minor). These valiant battles evidence Rome’s strength, stability and
consistency throughout the Republic, and the rewards they were able to reap by persevering, and
responding prudently to attacks.
In conclusion, when judging the Roman Republic and the Empire, it is clear the Republic
was superior. When contrasting a system of government in which power was diffused, to a
scheme where one man had all the power, the victor is obvious. Regarding changes in law, the
economy, and triumphant conquests, it is clear the earlier form of management was more
successful. While it is true Emperors such as Hadrian, Trajan, and Diocletian may have had
positive effects on Rome, many Emperors such as Nero, Claudius, Tiberius, and all the Barrack’s
Emperors had lasting, negative effects on the Empire. History proves that when giving a radical
man power, the results are disastrous, and if not already wild, giving all this power to one man
will likely turn him paranoid. In a system where multiple people are in positions of power,
negotiating and rational thinking are still present. With law under the Republic, plebeians were
able to protest and acquire more rights and freedoms: the Senate was forced to listen to them.
Finally, Plebeians were allowed into government and were able to represent their concerns
through an official. Concerning the economy, the Republic was responsible for the expansion of
trade, the manufacture of coinage, and the concrete technological revolution, whereas the
overcrowding, insanitation and plague killed thousands during the Empire. Furthermore, the
inconsistency and recklessness of the Barracks Emperors left Rome’s economy in shambles.
When regarding military campaigns, both the Republic and Empire faced their share of battles,
Topan 20
conquests, and triumphs; however, the Republic’s incredible and reasonable expansion
contributed to Rome’s overall success, while the Empire’s greedy and uncontrollable expansion
undoubtedly contributed to Rome’s fall, leaving Rome to deal with many expensive, distrustful
provinces. Even considering the irrelevant argument of the Byzantine Empire’s success, Rome’s
Republic proved to be a time of less trouble and violence; upon examining the evidence, there
can be no uncertainty as to why “the Romans considered [the Republic] the high point of their
history.”31
31
"ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL PERIODS, 3500 B.C.E.-500 C.E. - ROME - THE REPUBLIC, 264-70 B.C.E. ECONOMY, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE." Encyclopedia of World History (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
Publishing Company, 2001), 79-80.
Topan 21
i
Topan 22
Works Cited
"BBC - History - Ancient Rome Timeline." BBC - Homepage. Web. 20 Oct. 2009.
<http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/rome_timeline.shtml>.
DeLorme, Charles D., Stacey Isom, and David R. Kamerschen. "Rent seeking and taxation in the
Ancient Roman Empire." Applied Economics (2005). Gale. Web. 29 Sept. 2009.
<http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS>.
Encyclopedia of world history ancient, medieval, and modern, chronologically arranged.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001. Print.
Goerke-Shrode, Sabine. "HADRIAN AS ADMINISTRATOR." Calliope Dec. 1999. Gale. Web.
29 Sept. 2009. <http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS>.
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing, Company "ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL PERIODS,
3500 B.C.E.-500 C.E. - ROME - THE REPUBLIC, 264-70 B.C.E. - ECONOMY,
SOCIETY, AND CULTURE." Encyclopedia of World History (2001): 79-80. History
Reference Center. EBSCO. Web. 20 Oct. 2009.
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing, Company "ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL PERIODS,
3500 B.C.E.-500 C.E. - ROME - THE LATER. EMPIRE, 284-527 C.E. - ECONOMY,
SOCIETY, AND CULTURE." Encyclopedia of World History (2001): 95-96. History
Reference Center. EBSCO. Web. 17 Dec. 2009.
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing, Company "ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL PERIODS,
3500 B.C.E.-500 C.E. - ROME - THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 14-284 C.E. - ECONOMY,
Topan 23
SOCIETY, AND CULTURE." Encyclopedia of World History (2001): 88-89. History
Reference Center. EBSCO. Web. 17 Dec. 2009.
JSTOR. Web. 10 Dec. 2009. <http://www.jstor.org/pss/1170959>.
Kerrigan, Michael. Ancient Rome and the Roman Empire. New York: DK, 2001. Print.
Linderski, J. "Ancient Rome." Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Grolier Online, 2009. Web. 18
Sept. 2009. <http://gme.grolier.com/cgi-bin/article?assetid=0249970-0>.
McGill, Sara Ann. "Ancient Roman Government." Ancient Roman Government (2009). History
Reference Center. Web. 10 Oct. 2009.
<http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=khh&AN=17960485&site=eho
st-live>.
McGill, Sara Ann. "Daily Life in Ancient Rome." Canadian Student Research Centre. EBSCO,
2009. Web. 5 Dec. 2009.
<http://web.ebscohost.com/src/detail?vid=3&hid=7&sid=a1ddb537-cd6b-47de-be3878fee4323bfb%40sessionmgr13&bdata=JnNpdGU9c3JjLWNhbg%3d%3d#db=khh&AN
=17948362>.
Mehta-Jones, Shilpa "The End of Rome." Life in Ancient Rome (2005): 30-31. History Reference
Center. EBSCO. Web. 17 Dec. 2009.
Penrose, Jane. Rome and her Enemies An Empire Created and Destroyed by War (General
Military). Grand Rapids: Osprey, 2005. Print.
Potter, David. Emperors of Rome. London: Quercus, 2007. Print.
Topan 24
"Roman Civilization, 509 B.C.-476 A.D." Student Resource Centre Canadian Edition. Gale,
2003. Web. 5 Dec. 2009.
<http://find.galegroup.com/gps/retrieve.do?contentSet=GSRC&resultListType=RESULT
_LIST&qrySerId=Locale%28en%2C%2C%29%3AFQE%3D%28ke%2CNone%2C37%
29Roman+Civilization%2C+509+B.C.476+A.D.%24&sgHitCountType=None&inPS=true&sort=Relevance&searchType=Basic
SearchForm&tabID=T001&prodId=IPS&searchId=R2&currentPosition=1&userGroupN
ame=ko_k12hs_d73&docId=EJ2105230052&docType=GSRC>.
"Roman Emperors - The Imperial Index." RomanEmperors - DIR--De Imperatoribus Romanis
Roman History Roman RomanEmpire Imperator Basileus De Imperatoribus Romanis
EncyclopediaByzantine. Web. 30 Sept. 2009. <http://www.romanemperors.org/impindex.htm>.
"Second Punic War, 218-201 BC." Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. Web. 16 Oct.
2009. <http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_punic2.html>.
Stevenson, Keira. "Timeline of the Roman Republic & Empire." Timeline of the Roman Republic
& Empire (2009). History Reference Center. Web. 10 Oct. 2009.
<http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=khh&AN=17955741&site=eho
st-live>.
Topan 25