Download rhetoricаl analysis of bulgarian advertising: an empirical study

RHETORICАL ANALYSIS OF BULGARIAN ADVERTISING: AN
EMPIRICAL STUDY
Assoc. Prof. Hristo Katrandjiev, PhD
University of National and World Economy
Department "Marketing and Strategic Planning"
Assist. Prof. Ivo Velinov Velinov, PhD
University of National and World Economy
Department "Marketing and Strategic Planning"
The paper presents the results of an empirical research project devoted on the usage of
rhetoric figures in Bulgarian advertising (advertising slogans). We analyzed a sample of
randomly selected 605 advertising slogans from the following product categories: Foodstuffs;
Drinks; Automobiles, Airlines, Gas stations, and Bus lines; Banks and Insurance companies;
Chain Stores and Shopping Centers; Technology and Communications; Clothing and
cosmetics; Tourism; Other product categories. We measured the usage frequency of
rhetorical figures in advertising slogans. This empirical study may serve as basis for follow
up studies of the impact of rhetorical figures’ usage on advertising effectiveness.
Key words: advertising, slogan, rhetorical figures
1. Introduction
Rhetoric has played an important role in human society since the very beginning of
writing. The Ancient Egyptians as well as the Mesopotamians highly appreciated the oratory.
However, the systematic process of developing the concept of rhetoric started simultaneously
with the establishment of the Greeks democracy. The Greek perceived rhetoric as an art of
eloquent and convincing public speaking. Rhetoric became one of the most important skills at
that time due to the Athenian democracy that urged “every free male” to enter the Assembly
and speak in favour or against a specific legislative decision. Virtually all man’s achievements
at that time depended on his rhetorical skills. In the V century B.C., the enormous need for
rhetorical education and training gave birth of the first rhetoric school known as Sophistry.
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The Sophists were itinerant teachers in rhetoric who prepared their students to emphasize on
oral presentation, but not on truth. That is why Aristotle criticized them in his book “The Art
of Rhetoric”. In this treatise, Aristotle outlines the principles of rhetoric as a science that helps
people in the process of realizing and comprehending the truth. The impact of this book
proved to be enormous and influenced the science of rhetoric in the next two millennia.
The development of rhetoric in Ancient Rome burst after the occupation of Greece. Cicero
was the first prominent rhetorician from that era. His books “On Oration”, “On Invention”,
and “Topics” became a fundament for scientific development and rhetorical training until the
Renaissance. Another remarkable Roman rhetorician is Quintilian who wrote the books
“Institutio Oratoria” and “De Inventione” and developed the famous “five canons of
rhetoric”. From Ancient Greece up to the Middle Ages, the rhetoric developed as science and
art mainly in the field of politics. During the Middle ages, the potential of rhetoric was
applied not in the political sphere but rather in the religious one. St. Augustine and other
pastors appreciated the possibilities of rhetoric in the process of preaching. Rhetoric was a
mandatory course in the Medieval universities but in spite of that, the scientific development
of rhetoric was insignificant.
Rhetorical science however came to life again during the Renaissance. The treatises of the
ancient writers as Aristotle, Quintilian, and Cicero are paid attention and applied in the
European universities’ education. During the Renaissance, scientists thoroughly counted and
classified the rhetorical figures of speech. For example, in his work “The Garden of
Eloquence” (1577), Henry Peacham lists 184 different rhetorical figures of speech. The rapid
development of rhetorical science continued during the period of Enlightenment. Politics and
revolutionaries appreciated the art of rhetoric. In the XVIII century, many influential books
were published. In the XIX century and even before that rhetoric became one of the most
important disciplines in the European and American Universities.
The XX century brought media proliferation and invention of new visual forms of
communication – cinema, TV, and internet. The rhetoric shifted its development towards
visual communication. Scientists started the analysis of “visual metaphors”, “visual
metonymies”, etc. Advertising industry marked a considerable growth and an immense impact
on society. It is obvious that advertising needs rhetoric in order to create convincing
messages. Rhetorical figures possess a strong figurative and emotional impact, which is
achieved through empathy, persuasion and suggestion. However, the research works in that
field are far from prolific. Of course there are some studies devoted on the application of
rhetorical figures in contemporary advertising but still there is a lot to do in that research area.
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This paper investigates the use of rhetorical figures in Bulgarian advertising. In fact we
analyzed the usage of rhetorical figures in advertising slogans. For the sake of the analysis, it
is necessary to accept a classification of rhetorical figures and define each figure. We follow a
widespread two-type classification of rhetorical figures – figures of speech and figures of
thought. The figures of speech refer to the manner of verbal expression, whilst the figures of
thought are connected with ideas and perceptions that are created in the mind of the
listener/reader/viewer. The most common rhetorical figures of thought are presented in
Appendix 1 together with their descriptions and illustrative examples. The figures of speech
are listed and described in Appendix 2. Our analysis encompasses all figures of thought and
figures of speech included in Appendix 1 and Appendix 2.
2. Research Goals
The major goal of the present study is to analyze the usage of rhetorical figures in
Bulgarian advertising. A special accent is put on the analysis of rhetorical figures usage in
advertising slogans. The major goal of our study can be broken down into several specific
subgoals:
1. Analysis of slogans’ length. This subgoal is connected with the analysis of
average slogan’s length for all slogans, computing the average slogan’s lengths
for each product category, compariosn of slogan’s length across product
categories.
2. Analysis of advertising slogans vrom the point of view of presence or
absence of a rhetoric figure. The proportions of slogans with and without
rhetorical figures are calculated. Analyses are performed to determine the
presence/absence of rhetoric figures as general and by product categories.
Comparisons acrross product categories are provided.
3. Analysis of advertising slogans depending on the type of rhetorical figures.
This kind of analysis is one of the most important within the presented study.
The proportions of each rhetorical figure are calculated an analyzed.
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3. Methodology
The research methodology can be described by a 5-stage research procedure. The
first step of the research procedure
(Figure 1) includes definition of time
Figure 1 Research Procedure
frame of observation. This time frame
includes the period october 2013 october 2014. At the second stage of the
Time frame definition: 2012-2014
Sampling
research process we randomly chose a
sample of 605 unique advertising
Content analysis of advertising slogans
slogans. Slogans were gathered from
advertisements
published
in
the
Coding of rhetorical figures
following 3 media:
1) Magazines
–
a
samle
of
34
magazines were selected randomly
Data analysis
* Source: developed by authors
from the deposit list of “SS. Cyril and Methodius” National Library (Bulgaria).
The advertisements in these magazines were analyzed and the ad slogans were
picked up.
2) Internet – the most popular Bulgarian websites were monitored and advertising
slogans were collected. By the help of the students attending “Marketing research”
class we monitored banner advertisements in top 10 websites in Bulgaria (ranked
by GEMIUS). Advertisements were scanned for slogans. Those with advertising
slogans were payed more attention and their slogans were added to the database. It
is necessary to note that not all Internet announcements contained a slogan.
3) TV – 3 national broadcast stations were monitored during the period. These were
BTV, NOVA, and BNT 1. Advertising blocks within the prime time slot were
investigated and unique advertising slogans were added to the database.
We built a database containg 605 unique advertising slogans. All irreleveant data (such as
advertising titles, parts of advertising copy in big font size and other non-slogan texts) were
removed from the database. In the next step of the research procedure we performed a content
analysis of the advertising slogans. Each slogan was analyzed carefully for inherent rhetorical
figures. The found rhetorical figures were coded as well as the product categories. The length
of each slogan (number of words) was measured. The last step of the research procedure
included data analysis. We calculated the average length of advertising slogans, measured the
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frequency of usage of each rhetorical figure within the sample and within each product
category.
4. Results and analysis
4.1 Analysis of slogans’ length
One of the main characteristics of the advertising slogan is its length. And one of the
main requirements for a slogan is to be concise and clearly reflecting the overall philosophy
of the particular brand or company. The advertising slogan should not be too long. Otherwise
the audience may not pay attention to it. Excessively long slogans are difficult to rememebr
and could lead to information deformations. On the basis of the whole sample we calculated
the average length of Bulgarian advertising slogans and it equals 3,7 words.
Table 1 Average slogans’ length across product categories
PRODUCT CATEGORY
Foodstuffs
Drinks
Automobiles, Airlines, Gas stations and Bus companies
Banks and Insurance companies
Chain stores and Shopping centers
Technology and Communications
Clothing and Cosmetics
Tourism
Others
* Source: authors’ calculations
AVERAGE SLOGAN'S LENGTH
(NUMBER OF WORDS)
3,8
3,3
3,7
3,4
4
3,2
4,3
4,1
3,8
Nearly 35,2% of all analyzed slogans (605) contain 3 words. Almost 15,2% of all slogans
contain 2 words, whilst 25,9% are longer – 4 words. It is important to point out that the
percentage of longer slogans (over 6 words) is extremely low. An example of a slogan of this
kind is that of “Hotel Mirena”, Plovdiv – “Luxury is a whim, comfort is a necessity!”.We
calculated the average slogan’s length for each product category (Table 1). It is interesting to
point out that the slogans in tourism advertising (4,1 words) asl well as in clothing and
cosmetics (4,3 words) are among the longest.
4.2 Analysis of advertising slogans depending on presence or absence of a rhetoric figure
Based on the total number of slogans were calculated how many of them contain at least
one rhetoric figure and how many of them do not. We did not detect any rhetoric figure in
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22,1% within all slogans. The rest of the slogans in the sample (77,9%) contained at least one
rhetoric figure.
Table 2 Presence of rhetorical figures in advertising slogans – major characteristics
Sample size
Number of slogans containing a rhetoric figure
Number of slogans without a rhetoric figure
Number of slogans conatining more than one rhetoric
figure
Ratio figures of thought : figures of speech
* Source: authors’ calculations
605 advertising slogans
471 (77,9%)
134 (22,1%)
92 (19,5% within slogans containg at least one
rhetorical figure)
293 : 168 (1,74)
Obviously rhetorical figures are used quite frequently in Bulgarian advertising. Something
more – a considerable number of slogans contain more than one rhetorical figure – their
proportion is 19,5% within the total number of slogans containing a rhetorical figure (Table
2). It is interesting to point out that the rhetorical figures of thoght are considerebly more
often used in Bulgarian advertising compared to the rhetorical figures of speech – the ratio
within our sample is 293:168 (1,74). The proportion of slogans containing more than one
rhetorical figure is 19,5%. It is important to point out that 77,9% of all slogans with a
rhetorical figure contain two rhetorical figures. Total 471 (77,9% of the total number of
slogans with rhetorical figure) have two rhetorical figures.
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Figure 2 Presence/Absence of Rhetorical Figures in
Advertising Slogans (%)
Banks and Insurance companies
44
Automobiles, Airlines, Gas stations and
Bus companies
56
69.3
30.7
Clothing and Cosmetics
72.6
27.4
Others
72.9
27.1
Chain stores and Shopping centers
80.4
19.6
Tourism
81.5
18.5
Technology and Communications
81.5
18.5
Drinks
88.3
Foodstuffs
11.7
94.1
0%
Presence of rethoric figures
20%
40%
5.8
60%
80%
100%
Absence of rethoric figures
* Source: authors’ calculations
High levels of usage of rhetorical figures are observed in the following product categories:
“Foods”, “Drinks”,“Technology and Communications” and “Tourism” (Figure 2). These
products and services are an integral part of the daily life of the consumer who receives
hundred ad messages on a dayly basis. Because of the intensive ad campaigns of these
products, consumers have developed some kind of resistance against the influence of
advertising. In a situation like this the use of rhetorical figures enhances the chance to attract
audience’s attention again.
The lowest level of usage of rhetorical figures is observed in "Financial services"
category. In the first place these are areas of activity which require a higher degree of
seriousness, and this considerably limits the possibility of intensive use of rhetorical figures,
and moreover, it requires a greater degree of precision in terms of the message that will be set
in this slogans.
4.3 Analysis of advertising slogans depending on rhetoric figure’s type
Using the division of rhetorical figures in two groups, namely figures of thought and
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figures of speech, we calculated the frequence of usage of each rhetorical figure. Figure 3 and
Figure 4 are sowing the proportion of slogans containing a certain rhetoric figure (excluding
the slogans without a rhetoric figure).
4.3.1 Analysis of the usage of figures of thought in advertising slogans
Figure 3 displays the frequency of usage of figures of thought in our sample of slogans. It
appears that the metaphor (31%) is the most frequently used figure in advertising slogans,
followed by the exclamatio (14,6%). Considering the characteristics of these two figures, we
can conclude that their use has the purpose to impact on the emotional sphere of the potential
buyer.
Figure 3 Figures of Thought in Advertising Slogans:
Frequency of Usage (%)
Metaphor
31
Exclamatio
14.6
Antithesis
8.1
Hyperbole
6
Aposiopesis
4.2
Accumulatio
3.6
Parallelism
1.9
Rhetorical question
1.5
Application
0.8
Paranomasia
0.6
Inversion
0.4
Epanalepsis
0.4
Personification
0.4
Oxymoron
0.4
Climax
0.2
Metonymy
0.2
Litotes
0.2
Anadiplosis
0.2
0
5
10
15
* Source: authors’ calculations
8
20
25
30
35
The use of metaphors helps to go beyond the traditional and the trivial. In this way a
potential for a positive impact on consumers’ perceptions can be found. Moreover, it is one of
the verbal symbols that expands the creative possibilities of language and plays a crucial role
in the process of remembering the advertising slogan. Exclamatio, in turn, is directly related
to the manifestation of an emotion or a feeling. Of course it is used for the sake of influencing
the emotional string of the audience. The presence of metaphor (31%) in the advertising
slogans, however, is two times greater compared to the proportion of exclamatio (14,6%). The
usage of the rest of the figures is as follows (Figure 3): antithesis (8,1%), a hyperbole (6%),
aposiopesis (4,2%), accumulatio (3,6%), parallelism (1,9%), and rhetorical question (1,5%).
Very small frequency of usage is observed for the following rhetorical figures of thought –
application
(0,8%),
paranomasia
(0,6%),
inversion
(0,4%),
epanalepsis
(0,4%),
personification (0,4%), oxymoron (0,4%), climax (0,2%), metonymy (0,2%), litotes (0,2%),
anadiplosis (0,2%).
4.3.2 Analysis of the usage of figures of speech in advertising slogans
Figure 4 shows the usage frequency of the figures of speech. The dominant figures here
are the appeal (18,5%) and the epithet (11,5%). The main purpose of these rhetorical figures
is emotional and psychological impact on the consumer as well as provoking a strong reaction
or attitude. The use of epithets enhances the expressiveness and strengthens the perception of
a specific idea. The appeal helps attracting attentions and creating favorable attitudes towards
the advertised brand.
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Figure 4 Figures of Speech in Advertising Slogans:
Frequency of Usage (%)
Appeal
18.5
Epithet
11.5
Anaphora
5.1
Alliteration
1.9
Pun
1.7
Repetition
1.3
Neologism
1.3
Etymological figure
1.3
Epistrophe
0.8
Assonace
0.8
Rhyme
0.6
Gradation
0.6
Resonance
0.2
0
5
10
15
20
* Source: authors’ calculations
The usage of anaphora (5,1%) also should be mentioned. This rhetoric figure of speech
takes the third place from the point of view of frequency of usage in advertising slogans. The
fourth place is occupied by the pun (1,7%) which level of usage can be estimated as low. As
can be seen at Figure 4 the usage of three rhetorical figures is slightly above 1% - these are
repetition (1,3%), neologism (1,3%), and etymological figure (1,3%). The usage of several
other rhetorical figures is even below 1% - epistrophe (0,8%), assonance (0,8%), rhyme
(0,6%), gradation (0,6%), and resonance (0,2%). That is why many of these rhetorical figures
are not discussed in detail.
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5. Conclusions and guidelines for future research
The presented study is the first of its kind in Bulgaria. The research is directed towards the
usage of rhetorical figures in ad slogans. An important conclusion, derived in the research
process, is that nearly 80% of advertising slogans contain any kind of rhetorical figure. It is
interesting to point out that the frequency of usage of figures of thought is much higher
compared to the usage frequency of figures of speech – the ratio is 293:168 (1,74). Almost
20% of all advertising slogans contained more than one rhetorical figure.
A very important direction for future research is the one concerning rhetoric’s influence
on advertising effectiveness. Research data about effectiveness of each rhetorical figure will
be extremely useful for advertising practicians. The future research of rhetorical figures in
advertising also must delve into other elements (not just slogans) – headlines, sub headlines,
visual components. An accent on the visual rhetorical figures must be put on.
Another important field for future exploration is the use of rhetorical figures in different
product categories. Researchers should answer the following questions: What is the
contribution of each rhetorical figure to advertising effectiveness? Does this contribution vary
across product categories? Does this contribution vary across target groups (from
demographic, educational, economical, and cultural viewpoints)? Does this contribution vary
across media channels? What is the effect from combining two or more rhetorical figures in
an ad message?
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APPENDIX 1: FIGURES OF THOUGHT
Accumulatio is a figure of thought by which the evidence is accumulating. It is provided by successive use of
notions, phrases or terms that have the same function in speech. In this way a characterization of the specific
object or event is obtained. This is the slogan of the insurance company "Bulins" - „Традиция и
сигурност“("Tradition and Security") in which two consecutive nouns are used.
Allusion (allusion) is a rhetorical figure, which influences by suggestion or hint of a fictional character,
historical event, geographical location or already known to the readers titles of books, movies, music ideas,
sayings, proverbs, etc. Through allusion something is expressed in an implicit way.
Anadiplosis (anadiplosis) is a figure of thought, in which at the beginning of the next sentence is repeated the
end, a single word or a part of the previous phrase. It has an extremely argumentative role.
Anti-climax (anti-climax) is a figure of thought in which the rhetorical effect is achieved by arranging of
similar concepts, signs of objects in descending semantic order. It has the opposite effect compared to climax.
It gradually reduces the strength of the emotional or logical impact.
Antithesis (antithesis) is a figure of thought, which arises as a result of opposition in thinking. It consists in
juxtaposing of contrasting words or ideas and thus achieves greater expressiveness. Even Martin Luther King
used the contrast in his speech "I have a dream" ("I Have a Dream"). U.S. President - John Fitzgerald
Kennedy also used antithesis in his opening speech - "Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask what
you can do for your country“. This figure of speech can be illustrated with the advertising slogan of the hotel
"Azzuro" - „Нашата грижа е вашето безгрижие!“ ("Our care is your carelessness!"). Here the contrast exists
not only in nouns “care-careless” but also in the possessive pronouns of the first and second person, plural
form – “our-your”.
Application (application) is the use of proverbs, sayings, quotations, aphorisms, poems in the argumentation
and they are used literally or in a modified form. It is characterized by wit, expressiveness and imagery that
provoke the thinking of the recipient. Using of this figure demonstrates a clear position. In its most
characteristic form, this figure of speech does not apply in the surveyed slogans, but the closest to it is the
advertising slogan of the brand "Vidima" - „Правим нещата като хората“ ("We do things like we are
supposed to), which is presented by the leader in the production of sanitary fittings and ceramics "Ideal
Standard - Visible" JSC.
Aposiopesis (aposiopesis) means silence. Breaking off the phrase in the middle or end of the sentence and
thus creating a feeling of incompleteness and the recipient is the one who can finish the missed thought. In
written language is usually marked by a dotted line, which is called "meaningful silence" Aposiopesis refers to
means of persuasion or suggestion which are out of logic. A typical example of this figure of thought is the
advertising slogan of the store "Domko" - „И домът Ви заживя...“ ("And your house began to live ...").
Еxclamatio (exclamatio) is a figure of thought that has emotive function, the impact is usually achieved as a
result of the use of exclamation. It can express enthusiasm or any other feeling. As an example can be
mentioned the advertising slogan of the company "Deroni" - „Винаги отличен вкус! “ ("Always excellent
taste!"), where definiteness is enhanced by the use of the exclamation mark.
Epanalepsis (epanalepsis) is a figure of thought that contains a repetition a word or phrase at the beginning
and the end of a phrase, sentence or line. It has strong expressive effects, and makes the argumentation more
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convincing, more logical and emotional. Although this figure is not widely used in the surveyed slogans, a
typical example of its use is the slogan of "Reebok" - "I Am What I Am".
Inversion (inversion) is a displacement of the elements in the syntactic structure. It is made in order to focus
on something. Its functions include informational, suggesting or persuasive elements. This rhetoric figure
helps the speaker to attract audience’s attention. Both instances that are part of the advertising slogans in this
study and could be referred to this figure are in a foreign language – English and French ("Adidas" "Impossible is nothing" and "Citroen" - "Creative technologie").
Climax (climax) is a persuasive statement in which each preceding part is the basis for the next which in turn
adds expressiveness to the slogan. It occurs as a gradation of the characteristics of a particular object in
ascending order. This figure is the opposite of anticlimax. Typical example is the advertising slogan of
"Duracell" - „Издържа повече, много повече. “ ("Lasts more, much more.").
Litotes (litotes) is a deliberate understatement of an object’s characteristics or dimensions. Sometimes it is
used as a ridicule or mockery. It is the opposite of hyperbole. This figure is not widely used in the advertising
slogans that are part of this study. In not so typical use, it is found in the advertising slogan of "Technopolis" „Лесно е да избереш. “ ("It is easy to choose.").
Metaphor (metaphor) is a major figure which transfers characteristics of one object or phenomenon to
another object or phenomenon (based on similarity). Metaphorical images are those that contribute to the
development of new ideas and for reforming the traditional ones. Using them is a reflection of originality in
thinking. In addition, they expand the visual possibilities of the language as a whole. They may be associated
with the expression of tragic, funny feeling, criticism, and more.
Examples of the application of this rhetorical figure in advertising slogans in Bulgaria are numerous and will
be discussed later in the study. A typical example is the slogan of "KFC" - „Животът е вкусен“("Life is
delicious") in which the characteristic typical of an inanimate object is transferred to another inanimate object.
Metonymy (metonymy) is a figure of speech in which a thing or concept is called not by its own name but
rather by the name of something associated in meaning with that thing or concept. It can be defined as a figure
that replaces (based on similarity) the sign for one object with the sign for another one. A Very clear example
of metonymy is the use of nicknames (when we call our car "ladybug" instead of her brand name for example
we mean that it is small, agile and probably red). Metonymy enables demonstration of originality focusing the
attention on new aspects of traditional human thinking and the interpretation depends on the context. As an
example of metonymy could be considered advertising slogan of luxury brand watches "Breitling 1884" "Instruments for professionals", assuming that the term "clocks" absolutely intentional has been replaced by
the term "instruments".
Oxymoron (oxymoron) is a figure that contains words with opposite meanings. This combination of words
gives a new meaning and insight and enhances expressiveness. (for example: eloquent silence, sweet pain,
dark dreams).
Parallelism (parallelism) is the repletion of semantic or syntactic similarities that creates an emphasis.
Depending on whether you are comparing images, episodes or syntactic structures we can distinguish several
types of parallelism - figurative, narrative and syntactic parallelism. The most common type of parallelism
discovered by our analysis is the usage phrases with similar or same syntactic structure. The slogan of "BU" -
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„Всичко, което си. Всичко, което можеш да бъдеш.“ ("All that you are. All that you can be.") and the
slogan of "Indesit" – "We work, you play." are typical examples of parallelism of this kind.
Paronomasia (paronomasia) is achieved by the use of words that are homonyms or paronyms and thus
contributes to the proof of a specific statement in an unusual way - through imagination, sense of humor or
suggestion. The only example of this is the advertising slogan of the automobile brand "Peugeot" - "Motion &
Emotion" where we found a use of words that have a similar sound content, but different meaning.
Personification (personification) is a figure of thought in which human qualities and actions are attributed to
an inanimate objects or a creature that has no consciousness. This is one of the oldest argumentative means,
especially in terms of religious beliefs and mythology. This figure can be achieved through the use of
metaphor, metonymy or synecdoche. In the advertising slogan "Barney" - „Мечето, което обича
детето“("Bear who loves children") a metaphor is used.
Rhetorical question (rhetorical question) is a question that does not require a response but stimulates the
recipient to focus on speaker’s viewpoint. In fact the listener is provoked to consider a particular problem and
to seek a new solution. The usage of rhethorical questions reinforces the emotional impact and the focus on
the main idea. Typical examples of this rhetorical figure found in Bulgarian advertising slogans include the
slogan of chocolate bars "LZ" - „Ако е шоколад, защо да не е аеро?“ ("If it's chocolate, why not aero?") as
well as the slogan of vodka "Flirt" - „Готови ли сте за довечера?“ ("Are you ready for tonight?").
Synecdoche (synecdoche) is a type of metonymy. Due to its widespread use some authors differentiate it as a
separate figure. Its application is related to giving a wider or narrower meaning of the term compared to its
normal use. The most frequently used type of synecdoche is the replacement of the name of the whole with
the name of a part of it or vice versa - the part instead of the whole. There could be many different cases of
substitution - denote the subject through its typical part, quality replaces its carrier, the author's name is used
to indicate his work, the name of an object is replaced with the material, which it is made from, etc.
Hyperbole (hyperbole) is excessive, deliberate overstatement/understatement of size, features or
characteristics of an object, person or action. It is often used to express irony or sarcasm. Examples of
hyperbole usage in advertising slogans include the slogan of Bulgarian TV channel "Btv" - „Повече от
телевизия“ ("More than a TV"), the slogan of "Cappy" - „Повече от сок.“ ("More than a juice.") and the
slogan of "OMV" gas stations- „Повече от движение. “ ("More than a movement.").
* Developed on the basis of the classification of Marietta Boteva: Ботева, М., Речник по реторика – 150
аргумента на оратора, Издателство „Парадигма“, София, 2008.
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APPENDIX 2: FIGURES OF SPEECH
Anaphora (anaphora) is a stylistic figure and this is the repetition of the same characters, the same parts of
words, whole words or phrases at the beginning of sentences. It can be created through synthases combinations of several words. It is used to affect the listener emotionally and psychologically, to provoke a
stronger reaction or their attitude. Moreover, the repetition of the same element is used for amplification of
symmetry in rhythmic plan. Examples of the use of this figure of speech are the advertising slogans of the
shops "DM" - „Тук съм човек, тук пазарувам. “ ("Here I am fine, here I am shopping."), advertising slogan
of the company in the field of energy and services "EVN" - „Винаги тук, винаги с вас. “ ("Always here,
always with you.") and the slogan of Trade center "Serdika Centre" - „Винаги неустоими, винаги на мода.“
("Always irresistible, always in vogue.") and others.
Epistrophe (epistrophe) is the repetition of the same word or group of words at the end of phrases or
sentences. It increases the expressiveness of the speech and its rhythm. It gives the impression of certainty
and attitude towards the specific problem. Repetition facilitates recipient in adopting the idea and provokes
emotional and psychological attitude of the audience towards it. When epistrophe is used together with
anaphora a symploce is formed. Example of epistrophe is the advertising slogan of the candies "Skittles" –
“Find the rainbow, taste the rainbow!)
Appeal (appeal) is a figure of speech that is used as a call and to attract attention. It is used to create a
favorable attitude towards the adoption of a particular idea, neutralize negative attitude towards it. Typical
example is the manifestation of this figure in the advertising slogan of "Pepsi" - („Dare for more”).
Alliteration (alliteration) is the repetition of one or more similar consonants in adjacent words. Examples of
alliteration are the slogan of the automotive brand "Infinity" - "Inspired performance" (repetition of "r"), and
the slogan of the chocolate bar "Nestle Lion" – “Зверски вкусен“ ("Beastly yummy") (alliteration of "z-s").
Assonance (assonance) is the repetition of vowel sounds, preceded and followed by different consonants,
mostly in stressed syllables of adjacent words. Assonance of sound "e" is clearly audible in the advertising
slogan of the cake for children "Barney" - ("Bear who loves the child.").
Gradation (gradatio) is a sequence of several syntactically equivalent, uniform words or phrases by which a
particular idea, image or feeling is presented in order of progressive ascent or descent, i.e. amplifying or
weakening of the emotion. There are two types of gradation - descending and ascending. Example for
ascending gradation is the advertising slogan of one of the leading chains - "Praktiker" - "Only you, your
ideas, and Praktiker."
Epithet (epitheton) is the artistic definition of the object, indicating some quality. It is used when we are
looking for security and evidence during the presentation of a specific idea or value. Concepts that are
accompanied by epithets stand out in their meaning and emotional impact and they have greater imagery and
expressiveness. Epithets can be autonomous figures, but they can also be linked with others and form a
gradation, repetition, antithesis. A typical example of the use of the epithet is the advertising slogan of the
ice-cream "BOSS" - „Покоряващо желание“ ("Conquering desire") and the slogan of the insurance
company "Euroins" - „Интелигентното застраховане“ ("Smart Insurance.")
Repetition (repetition) is deliberately repeating of terms, paragraphs, phrases, in order to convey a particular
idea. It has an expressive effect and enhances the impression of certain concepts. An example of this figure
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of speech is the repetition of the epithet in the advertising slogan of "Diplomat Plaza Hotel & Resort" "Special moments for special people. “
Pun (pun) is based on superficial or accidental resemblance - two words that sound similar in composition
but different in meaning (paronym) or a word that has two or more different meanings (homonyms). Pun is
consciously created and deliberate so to reinforce the ambiguity, to make the choices between the meanings
impossible, and to let the listener or reader hesitant. The use of pun flatters intellectual abilities of the
audience that it is intended for, as they show that they have the appropriate knowledge to solve the mystery
set in the message. Examples of wordplay are the advertising slogans of one of the most popular brands of
coffee "Lavazza" - "Lavazza. Espress Yourself " and the slogan of ice tea "Lipton"-"Drink positive ".
Neologism (neologism) creates a new word from two or more existing words or fragments of words. the
slogan of the car brand "Seat" - "Enjoyneering", and also the coffee brand "Jacobs" – (“Unique charomat”).
Resonance (resonance) is a literary device that is often used by professionals in advertising and it is a
combination of pun and a relevant image, i.e. a phrase acquires significance by juxtaposing to a particular
picture. Ttypical example of the application of this figure is the slogan of Vodka "Absolut".
Etymological figure (figura etymologica) is another rhetorical in which words having the same root are
connected in a phrase. An etymological figure can be found in the advertising slogan of "Grand hotel & Spa
Primoretz" - „Един единствен“("Only one"), and also in the advertising slogan of the cosmetic brand "Max
factor" - "The make-up of make-up artists".
* Developed on the basis of the classification of Marietta Boteva: Ботева, М., Речник по реторика – 150
аргумента на оратора, Издателство „Парадигма“, София, 2008.
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