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Prejudices, stereotypes and
discrimination
Causes and Cures
Chapter Outline
I. Prejudice: The Ubiquitous Social
Phenomenon
Prejudice: The Ubiquitous Social
Phenomenon
Prejudice is extremely powerful and ubiquitous; it affects all of us—
majority group members as well as minority.
Prejudice is dangerous, fostering negative consequences from lowered
self-esteem to torture, murder, and genocide.
Although over the past 50 years blatant discrimination has been reduced,
it still exists in subtle—and sometimes not-so-subtle—forms.
Chapter Outline
II. Prejudice, Stereotyping, and
Discrimination Defined
Prejudice, Stereotyping and
Discrimination Defined
Prejudice
Prejudice is an attitude. It has the three components of attitudes: i)
affective, ii) cognitive, and iii) behavioural.
Prejudice is a hostile or negative attitude toward a distinguishable
group of people, based solely on their membership in that group.
Prejudice, Stereotyping & Discrimination
Defined
Prejudice: The Affective Component
The affective component is the emotion (e.g., anger, warmth)
associated with the attitude object.
Although prejudice refers to either positive or negative affect, people
usually reserve the word ‘prejudice’ for use only when it refers to
negative attitudes about others.
Prejudice, Stereotyping & Discrimination
Defined
Stereotyping: The Cognitive
Component
The cognitive component is our beliefs and thoughts (cognitions)
about the target of prejudice. It involves stereotyping.
A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people in which
identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the
group, regardless of actual variation among the members.
Prejudice, Stereotyping & Discrimination
Defined
Discrimination: The behavioural
Component
The
behavioural component of prejudice refers to the actions, or
behaviour, associated with the prejudiced object, such as
discrimination.
Discrimination is an unjustified, negative, or harmful action towards a
member of a group, simply because of his or her membership in that
group.
Stereotypic beliefs (prejudice) can result in unfair treatment (see Bond
et al, 1988, mental hospital study; Fig. 13.1; also Page, 1998, 1999).
Chapter Outline
III. What Causes Prejudice?
What Causes Prejudice?
What makes people prejudiced? Is it inherited, or is it
learned? Possibly both.
Prejudice could be an essential part of our biological
survival mechanism inducing us to favour our own
family, tribe, or race and to express hostility toward
outsiders.
Or, our culture (parents, community, media) might
intentionally, or unintentionally, instruct us to assign
negative qualities and attributes to people who are
different from us.
No one knows.
What is known is that the specifics of prejudice must be
learned. How does this happen?
What Causes Prejudice?
The Way We Think: Social Cognition
One way prejudice is learned is as a byproduct of the way we process
and organize information—all of the negative aspects of social
cognition can lead us to form negative stereotypes and to apply them
in a discriminatory fashion.
In other words, prejudice is the inevitable byproduct of
categorization, schemas, heuristics, and faulty memory processes in
processing information.
What Causes Prejudice?
The Way We Think: Social Cognition
Schemas (stereotypes) we hold about certain groups influence the
way we process information about them.
-eg, information consistent with our schemas will be given more
attention, will be recalled more often, and will be remembered better
than inconsistent information.
-eg, we also tend to fill in the blanks with schema-consistent
information__to the anti-Negro person, negroes are musical, athletic,
lazy, dumb, regardless of the obvious characteristics of the target
person.
What Causes Prejudice?
The Way We Think: Social Cognition
Schemas (stereotypes) are highly resistant to change__even in the
face of contradictory evidence.
-eg, we explain away disconfirming evidence and thereby maintain
our stereotypes, ‘Oh he’s an exception.’
-eg, or we dismiss evidence that might disconfirm our stereotypes.
‘Oh he’s a phony.’
What Causes Prejudice?
The Way We Think: Social Cognition
Sometimes the person we encounter may be so contrary to our
stereotype that it is impossible to interpret the person’s behaviour in
stereotype-consistent terms. What do we do then?
We create a new subcategory of exceptions to the rule (eg,
homosexuals who are accountants are not promiscuous),
so that the original stereotype remains intact (eg, in general,
homosexuals are promiscuous).
What Causes Prejudice?
Social Categorization: Us vs. Them
Another way prejudice is encouraged is through the in-group bias (the
us-vs.-them).
An in-group is a group with which a person identifies and feels he/she
is a member of; an out-group is a group with which a person does not
identify.
In-group bias is the especially positive feelings and special treatment
we reserve for people we have defined as part of our in-group.
What Causes Prejudice?
Social Categorization: Us vs. Them
Out-group members are seen as possessing negative traits and are
often disliked.
This tendency to favour the in-group while denigrating the out-group is
so pervasive that people show this bias even under the most minimal
conditions (see Tajfel and colleagues, 1982).
What Causes Prejudice?
Social Categorization: Us vs. Them
Tajfel and colleagues found that randomly formed groups showed this
in-group favouritism bias.
And Canadian researchers have shown that the tendency to
discriminate against the out-group is even stronger when people have
chosen their group rather than have been randomly assigned to it
(Perreault & Bourhis, 1999).
Research at the University of Alberta shows that an in-group can be
created simply by photographing people together (Burgess et al, 2000).
What Causes Prejudice?
Social Categorization: Us vs. Them
As predicted from in-group bias theory, research shows
that:
i) the greater the identification with one’s own group,
the greater the discrimination against an out-group.
ii) when people’s self-esteem is threatened, they are
especially likely to denigrate the out-group.
What Causes Prejudice?
What we Believe: Stereotypes
The relationship between stereotyping and prejudice is a complex
one.
One of the complexities is that stereotypes are not activated in
every situation.
Another is that our attitudes toward members of another
group are determined not only by our stereotype of the
group, but also by our perception of that group’s
stereotype of us.
What Causes Prejudice?
Activation of Stereotypes
Research shows that derogatory comments can activate other negative,
stereotypical beliefs about the target person (see Henderson-King &
Nisbett, 1996).
How does this activation process work?
Devine and colleagues have developed a theory about how stereotypical
beliefs affect cognitive processing.
It is a 2-stage process (see Fig. 13.3).
What Causes Prejudice?
Activation of Stereotypes
Not all research results have been consistent with this theory (see
kawakami et al, 1998)
It is now generally accepted that there is considerable variability in
people’s automatic processing of negative stereotypes.
What Causes Prejudice?
Meta-Stereotypes
For example, studies show that white students at the University of
Manitoba believed that Native Canadians perceive white Canadians
as prejudiced, unfair, selfish, arrogant, wealthy, materialistic, phony,
etc__a meta-stereotype.
Moreover, when white students were asked about their reaction to an
anticipated interaction with Native students at U of M, the white
students felt that they would experience negative emotions and
would not enjoy the interaction very much.
What Causes Prejudice?
The Way We Feel: Affect and Mood
Esses et al (1993) point out that there is more to prejudice than merely
the attribution of stereotypes to groups.
Their research suggest that the emotions elicited by a particular group
are important in determining our level of prejudice.
When we are in a good mood, we are likely to evaluate members of outgroups more favourably than when we are in a bad mood.
What Causes Prejudice?
The Way We Feel: Affect and Mood
And, of all of the predictors of prejudice (emotion, stereotypes,
symbolic beliefs, and behaviour), emotion is the strongest (Haddock et
al, 1993).
Recent research by Corenblum and Stephan (2001) suggests that
emotion is also a strong predictor of prejudice that minority groups feel
toward majority groups.
What Causes Prejudice?
The Way We Feel: Affect and Mood
Although studies show that emotion is related to prejudice, it is not
clear that there is a causal relationship.
Esses and Zanna (1995) set up experiments to test this possibility. They
manipulated mood and measured the effect on people’s attitudes.
They found that indeed, there is a causal relationship. Participants in a
bad mood described various ethnic groups in more negative terms than
did those who were in a good mood, or a neutral mood.
What Causes Prejudice?
The Way We Assign Meaning:
Attributional Biases
The typical gender stereotype of women being inferior to men is
maintained by attributional biases.
-e.g., if a man fails on a given task, observers attributed his failure
either to bad luck, or to lower effort; if a women failed at the same task,
observers felt the task was too hard for her ability level.
These effects apply to racial stereotypes as well (see Corenblum et al,
1996 Native children study).
What Causes Prejudice?
The Way We Assign Meaning:
Attributional Biases
Moreover, if a stereotype is strong enough, even members of the
stereotyped group buy into it.
-eg, Nichols (1975) found that grade 4 boys attributed their own
successful outcome on a difficult IQ task to their ability and blamed
their failures on bad luck; whereas
-girls tended to derogate their own successful performance and blamed
themselves for failures.
What Causes Prejudice?
The Way We Assign Meaning:
Attributional Biases
Thus, we tend to explain the behaviour of out-group members in a way
that perpetuates our stereotype of them, thereby fostering prejudice.
Chapter Outline
IV. Individual Differences in Prejudice
Individual Differences in Prejudice
Research confirms that certain kinds of people are especially likely to
hold negative attitudes toward members of out-groups.
Those who subscribe to just world beliefs, and who are high in rightwing authoritarianism, religious fundamentalism, and social
dominance are more likely to be prejudiced against out-groups than
those who score low on these dimensions.
Individual Differences in Prejudice
Just World Beliefs
Just world belief: the view that the world is a fair and just place where
people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
Negative attitudes toward the poor and homeless__including blaming
them for their own plight__are more prevalent among individuals with
strong just world beliefs (Farnham & Gunter, 1984)
Individual Differences in Prejudice
Right-Wing Authoritarianism
Right-wing authoritarianism is defined in terms of three clusters of
attitudes:
i) authoritarian submission (a high degree of submission to authority
figures)
ii) authoritarian aggression (aggression directed toward groups that
are seen as legitimate targets by authority figures)
iii) conventionalism (a high degree of conformity to the rules and
conventions that are established by authority figures)
Individual Differences in Prejudice
Right-Wing Authoritarianism
Those who score high on right-wing authoritarianism compared to
lows,
-hold traditional, nonegalitarian attitudes toward women
-express more negative attitudes toward French Canadians, Natives,
and Pakistanis, and
-show especially high levels of prejudice against homosexuals.
Individual Differences in Prejudice
Right-Wing Authoritarianism
Can the attitudes of right-wing authoritarians be changed? Yes.
One strategy that has proven effective is to create awareness that their
attitudes toward the target group (eg, homosexuals) are much more
negative than other people’s, and they tend to change their attitudes
because conforming to social norms is important to them.
Individual Differences in Prejudice
Right-Wing Authoritarianism
Another way is to encourage interaction with members of the outgroup.
Altemeyer (2001) found that right-wing authoritarians became more
positive in their attitudes toward homosexuals following interaction.
Individual Differences in Prejudice
Religious Fundamentalism
Religious fundamentalism: a belief in the absolute and literal truth of
one’s religious beliefs.
Research has shown that people who scored high in religious
fundamentalism blamed homosexuals and single mothers (groups who
behaviour is seen as immoral by religious fundamentalists) for
unfortunate situations (eg, unemployment), whereas
groups who were not seen as threatening basic religious values (eg,
students) were not blamed to the same extent.
Individual Differences in Prejudice
Social Dominance
Social dominance orientation: the belief that groups of people are
inherently unequal and that it is acceptable for some groups in society
to be benefited more than others.
Research conducted in Canada, China, Israel, Mexico, New Zealand,
Taiwan, and the US has shown that social dominance is associated
with racial prejudice, sexism, and negative attitudes toward
homosexuals.
Individual Differences in Prejudice
Social Dominance
Can the attitudes of people high in social dominance be changed? Yes
Esses and colleagues (2001) have used an indirect approach (ie,
creating a sense of shared identity between the high dominant people
and the target of prejudice) to reduce prejudice
Chapter Outline
V. Effects of Stereotyping, Prejudice,
and Discrimination
Effects of Stereotyping, Prejudice and
Discrimination
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
Stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination can have devastating effects
on their victims.
Research on self-fulfilling prophecies suggests that we may
unknowingly create stereotypical behaviour in out-group members
through our treatment of them.
Effects of Stereotyping, Prejudice and
Discrimination
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
When a member of a majority group mistreats a member of a
disadvantaged group, the disadvantaged person is unlikely to perform
well, thereby confirming the majority group member’s negative
stereotype and perpetuating the discrimination (see Word et al, 1974
interview study; Fig. 13.6).
This is referred to as the self-fulfilling prophecy.
Effects of Stereotyping, Prejudice and
Discrimination
Stereotypic Threat
Members of an out-group also may experience stereotypic threat.
Stereotype threat is the apprehension experienced by members of a
minority group that they might behave in a manner that confirms an
existing cultural stereotype about their group.
Effects of Stereotyping, Prejudice, and
Discrimination
Self-Blaming Attributions for
Finally, there is evidence that victims of discrimination may blame
Discrimination
themselves for their poor performance__choosing to forfeit a sense of
competence in favour of preserving social acceptance and the
perception of control (see Ruggiero & Taylor, 1995 McGill study; Fig.
13.7).
This pattern may set up a vicious cycle. If minority group members
blame themselves for negative outcomes, majority group members are
able to justify their ongoing discrimination.
Chapter Outline
VI. How Can Prejudice and
Discrimination Be Reduced?
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination
Be Reduced?
‘It’s never too late to give up our prejudices.’ (Henry David Thoreau)
There are a number of ways prejudice can be reduced. Some have been
mentioned:
i) Getting people to focus on positive aspects of themselves (selfaffirmation) reduces the need to denigrate others in order to get a selfesteem boost.
ii) Blurring the distinction between ‘us’ and ‘them’ can improve
attitudes toward out-groups.
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination
Be Reduced?
Other strategies include:
iii) learning not to hate;
Iv) revising stereotypical beliefs;
v) The contact hypothesis;
vi) Cooperation and independence: the jigsaw classroom;
vii) The extended contact hypothesis
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination
Be Reduced?
Learning Not to Hate
Prejudice can also be reduced by having people experience what it is
like to be the victim of discrimination (see Jane Elliot, 1977 example).
Children may also be effective in teaching one another not to be
prejudiced (see Aboud & Doyle, 1996 Quebec study of 3rd & 4th grade
children).
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination
Be Reduced?
Revising Stereotypical Beliefs
People tend to process information in ways that confirm their
stereotypes__even if that information completely contradicts the
stereotype.
The question arises, What sort of information would actually refute a
stereotype?
It seems that it depends partly on how the disconfirming information is
presented. Weber and Crocker (1983) present 3 possible models.
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination
Be Reduced?
The Contact Hypothesis
An especially effective way of reducing prejudice is through contact—
bringing in-group and out-group members together, known as the
contact hypothesis.
Contact must take place, however, only under certain prescribed
conditions, otherwise it can exacerbate the existing negative attitudes.
There are six such conditions.
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination
Be Reduced?
When Contact Reduces Prejudice: Six
Conditions
Allport suggested that six conditions are necessary
for inter-group contact to reduce prejudice:
i) Mutual interdependence: a situation in which two or
more groups need each other and must depend on
each other in order to accomplish a goal that is
important to each group.
Mutual interdependence is essential for contact to
lead to a reduction in prejudice (see Sherif et al, 1961
summer camp study; Fig. 13.8).
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination
Be Reduced?
When Contact Reduces Prejudice: Six
Conditions
ii)
A common goal
iii)
Equal status of group members
iv)
Informal interpersonal contact
v)
Multiple contacts with several members of the out-group
vi)
Social norms in place that promote equality
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination Be
Reduced?
Cooperation and Interdependence: The
Jigsaw Classroom
The jigsaw classroom has been found to be a powerful way to reduce
stereotyping and prejudice among children of different ethnicities.
A jigsaw classroom is a classroom setting designed to reduce
prejudice and raise the self-esteem of children by placing them in
small desegregated groups and making each child dependent on the
other children in his or her group to learn the course material and do
well in the class.
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination Be
Reduced?
Cooperation and Interdependence: The
Jigsaw Classroom
Aronson and colleagues gathered data from the jigsaw experiments.
Results were:
Compared to students in traditional classrooms, students in the jigsaw
groups showed a decrease in prejudice and stereotyping, as well as an
increase in their liking for their groupmates, both within and across
ethnic boundaries.
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination Be
Reduced?
Cooperation and Interdependence: The
Jigsaw Classroom
In addition, children in the jigsaw classrooms performed better on
objective exams, liked school more, and showed a significantly greater
increase in self-esteem than did children in traditional classrooms.
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination Be
Reduced?
Cooperation and Interdependence: The
Jigsaw Classroom
Moreover, children in schools where the jigsaw technique was
practiced developed a greater ability to empathize with others and
showed substantial evidence of true integration.
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination Be
Reduced?
Cooperation and Interdependence: The
Jigsaw Classroom
The jigsaw classroom was first tested in 1971. Since then several
cooperative techniques have been developed.
The extremely positive results have been replicated in thousands of
classrooms in the US and in other countries.
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination Be
Reduced?
Cooperation and Interdependence: The
Jigsaw Classroom
And, cooperative learning has become a major force within the field of
public education and generally accepted as one of the most effective
ways of improving race relations in schools.
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination Be
Reduced?
The Extended Contact Hypothesis
Under the right conditions, contact between groups can be highly
effective in reducing prejudice.
But it is not always possible to have members of different groups
interact, particularly under the right conditions.
Thus, the extended contact hypothesis comes into play
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination Be
Reduced?
The Extended Contact Hypothesis
Extended contact hypothesis is the mere knowledge that a member of
one’s own group has a close relationship with a member of another
group can reduce prejudice toward that group.
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination Be
Reduced?
The Extended Contact Hypothesis
Wright et al (1997) found support for this extended contact hypothesis
They showed that when one of the group members became friends
with the ‘enemy,’ then the remaining group members adopted a more
positive attitude toward the out-group, and
they became more generous to the out-group when allocating
monetary rewards.
How Can Prejudice and Discrimination Be
Reduced?
The Extended Contact Hypothesis
Such results are highly encouraging. They suggest that we, alone, can
make a difference simply by becoming friends with a member of an
out-group.
And as members of our group learn about this friendship, they will
become less prejudiced toward that group.
The End
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