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Topic 1 - Minerals
Minerals - Introduction
 Rocks contain naturally occurring, non-living substances called _____________
 Minerals are rare and are either:
 _________________ (made of 1 type of atom) or
 _________________ (combinations of bonded atoms)
 Minerals are not only found in rocks, but they are also found in your body, and dissolved
in water (like iron and potassium)
Identifying Minerals
Colour and Streak
 Some minerals can be identified by looking at the
______________ of the surface.
 One Mineral may have several colours
 When two different minerals appear to have the
same colour, _______________can be used to show
the colour of the ________________ form of the
mineral
Hardness
 Fredrick Mohs was a German scientist from the early
1800’s
 He developed a ________________ of ten minerals
to show _________________
 Talc is the softest mineral – similar to pencil lead
 Diamond is the hardest mineral – used on surgical scalpels, razor blades and drill bits
Shape & Crystals
 __________________are the building
blocks of minerals
 They are natural structures with flat
______________, straight edges
 Most minerals will grow into huge
crystal formations
Luster
 Luster is the ___________________of a surface, or the way it reflects or absorbs light.
 Luster is split between __________________ and non-metallic
Cleavage & Fracture
 _______________________ is when minerals split along the flat surfaces of the crystals
 Fracture is when minerals break along uneven surfaces
 Mica has cleavage because it breaks in smooth flat sheets
Chemical Properties
 Some minerals will react with substances like ____________________
 Calcium carbonate (aka chalk) reacts with acids and produces a new gas, so it bubbles
 Another chemical property is that metals corrode when exposed to oxygen in the air.
 This is called rust, or oxidization
Transparency
 Minerals can also be identified by the amount of light they let through. They can be:
 Transparent – see through
 ______________ – shadowy
 ______________ – no light passes through
Density
 Density relates to how many ____________________are in a
given amount of a mineral.
 If there are a lot, the mineral will seem quite
________________________compared to a less dense
mineral which can seem light.
 Some lava rock is so light that it can ___________________.
This contributes to the formation of volcanic islands like Hawaii
Topic 2 – Rocks & the Rock Cycle
Igneous Rocks
 Igneous rock forms when hot magma or lava cool and solidify
 _____________________ is melted rock found below the Earth's crust
 Rocks made of magma are _____________________ igneous rocks
 Lava is molten rock that is on the earths surface (after volcano)
 Rocks made of lava are _______________________igneous rocks
 Cooling magma and lava will create crystals
 The size of the ____________________ depends on how fast the rock cools
 The slower it cools, the larger the crystals
Sedimentary Rocks
 _____________ is small loose pieces of material like
rocks, minerals, and organic matter
 Sediment forms into sedimentary rock over time.
 Sedimentary rock is made up of layers of
___________________ sediment, cemented together
over time
 The cementation happens when certain minerals
dissolve in water and bind the sediment when it dries.
 75% of the rock on the Earth’s surface is sedimentary
 Visible layers of sedimentary rock are called
_____________________
Metamorphic Rock
 Metamorphic rocks are those that
have ___________________ form
because of heat and pressure that
have been applied to the parent
material.
Identifying Rocks
 Rocks and rock types can be identified by the minerals found in them as well as by their
appearance.
TOPIC 3 – Erosion & Weathering
Weathering
 Weathering is the breaking down of rocks and minerals into sediment
 _________________
 Chemical
 _________________
Mechanical Weathering
 Mechanical weathering is the ____________________break up of rocks.
 Gravity causes rocks to fall
 Fast moving streams smooth out rocks with sediment
 Temperature changes can cause ___________________
 Frost __________________ is a special type of mechanical weathering that
happens with freezing and thawing
Chemical Weathering
 Natural chemicals, can be dissolved in water and react in the chemical
_________________ of rocks and minerals
 Acids naturally in rain will react with calcium carbonate (_____________) in limestone,
found in places like the Rocky Mountains, and weather away the rocks.
Biological Weathering
 Biological weathering is the physical or
chemical breakdown of rocks and
minerals by living _________________.
 Plants, Animals, Bacteria, Fungus
Erosion
 Erosion is the __________________ of rock and
mineral grains from one place to another
 Sedimentation is the building up of rocks and
minerals
 Glaciers, gravity, wind and water are the main causes of _______________________
 When different layers of Sedimentary rock wear away interesting _________________
can be made
Erosion – Glaciers
 Glaciers are ice formed by compaction of snow over time
 Gravity causes glaciers to move
 Rocks in glaciers scrape the ground leaving __________________ where rock is eroded
 ____________________ are piles of rock
created by glacial movement
 Lateral Moraines are formed on either side
of a moving glacier
 End moraines are formed as a glacier moves
forward, and are left as it recedes (melts)
 __________________ are large pieces of
rock that are left behind by moving glaciers.
Erosion – Water
 Moving water is one of the most powerful forms of __________________
 It can cause fast changes in a flood or slow changes in a stream
Topic 4 – The Moving Crust
The Moving Crust
 The _________________is the top
layer of the Earth.
 It also includes the minerals in the
rocks below it.
The Mantle
 The Earth’s mantle is made up of a
_______________ rock layer
 Plastic means it is melted and gooey, but not completely liquid
 The mantle can flow, but very slowly.
The Core
 The Core of Earth is very hot – around 6000oC
 The outer core is liquid ____________ and
nickel around 5500oC
 The intense heat and pressure have made the
inner core a ________________ ball
Continental Drift
 The shape of land is constantly ____________
 Alfred Wegener was one of the first scientists
to question _______________movement
 He formed the Theory of Continental Drift
Evidence – Technology
 Sonar uses sound wave to make measurements
 Sonar identified the
_____________________ Ridge
 Magnetometers detect the direction and strength
of a magnetic field
 The magnetic field of the crust in the Atlantic sometimes pointed south, instead
of north these are called _______________________ strips
The Theory of Plate Tectonics
 Technology showed that the Earth’s crust is moving
 The crust is made up of plates of rock that fit like puzzle pieces
 _____verging plate are coming together
 _____verging plates are moving apart
Subduction
 Subduction zones are where plates are diverging.
 _________________ is when one plate slides underneath another.
Topic 5 - Earthquakes
Earthquakes Introduction
 Earthquakes are caused by sudden movements in the __________________ plates.
 Seismic is of or having to do with the movement of tectonic plates
 Seismologists can use seismographs to measure the intensity of an earthquake
 It is attached to the ___________________ to detect vibrations
 ___________________ is the process of a solid taking on fluid qualities, like quicksand
 ___________ are huge waves that happen when an earthquake occurs under the ocean
 Avalanches or rock slides occur in mountains as a result of an earthquake
Richter Scale
 Earthquakes are gauged on the _________________scale up to 10.
 Less than 2 is not generally felt, above 8 totally destroys communities and
structures
Seismic Waves
 Seismic ____________________ are the energy waves that travel outward from the
source of the earthquake.
 _________________ or p waves are fastest
 Can go through solids, liquids and gases.
 Compression vibrations before an actual earth quake.
 ___________________or s waves slower
 Only pass through solids not liquids or
gasses.
 Surface waves are the slowest
 Move like ripples - rolling motion,
most ______________, created when p and s waves collide
Earthquake Location
 The time between P and S wave can help locate the source
of an earthquake
 The source of an earthquake deep in the crust is called the
_____________
 The location directly above the focus is called the _______________________ of an
earthquake
 Aftershocks are actually smaller earthquakes
from the same focus
 Primary waves are bent or
____________________as they travel through the
Earth
 The area where they do not come through the
other side of the earth is called a __________________ zone
Faults
 Rock located where tectonic plates meet is under very high pressure
 If the rock is bent or stretched enough the rock can break creating a fault
 There are three types of fault movement between the
_________________ plates
 _______________ Faults
 Tension or pulling action, which breaks rocks apart
 __________________ Faults
 Compressive , causing rock to bend break and buckle
 _______________, Strike or Transform Faults
 Shear forces causes slipping which and jagged edges break off
TOPIC 6 - Volcanoes
Volcanoes
 Volcanoes are openings in the Earth’s crust that release lava, steam and ash when they
erupt
 The opening is called a _________________
 When a volcano is inactive (not erupting), it is called ______________
 Volcanoes can form with tectonic movement, as plates are melted pressure of the rock
builds up
 Many volcanoes form around the Pacific
Ocean in the Subduction Zones
 They form a circle around the Pacific
Ocean are called the
________________________
 from the circle of volcanoes that
pour out red hot lava, fire and
steam
TOPIC 7 - Mountains
Mountain Formation
 Most mountains are large masses of rock lifted due to ___________________
movement and or heating
 The build-up of heat and pressure can cause folding and faulting
 Sedimentary rock under slow, gradual pressure can
_____________or break
 If there is enough heat the rock can be changed to
metamorphic rock
 The upper part of folded rock is called the
_________________
 The bottom is called the syncline
 _______________________ faulting happens when rock is
too brittle to fold under heat and pressure
 Fault block mountains are formed by thrust faulting that
pushes older rock on top of _____________________ rock
 Movement of rock along a fault can be vertical or horizontal
 It can be traced by the location of the ______________rock on both sides of the
fault
 Basement rock is the bedrock below the mountain formation
 Mountains are often formed by _____________________ Continental and Oceanic
plates
The Continental plate is lighter and rides over the Oceanic plate.
Topic 8 – Fossils
Fossils
 Fossils are __________________ impressions in rock that tell us when, where, and how
organisms lived millions of years ago.
 Organic remains, protected from scavengers, can become:
 ___________________________________
 rock-like fossils
 preserves the fossil with silica
 ___________________or impressions
 carbon residue on rock surfaces can provide a carbonaceous film
 Indents and impression can be left in clay and create moulds
 _______________________ remains
 may be preserved in tar, amber or peat bog.
 _____________________ fossils
 Evidence of animal activity, like worm holes, footprints, and burrows
Fossil Mold & Cast Formation
 An animal dies and gets covered by sediment
 The body decomposes, leaving a ______________, which is then filled with sediment
which hardens into rock
 This makes a
___________
of the
original
animal.
Topic 9 – Geologic Time
Dating – Superposition
 The principle of superposition states that in ___________________ layers of rock, the
oldest layers are always on the bottom and the youngest layers are always on the top.
 As new layers of sedimentary rock form, the strata can be identified.
Dating – Relative
 Geologists use a technique called relative dating to ________________ events
 The relative age of the rock is determined by its position within the strata.
 Fossils found in a layer can help to identify the age of the rock.
 If the fossil was on the Earth for a short time and widespread then it is called an
____________ fossil.
Half Life
 Over billions of years, some elements will change into other elements
 In 4.5 billion years, half of a mass of _________________will change into lead which will not change
 The uranium is called the parent __________________.
 This time period is called the half-life of uranium
 Radiometric Dating is measuring the amounts of change in a sample to calculate
the absolute age of the rock
Radiocarbon Dating
 Radiocarbon dating uses carbon-14, a rare form of carbon, as its parent material
 All _____________________ use carbon-14 to build cells and tissue.
 The carbon-14 changes to nitrogen gas when the animal dies with a half-life of
5730 years
 The amount of carbon-14 left in the tissue allows scientists to determine the age
of the remains
Time Scales
 The geological time scale is a division of Earth's ___________________ into smaller
units based on the existence of different life forms
 The largest divisions are called eons, _____________ split into eras, eras split
into periods