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Chapter 11:
Gender and Human Sexuality
1
Lecture Overview
Sex and Gender
 The Study of Human Sexuality
 Sexual Behavior
 Sexual Problems

2
Sex and Gender—
Important/Confusing Terms

Sex: biological maleness or femaleness
including chromosomal sex; also, sexual
behaviors of intercourse/masturbation

Gender: psychological and sociocultural
meanings added to biological sex
3
Sex and Gender—
Important/Confusing Terms (Cont.)


Gender Identity:
self-identification
as either a man or
a woman
Gender Role:
societal expectations
for normal and
appropriate male and
female behavior
4
Sex and Gender—
Important/Confusing Terms (Cont.)

Sexual Orientation: primary
erotic attraction toward
members of same sex
(homosexual, gay, or
lesbian), both sexes
(bisexual), or other sex
(heterosexual)
5
Sex and Gender—
Important/Confusing Terms (Cont.)

Transsexual: gender identity does not match
gonads, genitals, or internal accessory organs

Transvestite: individuals who cross-dress for
emotional and/or sexual gratification; from
Latin trans, meaning “to change,” and vestire,
meaning “clothing”
6
Sex and Gender—
Important/Confusing Terms (Cont.)

Androgyny: combining
characteristics typically
male (assertive,
athletic) with those
considered typically
female (yielding,
nurturing); from Greek
andro, meaning “male,”
and gyn, meaning
“female”
7
Dimensions of Sex and Gender
Sex Dimensions
Male
Female
1.
2.
3.
4.
XY
Testes
Androgens
Penis, scrotum
XX
Ovaries
Estrogens
Labia, clitoris,
vaginal opening
Vagina, uterus,
fallopian tubes,
cervix
Breasts,
menstruation
Heterosexual,
lesbian, bisexual
Chromosomes
Gonads
Hormones
External genitals
5. Internal accessory organs
6. Secondary sex
characteristics
7. Sexual orientation
Prostate, seminal
vesicles,
vas deferens
Beard, low voice,
sperm emission
Heterosexual, gay,
bisexual
8
Male and Female
Internal and External Sex Organs
9
Dimensions of Sex and Gender
(Continued)
Gender Dimensions
Male
Female
8. Gender identity*
Perceives self
as male
Perceives self
as female
9. Gender role**
Masculine
Feminine
*Gender identity is self-defined
**Gender role is socially-defined
10
Gender Role Development

Social-learning theory--suggests gender
roles develop as children:
 receive rewards/punishments for gender
role behaviors and attitudes.
 watch and imitate the behaviors and
attitudes of others.
11
Gender Role Development

Cognitive-developmental theory--suggests
children form gender schemas (mental images)
of correct behaviors for boys versus girls.
12
Sex Differences

Physical anatomy (height, weight, body
build, reproductive organs)

Functional and structural brain differences:



Hypothalamus
Corpus callosum
Cerebral hemispheres
13
14
Gender Differences

Cognitive abilities
 Women score higher on verbal skills.
 Men score higher on math and
visuospatial skills.

Aggression
 Men exhibit greater physical
aggressiveness.
 Women supposedly higher on relational
aggression, but no clear differences.
15
Gender Differences in Sexuality

Gender refers to the biological and social
definitions of male and female

Hendrick Sexual Attitude Scale
16
Gender Differences in Sexuality



“permissiveness” refers to open, casual
sexuality;
“sexual practices” represents responsible,
tolerant sexuality;
“communion” denotes emotional, idealistic
sexuality; and “instrumentality” views sex as
egocentric and very biological.
17
Gender Differences in Sexuality


Evolutionary perspectives suggest that men
tend to marry younger women for fertility
reasons
Women are attracted to men who are mature
and affluent
18
Gender Differences in Sexuality


Males showing significantly greater
endorsement on the permissiveness and
instrumentality scales; also identify more with a
casual, less conventional, and more
manipulative approach.
Women seem oriented to a love/sexuality
pattern that is relatively practical and
conventional . . . but that can also encompass
idealistic and highly affective attitudes. . . .
19
Gender Differences in Sexuality


Gender refers to the biologically and socially
influenced characteristics by which people
define male and female.
One of the largest reported gender
differences is women’s greater disapproval of
and lesser willingness to engage in casual,
uncommitted sex.
20


In comparison to women, men think more about
sex, report more sexual fantasies, masturbate
more often, are more likely to initiate sex, and
make more sacrifices to gain sex. They also
emphasize physical pleasure and sexual
intercourse
Men also have a lower threshold for perceiving
warm responses as a sexual come-on. The
unfortunate response can range from sexual
harassment to date rape.
21



Women appear more willing than men to
forgo sex or adhere to religious vows of
celibacy
women tend to emphasize committed
relationships as a context for sexuality
Women are more likely to “romanticize” the
sexual experience
22



Women’s sexual fantasies are more likely
than men’s to involve a familiar partner and
to include affection and commitment.
Men’s fantasies are more likely to involve
strangers, multiple partners, and a focus on
specific sex acts.
Aggression is more closely linked to sexuality
for men than for women.
23


Physically coercive sex is primarily a male
activity
Women’s sexuality shows greater plasticity.
That is, women’s sexual beliefs and behavior
are more easily shaped by cultural, social,
and situational factors.
24
Infidelity


Kinsey and his associates found that 36 percent
of husbands and 25 percent of wives reported
being unfaithful.
Gender differences in motivation for infidelity
suggest that marital dissatisfaction tends to be
higher among unfaithful women than unfaithful
men and that a male’s infidelity is more likely
than a female’s to be a “one night stand,” to
involve someone of limited acquaintance, and to
include sexual intercourse.
25
Infidelity



Men and women do not differ in either the
frequency or the magnitude of the jealousy
They differ in their sensitivity to the cues that
trigger jealousy
Would you be more distressed if you found
that your romantic partner was (1) having
sexual intercourse with someone else or (2)
was becoming emotionally involved with
someone else?
26
Infidelity



511 college students
83 percent of women found their partner’s
emotional infidelity more upsetting,
whereas only 40 percent of the men did.
In contrast, 60 percent of the men
experienced their partner’s sexual infidelity
as more upsetting and only 17 percent of the
women did
27
The Study of Human Sexuality

Havelock Ellis--among the
first physicians to
scientifically study human
sexuality. He:
 found that nocturnal
emissions were not
dangerous.
 emphasized reliable and
accurate sex information.
28
The Study of Human Sexuality

Alfred Kinsey--among the first to use surveys
and interviews to study sexual practices and
beliefs.

Masters and Johnson--among the first to use
laboratory experimentation and observation
to study the sexual response cycle.
29
The Study of Human Sexuality—
Gender and Cultural Diversity
30
Sexual Behavior:
Sexual Arousal and Response

Masters and Johnson’s Sexual
Response Cycle
•
Excitement (increasing levels of arousal
and engorgement)
Plateau (leveling off of high arousal)
Orgasm (pleasurable release of tension)
Resolution (return to nonaroused state)
•
•
•
31
Sexual Behavior—
Sexual Response Cycle
32
Sexual Behavior—Gender and
Cultural Diversity (Two Theories)
Why are men commonly believed to have
greater sexual drive, interest, and activity
than women? Two theories:

1. Evolutionary Perspective:
Provides adaptive value. Men with multiple
partners maximize their genes’ chances
for survival, and a woman’s genes’
chances for survival increase with a good
protector and provider.
33
Sexual Behavior—Gender and Cultural
Diversity (Two Theories Cont.)

2. Social Role Approach: Sex differences
reflect cultural roles and division of labor.
Men are protectors and providers, women
are child bearers and homemakers.

Note: Social role perspective fits better in
cultures where women have less reproductive
freedom and educational equality.
34
Sexual Behavior—Sexual Orientation

Myths of Homosexuality:




Seduction theory: gays and lesbians seduced
in childhood by adults of same sex.
“By default” theory: gays and lesbians unable
to attract partners of opposite sex.
Poor parenting: gay men = domineering
mothers, weak fathers’ lesbian women = weak
or absent mothers .
Modeling theory: children imitate gay or
lesbian parents.
35
Sexual Behavior—Sexual Orientation

Current Research on Homosexuality:

Genetics: twin studies suggest genetic
influence on sexual orientation.

Prenatal hormones: affect fetal brain
development and sexual orientation.

Note: Ultimate causes of sexual orientation
unknown, but genetics and biology are
believed to play dominant roles.
36
Sexual risk taking
 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDS) (Table 12-4
(page 449))- some curable, some not!
 Pregnancy
Most at risk:
 Young first experience, multiple partners, failure to
use contraceptives, inadequate sex information
(14%)
 Socioeconomically disadvantaged communities
 Substance use
 Antisocial behavior
 Association with deviant peers
37


Peer group most influential
1/3 give into peer pressure
Remember, that intercourse, oral, and anal
sex can transmit STDS


Contraceptives: why use/not useignorance
Teenage mothers, who are often under
more stress than adult mothers, are more
likely to abuse their child.
38
Why Adolescents Fail to Use Birth Control
1. due to moral or religious values and beliefs
2. belief that sex should be spontaneous and
unplanned, therefore, no time for birth
control
3. ignorance about reproductive matters,
anatomy, pregnancy
39
4.









belief in myths
won’t get pregnant the first time
cant get pregnant during the period
misunderstanding the rhythm method
pulling out always works
certain positions prevent pregnancy
belief that they have to be a certain age to
become pregnant
use of someone else’s birth control
place responsibility on the woman or man, but
fails to accept responsibility for self
belief that they are ready to be parents; possibly
promised to be married
40
5.
6.
rape/incest will not result in pregnancy
leave it up to God!
Condoms are the best protection!
Sex information: Tend to get from friends,
parents, sex education in school, media.
Those who can discuss contraception with
parents have more positive attitudes
toward safe sex
41
Sexual Problems: Biological Factors
in Sexual Dysfunctions



Sexual behavior = arousal of peripheral sex
organs, spinal cord, and brain. Factors that
modulate activity within these areas may impair
sexual function.
Sexual arousal = activation within
parasympathetic nervous system,
which allows blood flow to sex
organs.
Sexual orgasm = activation of the
sympathetic nervous system.
42
Sexual Problems: Psychological Factors
in Sexual Dysfunctions




Negative gender role training (men aggressive and
independent, women passive and dependent)
Double standard (male sexuality encouraged and
female’s discouraged)
Unrealistic sexual scripts (socially dictated
“appropriate” behaviors limit sexual relations)
Performance anxiety (fear of not meeting partner’s
sex expectations)
43
Sexual Dysfunctions

Male Sexual Problems

Erectile dysfunction (impotence--inability
to maintain an erection firm enough for
intercourse)

Premature ejaculation (rapid ejaculation
beyond the man’s control)
44
Sexual Dysfunctions

Female Sexual Problems

Orgasmic dysfunction (inability or
difficulty in reaching orgasm)

Vaginismus (painful contraction of the
vaginal muscles)
45
Sexual Dysfunctions (Continued)

Both Male and Female Sexual Problems

Dyspareunia
(painful intercourse)

Inhibited sexual desire
(apathetic or disinterested in sex)

Sexual aversion (avoids sex due to
overwhelming fear or anxiety)
46
Sexual Problems—Sex Therapy

1.
2.
3.
4.
Masters and Johnson’s sex therapy
program founded on four principles:
Relationship focus
Integration of physiological and
psychosocial factors
Emphasis on cognitive factors
Practice with specific behavioral techniques
47
Sexual Problems:
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
48
Sexual Problems--AIDS

HIV Positive: being infected
by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome): HIV destroys immune system’s
ability to fight disease

Note: Although AIDS is transmitted only through
sexual contact or exposure to infected bodily
fluids, many people have irrational fears of
contagion.
49
Biological Sex & The Role of Sex
Hormones



Biological sex is determined by the twentythird pair of chromosomes, the sex
chromosomes.
The member of the pair inherited from the
mother is an X chromosome.
The X (female) or Y (male) chromosome that
comes from the father determines the child’s
sex.
50



The Y chromosome triggers the production of
the principal male sex hormone,
testosterone, which in turn triggers the
development of external male sex organs.
A female embryo exposed to excess
testosterone is born with masculineappearing genitals. Also may prefer cars over
dolls.
Until puberty, such females tend to act in
more aggressive, “tomboyish” ways than is
typical of most girls.
51


The fact that people may treat such girls
more like boys illustrates how early exposure
to sex hormones affects us both directly (in
our biological appearance) and indirectly—by
influencing social experiences that shape us.
Thus, nature and nurture work together.
52


Preliminary research confirms male-female
differences in brain areas with abundant sex
hormone receptors during development.
For example, during adulthood the part of the
frontal lobes involved in verbal fluency is thicker
in women and part of the parietal lobes involved
in space perception is thicker in men.
53
The Role of Environment on the
Development of Gender Roles




Although biology influences our gender, gender
is also socially constructed.
Culture shapes our roles: a role is a cluster of
prescribed actions.
For example, gender roles—our expectations
about the way men and women behave—vary
across cultures and time.
For instance, in nomadic societies of foodgathering people, there is little division of labor
by sex.
54



Thus, boys and girls receive much the same
upbringing.
In agricultural societies, women stay close to
home while men often roam more freely. Such
societies typically socialize children into distinct
gender roles.
Even among industrialized countries, gender
roles vary greatly, for example, in the
expectation that life will be more satisfying when
both spouses work and share childcare.
55


Society assigns each of us to the social
category of male and female. The result is
our gender identity, our sense of being male
or female.
To varying degrees, we also become gendertyped, acquiring a traditional male or female
role.
56


Social learning theory assumes that children
learn gender-linked behaviors by observing
and imitating significant others and by being
rewarded and punished.
Gender schema theory assumes that children
learn from their cultures a concept of what it
means to be male or female and adjust their
behavior accordingly.
57
Biopsychosocial Approach to
Development.




Nature and nurture jointly form us.
That is, we are products of natural selection
and heredity as well as cultural, family, peer,
and media influences.
But we are also open systems—that is,
creators as well as creatures of our worlds.
We respond to the world’s response to us.
58

Our efforts to affiliate with others, cope with
challenges, and build our own personal
strengths and values demonstrate how the
stream of causation runs through our present
choices.
59
Psychodynamic Approach to Development.

Freud overemphasized the impact and
importance of parent’s child rearing practices
and child’s personality
60
Figure 3.10 The biopsychosocial approach to development
Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition
61
Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers