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Geology 101 - Fall 2016 Earth & Environment Study Questions 4 Part 1 - Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards 1. Explain the difference between effusive and pyroclastic volcanism. What factors control whether an eruption will be effusive or pyroclastic? 2. Why are fractures, including columnar jointing, common in lava flows? How do they form? 3. Why does mafic lava tend to spread out forming thinner, more extensive lava flows? Why does felsic lava tend to form lava domes? 4. How are eruption columns/clouds and pyroclastic flows different? 5. What is tephra? How is it formed? List some of the different types/categories of tephra particles. 6. Describe the major types of volcanic hazards. Be sure to include the following: • How may lava flows be hazardous? Do lava flows often kill people? Why or why not? • How can pyroclastic eruptions be hazardous? What effects can they have on people, machinery, transportation, etc.? • What are lahars? How do they form? What areas around a volcano do they affect? Does a volcano always have to erupt to produce a lahar? • Which of the hazards discussed above can affect people the greatest distance away from a volcano? • Which of the hazards discussed above has the potential to kill the greatest number of people? Why? 7. What is a shield volcano? Draw a sketch showing the shape that shield volcanoes have. Why do they have this shape? What kind of lava builds shield volcanoes? 8. What is a stratovolcano (composite volcano)? Draw a sketch showing the shape that stratovolcanoes have.Why do they have this shape? What kinds of eruptions build stratovolcanoes? 9. What is a caldera? How does it form? How is a caldera different from a crater? 10. What kind of volcano is Mt. St. Helens? What kinds of activity and hazards has it exhibited? 11. What is volcano monitoring? Describe two types of measurements can be made and what these measurements tell us. Why is volcano monitoring important? 12. What types of information can be used to produce volcanic hazard maps? How can such maps help save lives and reduce economic losses? 13. Who needs to be involved in reducing the potential for disasters caused by volcanic eruptions? Part 2 - Weather-related hazards - storms and floods 1. Weather-related hazards are among our most costly, and the costs keep going up. How costly are these hazards? What are some of the economic and personal impacts? Why do the costs keep getting worse? 2. What are the major damaging effects of tropical storms (including hurricanes/typhoons)? What were some of the impacts of Sandy in 2012? What were some of the impacts of Hurricane Joaquin in 2015? 3. What impacts and costs can a major drought have? 4. Describe the relationship between flood size (in terms of discharge) and flood frequency (or probability). (Hint: Look at the graphs discussed in class.) Be sure to include the following: • Which happen more often, smaller floods or larger floods? • What is the likelihood (probability) that a "50-year flood" may happen in any given year? • What is the likelihood (probability) that a "100-year flood" may happen in any given year? • What is the likelihood (probability) that a "500-year flood" may happen in any given year? • What is the average recurrence interval for the flood that has a 10% chance of occurring each year? • If a "100-year flood" happened last year, could another one happen this year on the same river? Explain. 5. How can human activities cause the frequency of flooding to get worse and increase the size of floods at the same time? 6. How can human activities also increase the potential costs and consequences of flooding? 7. What is a flood hazard map? What details can these maps show? Why are flood hazard maps important? Why do they need to be updated over time? Who uses them, and what are they used for? 8. What can people do to reduce the risks and costs of flooding - i.e. reduce the the potential for property damage and loss of life? Include: (1) ways that flood waters can be controlled, (2) ways that the potential discharge can be reduced, (3) ways that human infrastructure/buildings can be made more resistant to flooding, and (3) other ways that people can avoid being affected by flooding. Part 3 - Weather-related hazards continued - landslides 1. Discuss at least two major factors that contributed to the landslide that killed 36 people in Oso, Washington. What were some of the warning signs that indicated high risk to the town? 2. Why do landslides keep affecting more and more people? What human activities can make landslides more likely? What human activities put more people in bad places? 3. What are the major types of mass movements? How can you tell them apart? 4. Relate the likelihood of mass movement to the slope angle (steep or shallow), vegetation, water, type of sediment or rock, and fracturing. How do these factors affect the balance between the strength of the material and the force of gravity pulling downward? 5. Explain how heavy rain can trigger landslides. Include two reasons why water changes the balance of forces. 6. Besides rain, what else can trigger landslides? 7. How can places at high risk for landslides be identified? What signs or evidence would you look for? 8. What can be done to make slopes more stable and therefore make landslides less likely? 9. What other actions can people take to reduce the risk of disaster from landslides? Part 4 - Water, Mineral, and Energy Resources 1. What is the hydrologic cycle? What are the major reservoirs or locations for water in the hydrologic cycle? What processes are involved in the cycling of water between the different reservoirs? 2. How are water supplies important for human life, for energy generation, and for other parts of the economy? 3. How does changing land use from forest to farmland to city change the amount of runoff and the amount of infiltration that happens when it rains? How does land use affect the rate/timing of runoff? How does land use affect the peak discharge in the river? Why do cities have high runoff and low infiltration? (Hint: Look back to flooding section.) 4. Where is most of the Earth's liquid water? In what form (solid or liquid) is most of the Earth's fresh water, and where is it located? How much of the earth's fresh water is in liquid form? 5. For what purpose is most of our freshwater used? Why does this matter? 6. Explain how the use of ground water can affect the availability of surface water in the surrounding area. Why does this happen? 7. Describe some other potential consequences of using too much groundwater. Be sure to include the following: • What is meant by "water mining" and "fossil" water? • What are the long-term implications for communities and agriculture that depend on fossil water? Give two examples of where this is a problem. • Why does subsidence occur? How can it be prevented? • What is saltwater intrusion? How, why, and where does it occur? 8. What environmental and ecosystem effects can result from overuse and diversion of surface water supplies? Explain using examples. 9.What is desalination? Why do people use this option even though it is relatively costly? Can desalination have any negative environmental effects? 10. What can be done to reduce our consumption of water resources? How can waste water (e.g. sewage) help? Be sure to include ways to conserve water at home, throughout cities and towns, and in agricultural areas. Give at least five examples. 11. How can a combination of high demand for clean water and limited supply result in conflict, political problems, and even war? Give examples. What can we do about such problems? 12. What mineral/rock resource is used in the greatest amounts? 13. What three materials on Table 12.4 in the lecture slides have the shortest estimated time before reserves run out under current conditions? List both the materials and the related time estimates. 14. How could the following changes in conditions affect the time estimates from question 12? • increased (or decreased) sale price of the material • improved processing technologies • environmental regulations • more efficient use of materials • increased recycling 15. How do the locations where a mineral resource is found affect global trade and international politics? Include the case of rare earth minerals as an example. Why are rare earth minerals so important to our modern society? 16. Where does the energy stored in fossil fuels originate? 17. How do renewable and non-renewable sources of energy differ? Include the environmental implications and long-term sustainability of their use. 18. Summarize the general trends in mineral and energy resource use over the last 150-200 years. How has total energy use changed? What sources have increased in use? What sources are used less now? 19. What are some of the environmental impacts of extracting and using oil and gas? 20. What are some of the environmental impacts of extracting and using coal? 21. For decades, oil prices have generally tended to rise over time. What is the cause of the recent drop in oil prices? 22. Why are solar and wind power generation increasing so rapidly? 23. How much of our total energy needs could wind and solar power potentially supply? What are some of the challenges to generating large amounts of electricity solar and wind power? 24. Is corn-based ethanol a suitable replacement for oil as a transportation fuel? Explain why or why not. Be sure to consider all of the different resources required to grow, transport, and process corn for ethanol, other uses for those resources, and other uses for the corn itself. 25. Why is energy efficiency important? Include at least three major benefits of increased energy efficiency. How can better buildings help? 26. What are the major economic reasons currently driving reduced use of coal for electricity generation in the U.S.? 27. What geologic and economic reasons were used in the 1990s to predict that West Virginia coal production would decline, even without any new regulations or any new competition? Part 5 - Air Pollution 1. List some of the key sources for each of the following atmospheric pollutants: • Nitrogen oxides • Sulfur dioxide • Carbon monoxide • Ground-level ozone • Particulates • Mercury • Chlorofluorocarbons • Lead • CO2 2. How can (or have been) emissions of each of the following be reduced?: • Nitrogen oxides • Sulfur dioxide • • • • • • • Carbon monoxide Ground-level ozone Particulates Mercury Chlorofluorocarbons Lead CO2 3. Of our major fossil fuel resources, which is the most polluting? Which is least polluting? 4. What do PM10 and PM2.5 refer to? Why is PM2.5 particulate matter a much bigger health concern? 5. What is acid rain? What pollutants is it caused by? What are some of the environmental affects of acid rain? 6. What pollutants are responsible for damaging the ozone layer? 7. What is smog? Why does California have such a big problem with smog? What are some of the health affects and their resulting economic impacts? How is this a good example of disconnected economics? 8. Discuss the issue of mercury pollution. How and why have mercury emissions changed over time? What is currently the biggest source of mercury pollution? What is being done to fix this problem? 9. What is bioaccumulation? How does bioaccumulation put hazardous levels of mercury in our food supply? What are some of the health problems that result from eating too much mercury? Part 6 - Weather and Climate 1. What is weather? What is climate? Explain the difference between climate and weather. 2. Why does a single snow storm in winter tell us nothing about climate change? 3. What parts of the Earth are involved in the climate system? 4. How does climate vary during ice age cycles? How are glacial and interglacial periods different with respect to the extent of ice and sea level? Is the modern climate glacial, or is it interglacial? 5. How are glacial and interglacial periods different with respect to global average temperatures and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels? 6. Compared to today, how much higher or lower was sea level at the peak of the last glacial maximum? 7. If you were to visit the Great Basin region during the last glacial period, what would you find there that is largely missing today? What does this tell us about the differences between glacial and interglacial climates in this region? (Include both temperature and precipitation in your answer.) 8. Describe some of the different types of records that provide information about long-term climate changes. What do these records tell us about the past? Be sure to include the following: • ice cores • tree rings • lake sediments • ocean sediments • oxygen isotopes • extent of glacial deposits 9. Why do glacial-interglacial cycles occur, and why is their timing so regular? Be sure to describe the three orbital cycles that are part of the Milankovitch hypothesis and how they affect solar energy input. 10. What are aerosols? How do aerosols from volcanic eruptions affect climate? 11. What is albedo? Which has a higher albedo: dry land or water? How is albedo important to climate and climate change? 12. How does the amount of ice/snow on land and on the sea affect albedo? 13. What is meant by positive-feedback and negative-feedback processes? How could changing the Earth's climate produce a positive-feedback situation in arctic regions? 14. Are the Milankovitch cycles alone enough to explain the full magnitude of climate change between glacial and interglacial periods? Explain why or why not. If not, what else is needed? 15. What are the major atmospheric gases that are responsible for the greenhouse effect? Explain how the greenhouse effect works. Why is it important for keeping the planet hospitable for life? 16. How and why are the concentrations of greenhouse gases changing over time? Compare current concentrations with past history. How are these changes related to human activities? 17. Why do many scientists prefer to use "global climate change" instead of "global warming"? 18. What is some of the evidence that the Earth's climate system has been changing significantly in recent decades? Include at least five different kinds of evidence. 19. How do the climate changes of the last 150 years compare with long-term changes that came before? 20. Can changes in volcanic activity or changes in the energy output of the sun explain the current warming trend? Explain why or why not. 21. What is the most likely major cause of modern climate change? How do we know? 22. What are some of the expected consequences of a warming climate? Will every location be affected in the same way? 23. Where does most of the energy used in the U.S. come from? How does this affect the atmosphere? How does the per capita energy use in the U.S. compare to that in other countries? 24. What is ocean acidification? What is causing it? What are some of the consequences? 25. Besides climate change, what other reasons are there to consider switching from fossil fuels (especially oil and coal) to other sources of energy. Give at least three reasons. 26. Explain how reducing fossil fuel use can actually provide economic benefits. Give at least two examples. 27. Why is it so difficult for the public to understand that climate change is real? Why do so many think that reality is open to debate? 28. Why is it important to separate fact from opinion, fact from fiction, science from pseudoscience, and reality from myth when deciding what to do about climate change? Why is this so difficult to do, especially for non-scientists? 29. How do your personal lifestyle decisions and your political decisions affect energy use, air pollution, and climate change? How might concern for the future of today's children and subsequent generations guide our decisions? Should it? Part 7 - Sustainability Revisited 1. How can a more sustainable way of life help us with water, mineral, and energy resources? 2. How can a more sustainable way of life help us reduce the environmental impacts of resource extraction (e.g. mining, oil/gas drilling, etc.) and reduce the environmental and human health impacts (e.g. air, water pollution) from using those resources? 3. How can a more sustainable way of life help us deal with climate change?