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Slides & Handouts by Karen Clay Rhines, Ph.D. Seton Hall University Chapter 11 Eating Disorders Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 1 Eating Disorders Although not historically true, current Western beauty standards equate thinness with health and beauty There has been a rise in eating disorders in the past three decades Thinness has become a national obsession! The core issue is a morbid fear of weight gain Two main diagnoses: Anorexia nervosa Bulimia nervosa Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 2 Anorexia Nervosa The main symptoms of anorexia nervosa are: A refusal to maintain more than 85% of normal body weight Intense fears of becoming overweight A distorted view of body weight and shape Amenorrhea Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 3 Anorexia Nervosa There are two main subtypes: Restricting type Lose weight by restricting “bad” foods, eventually restricting nearly all food Show almost no variability in diet Binge-eating/purging type Lose weight by vomiting after meals, abusing laxatives or diuretics, or engaging in excessive exercise Like those with bulimia nervosa, people with this subtype may engage in eating binges Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 4 Anorexia Nervosa About 90%–95% of cases occur in females The peak age of onset is between 14 and 18 years Between 0.5% and 2% of females in Western countries develop the disorder Many more display some symptoms Rates of anorexia nervosa are increasing in North America, Japan, and Europe Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 5 Anorexia Nervosa The “typical” case: A normal to slightly overweight female has been on a diet Escalation to anorexia nervosa may follow a stressful event Separation of parents Move or life transition Experience of personal failure Most patients recover However, about 2% to 6% become seriously ill and die as a result of medical complications or suicide Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 6 Anorexia Nervosa: The Clinical Picture The key goal for people with anorexia nervosa is becoming thin The driving motivation is fear: Of becoming obese Of giving in to the desire to eat Of losing control of body shape and weight Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 7 Anorexia Nervosa: The Clinical Picture Despite their dietary restrictions, people with anorexia are extremely preoccupied with food This includes thinking and reading about food and planning for meals This relationship is not necessarily causal It may be the result of food deprivation, as evidenced by the famous 1940s “starvation study” with conscientious objectors Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 8 Anorexia Nervosa: The Clinical Picture People with anorexia nervosa also think in distorted ways: Often have a low opinion of their body shape Tend to overestimate their actual proportions Adjustable lens assessment technique Hold maladaptive attitudes and misperceptions “I must be perfect in every way” “I will be a better person if I deprive myself ” “I can avoid guilt by not eating” Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 9 Anorexia Nervosa: The Clinical Picture People with anorexia may also display certain psychological problems: Depression (usually mild) Anxiety Low self-esteem Insomnia or other sleep disturbances Substance abuse Obsessive-compulsive patterns Perfectionism Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 10 Anorexia Nervosa: Medical Problems Caused by starvation: Amenorrhea Slow heart rate Low body temperature Low blood pressure Metabolic and electrolyte imbalances Dry skin, brittle nails Poor circulation Lanugo Body swelling Reduced bone density Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 11 The Vicious Cycle of Anorexia Fear of obesity and distorted body image lead to… Starvation Preoccupation with food Harder attempts at thinness Increased anxiety & depression Greater feelings of fear & loss of control Medical problems Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 12 Bulimia Nervosa Bulimia nervosa, also known as “binge-purge syndrome,” is characterized by binges: Bouts of uncontrolled overeating during a limited period of time Eats objectively more than most people would/could eat in a similar period Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 13 Bulimia Nervosa The disorder is also characterized by compensatory behaviors, which mark the subtype of the disorder: Purging-type bulimia nervosa Vomiting Misusing laxatives, diuretics, or enemas Nonpurging-type bulimia nervosa Fasting Exercising excessively Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 14 Bulimia Nervosa Like anorexia nervosa, about 90%–95% of bulimia nervosa cases occur in females The peak age of onset is between 15 and 21 years Symptoms may last for several years with periodic letup Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 15 Bulimia Nervosa Patients are generally of normal weight Often experience weight fluctuations Some may also qualify for a diagnosis of anorexia “Binge-eating disorder” may be a related diagnosis Symptoms include a pattern of binge eating with NO compensatory behaviors (such as vomiting) This condition is not yet listed in the DSM-IV-TR Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 16 Bulimia Nervosa Teens and young adults have frequently attempted binge-purge patterns as a means of weight loss, often after hearing accounts of bulimia from friends or the media In one study: 50% of college students reported periodic binges 6% tried vomiting 8% experimented with laxatives at least once Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 17 Bulimia Nervosa: Binges For people with bulimia nervosa, the number of binges per week can range from 2 to 40 Average: 10 per week Binges are often carried out in secret Binges involve eating massive amounts of food rapidly with little chewing Usually sweet foods with soft texture Binge-eaters commonly consume more than 1000 calories (often more than 3000 calories) per binge episode Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 18 Bulimia Nervosa: Binges Binges are usually preceded by feelings of tension and/or powerlessness Although the binge itself may be pleasurable, it is usually followed by feelings of extreme selfblame, guilt, depression, and fears of weight gain and “discovery” Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 19 Bulimia Nervosa: Compensatory Behaviors After a binge, people with bulimia nervosa try to compensate for and “undo” the caloric effects The most common compensatory behaviors: Vomiting Fails to prevent the absorption of half the calories consumed during a binge Affects ability to feel satiated greater hunger and bingeing Laxatives and diuretics Also almost completely fail to reduce the number of calories consumed Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 20 Bulimia Nervosa: Compensatory Behaviors Compensatory behaviors may temporarily relieve the negative feelings attached to binge eating Over time, however, a cycle develops in which purging bingeing purging… Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 21 Bulimia Nervosa The “typical” case: A normal to slightly overweight female has been on an intense diet Research suggests that even among normal subjects, bingeing often occurs after strict dieting For example, a study of binge-eating behavior in a lowcalorie weight loss program found that 62% of patients reported binge-eating episodes during treatment Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 22 Bulimia Nervosa vs. Anorexia Nervosa Similarities: Onset after a period of dieting Fear of becoming obese Drive to become thin Preoccupation with food, weight, appearance Elevated risk of self-harm or attempts at suicide Feelings of anxiety, depression, perfectionism Substance abuse Disturbed attitudes toward eating Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 23 Bulimia Nervosa vs. Anorexia Nervosa Differences: People with bulimia are more worried about pleasing others, being attractive to others, and having intimate relationships People with bulimia tend to be more sexually experienced People with bulimia display fewer of the obsessive qualities that drive restricting-type anorexia People with bulimia are more likely to have histories of mood swings, low frustration tolerance, and poor coping Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 24 Bulimia Nervosa vs. Anorexia Nervosa Differences: People with bulimia tend to be controlled by emotion – may change friendships easily People with bulimia are more likely to display characteristics of a personality disorder Different medical complications: Only half of women with bulimia experience amenorrhea vs. almost all women with anorexia People with bulimia suffer damage caused by purging, especially from vomiting and laxatives Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 25 What Causes Eating Disorders? Most theorists subscribe to a multidimensional risk perspective: Several key factors place individuals at risk More factors = greater risk Leading factors: Sociocultural conditions (societal and family pressures) Psychological problems (ego, cognitive, and mood disturbances) Biological factors Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 26 What Causes Eating Disorders? Societal Pressures Many theorists believe that current Western standards of female attractiveness have contributed to the rise of eating disorders Standards have changed throughout history toward a thinner ideal Miss America contestants have declined in weight by 0.28 lbs/yr; winners have declined by 0.37 lbs/yr Playboy centerfolds have lower average weight, bust, and hip measurements than in the past Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 27 What Causes Eating Disorders? Societal Pressures Certain groups are at greater risk from these pressures: Models, actors, dancers, and certain athletes Of college athletes surveyed, 9% met full criteria for an eating disorder while another 50% had symptoms 20% of surveyed gymnasts met full criteria for an eating disorder Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 28 What Causes Eating Disorders? Societal Pressures Societal attitudes may explain economic and racial differences seen in prevalence rates In the past, Caucasian women of higher SES expressed more concern about thinness and dieting These women had higher rates of eating disorders than African American women or Caucasian women of lower SES Recently, dieting and preoccupation with food, along with rates of eating disorders, are increasing in all groups Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 29 What Causes Eating Disorders? Societal Pressures The socially accepted prejudice against overweight people may also add to the “fear” and preoccupation about weight About 50% of elementary and 61% of middle school girls are currently dieting Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 30 What Causes Eating Disorders? Family Environment Families may play an important role in the development of eating disorders As many as half of the families of those with eating disorders have a long history of emphasizing thinness, appearance, and dieting Mothers of those with eating disorders are more likely to be dieters and perfectionistic themselves Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 31 What Causes Eating Disorders? Family Environment Abnormal family interactions and forms of communication within a family may also set the stage for an eating disorder Minuchin cites “enmeshed family patterns” as causal factors of eating disorders These patterns include overinvolvement in, and overconcern about, family member’s lives Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 32 What Causes Eating Disorders? Ego Deficiencies and Cognitive Disturbances Bruch argues that eating disorders are the result of disturbed mother–child interactions which lead to serious ego deficiencies in the child and to severe cognitive disturbances Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 33 What Causes Eating Disorders? Ego Deficiencies and Cognitive Disturbances Bruch argues that parents may respond to their children either effectively or ineffectively Effective parents accurately attend to a child’s biological and emotional needs Ineffective parents fail to attend to child’s internal needs; they feed when the child is anxious, comfort when the child is tired, etc. There is some empirical support for Bruch’s theory from clinical reports Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 34 What Causes Eating Disorders? Mood Disorders Many people with eating disorders, particularly those with bulimia nervosa, experience symptoms of depression Theorists believe mood disorders may “set the stage” for eating disorders Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 35 What Causes Eating Disorders? Mood Disorders There is empirical support for the claim that mood disorders set the stage for eating disorders: Many more people with an eating disorder qualify for a clinical diagnosis of major depressive disorder than do people in the general population Close relatives of those with eating disorders seem to have higher rates of mood disorders People with eating disorders, especially those with bulimia nervosa, have low levels of serotonin Symptoms of eating disorders are helped by antidepressant medications Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 36 What Causes Eating Disorders? Biological Factors Biological theorists suspect certain genes may leave some people particularly susceptible to eating disorders Consistent with this model: Relatives of people with eating disorders are 6 times more likely to develop the disorder themselves Identical (MZ) twins with bulimia: 23% Fraternal (DZ) twins with bulimia: 9% These findings may be related to low serotonin Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 37 What Causes Eating Disorders? Biological Factors Other theorists believe that eating disorders may be related to dysfunction of the hypothalamus Researchers have identified two separate areas that control eating: Lateral hypothalamus (LH) Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 38 What Causes Eating Disorders? Biological Factors Some theorists believe that the LH and VMH are responsible for weight set point – a “weight thermostat” of sorts Set by genetic inheritance and early eating practices, this mechanism is responsible for keeping an individual at a particular weight level If weight falls below set point: hunger, metabolism binges If weight rises above set point: hunger, metabolism Dieters end up in a fight against themselves to lose weight Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 39 Treatments for Eating Disorders Eating disorder treatments have two main goals: Correct abnormal eating patterns Address broader psychological and situational factors that have led to and are maintaining the eating problem This often requires the participation of family and friends Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 40 Treatments for Anorexia Nervosa The initial aims of treatment for anorexia nervosa are to: Restore proper weight Recover from malnourishment Restore proper eating Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 41 Treatments for Anorexia Nervosa In the past, treatment took place in a hospital setting; it is now often offered in an outpatient setting In life-threatening cases, clinicians may need to force tube and intravenous feedings on the patient This may breed distrust in the patient and create a power struggle Most common technique now is the use of supportive nursing care and high-calorie diets Necessary weight gain is often achieved in 8 to 12 weeks Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 42 Treatments for Anorexia Nervosa Researchers have found that people with anorexia must overcome their underlying psychological problems in order to achieve lasting improvement Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 43 Treatments for Anorexia Nervosa Therapists use a mixture of therapy and education to achieve this broader goal, using a combination of individual, group, and family approaches One focus of treatment is building autonomy and selfawareness Therapists help patients recognize their need for independence and control Therapists help patients recognize and trust their internal feelings Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 44 Treatments for Anorexia Nervosa Another focus of treatment is correcting disturbed cognitions, especially client misperceptions and attitudes about eating and weight Using cognitive approaches, therapists correct disturbed cognitions and educate about body distortions Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 45 Treatments for Anorexia Nervosa Another focus of treatment is changing family interactions Family therapy is important for anorexia The main issues are often separation and boundaries Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 46 Treatments for Anorexia Nervosa The use of combined treatment approaches has greatly improved the outlook for people with anorexia nervosa But even with combined treatment, recovery is difficult The course and outcome of the disorder vary from person to person Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 47 Treatments for Anorexia Nervosa Positives of treatment: Weight gain is often quickly restored 83% of patients still showed improvements after several years Menstruation often returns with return to normal weight The death rate from anorexia is declining Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 48 Treatments for Anorexia Nervosa Negatives of treatment: Close to 20% of patients remain troubled for years Even when it occurs, recovery is not always permanent Anorexic behaviors recur in at least one-third of recovered patients, usually triggered by stress Many patients still express concerns about body shape and weight Lingering emotional problems are common Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 49 Treatments for Bulimia Nervosa Treatment programs are relatively new but have risen in popularity Treatment is frequently offered in specialized eating disorder clinics Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 50 Treatments for Bulimia Nervosa The initial aims of treatment for bulimia nervosa are to: Eliminate binge-purge patterns Establish good eating habits Eliminate the underlying cause of bulimic patterns Programs emphasize education as much as therapy Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 51 Treatments for Bulimia Nervosa Several treatment strategies: Individual insight therapy The insight approach receiving the most attention is cognitive therapy, which helps clients recognize and change their maladaptive attitudes toward food, eating, weight, and shape As many as 65% stop their binge-purge cycle Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 52 Treatments for Bulimia Nervosa Several treatment strategies: Individual insight therapy If cognitive therapy isn’t effective, interpersonal therapy (IPT), a treatment that seeks to improve interpersonal functioning, may be tried A number of clinicians also suggest self-help groups or self-care manuals Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 53 Treatments for Bulimia Nervosa Several treatment strategies: Behavioral therapy Behavioral techniques are often included in treatment as a supplement to cognitive therapy Diaries are often a useful component of treatment Exposure and response prevention (ERP) is used to break the binge-purge cycle Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 54 Treatments for Bulimia Nervosa Several treatment strategies: Antidepressant medications During the past decade, antidepressant drugs have been used in bulimia treatment Most common is fluoxetine (Prozac), an SSRI Drugs help as many as 40% of patients Medications are best when used in combination with other forms of therapy Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 55 Treatments for Bulimia Nervosa Several treatment strategies: Group therapy Provides an opportunity for patients to express their thoughts, concerns, and experiences with one another Helpful in as many as 75% of cases, especially when combined with individual insight therapy Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 56 Treatments for Bulimia Nervosa Left untreated, bulimia can last for years Treatment provides immediate, significant improvement in about 40% of cases An additional 40% show moderate improvement Follow-up studies suggest that 10 years after treatment about 90% of patients have fully or partially recovered Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 57 Treatments for Bulimia Nervosa Relapse can be a significant problem, even among those who respond successfully to treatment Relapses are usually triggered by stress Relapses are more likely among persons who: Had a longer history of symptoms Vomited frequently Had histories of substance use Have lingering interpersonal problems Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 58 Treatments for Bulimia Nervosa Finally, treatment may also help improve overall psychological and social functioning Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e – Chapter 11 59