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The Psychology of
Mr. Hoffman
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Learning
Learning –
A process through which experience
produces lasting change in behavior or
mental processes
 Habituation –
Learning not to respond to repeated
presentation of a stimulus

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Learning

Mere exposure effect –
Learned preference for stimuli to which
we have been previously exposed
Behavioral learning –
Forms of learning that can be described
in terms of stimuli and responses
(e.g. classical and operant conditioning)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
What Sort of Learning
Does Classical
Conditioning Explain?
Classical conditioning is a
basic form of learning in which
a stimulus that produces an
innate reflex becomes
associated with a previously
neutral stimulus, which then
acquires the power to elicit
essentially the same response
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Essentials of Classical
Conditioning
Neutral stimulus –
Any stimulus that produces no
conditioned response prior to learning
 Acquisition –
Initial learning stage in classical
conditioning; conditioned response
becomes elicited by the conditioned
stimulus

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Essentials of Classical
Conditioning
Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
response (UCR)
Conditioned
stimulus (CS)
Conditioned
response (CR)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Essentials of Classical
Conditioning
Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
response (UCR)
The stimulus that elicits
an unconditioned
response
Conditioned
stimulus (CS)
Conditioned
response (CR)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Essentials of Classical
Conditioning
Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
response (UCR)
Conditioned
stimulus (CS)
The response elicited by
an unconditioned
stimulus without prior
learning
Conditioned
response (CR)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Essentials of Classical
Conditioning
Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
response (UCR)
Conditioned
stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral
stimulus that comes
to elicit the
conditioned response
Conditioned
response (CR)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Essentials of Classical
Conditioning
Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
response (UCR)
Conditioned
stimulus (CS)
Conditioned
response (CR)
A response elicited by a
previously neutral
stimulus that has become
associated with the
unconditioned stimulus
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning
Prior to conditioning
Neutral stimulus
(tone)
(Orientation to sound
but no response)
Unconditioned stimulus
(food powder in mouth)
Unconditioned response
(salivation)
Conditioning
Neutral stimulus
CS (tone)
+
Unconditioned stimulus
(food powder)
Conditioned response
(salivation)
After conditioning
Conditioned stimulus
(tone)
Conditioned response
(salivation)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning
Learning in which a response naturally
caused by one stimulus comes to be
elicited by a different, formerly neutral
stimulus
 Ivan Pavlov

Accidentally discovered classical
conditioning
 His experiments on salivation in dogs
turned into research on learning

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning
Extinction –
Weakening of a conditioned
association in the absence of an
unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer
 Spontaneous recovery –
Reappearance of an extinguished
conditioned response after a time delay

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Elements of Classical
Conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (US)
A stimulus that automatically causes a
specific response in an organism
 And example of a US would be food


Unconditioned response (UR)
The response caused by a US
 The UR is automatic and unlearned
 An example of a UR is salivation in
response to food

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Elements of Classical
Conditioning

Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A formerly neutral stimulus that is paired
with a US and eventually causes the
desired response all by itself
 An example of a CS is the bell in Pavlov’s
studies


Conditioned response (CR)
The learned response to the CS
 An example is salivation in response to the
bell

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning Procedure
Before Conditioning
Bell
(CS)
No
Response
Food
(US)
Salivation
(UR)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning Procedure
During Conditioning
Food
(US)
Bell
(CS)
Salivation
(UR)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning Procedure
After Conditioning
Bell
(CS)
Salivation
(CR)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
(1)
Acquisition
(CS + UCS)
(2)
Extinction
(CS alone)
(Time)
Trials
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Rest period
Strength of the CR
(Weak)
(Strong)
Acquisition, Extinction, and
Spontaneous Recovery
(3)
Spontaneous
Recovery
(CS alone)
Classical Conditioning:
Generalization and
Discrimination
Stimulus generalization involves
giving a conditioned response to
stimuli that are similar to the CS
 Stimulus discrimination involves
responding to one stimulus but
not to stimuli that are similar
 Confusing stimuli may cause
experimental neurosis

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning in
Humans

Classical conditioning is selective
Preparedness is the notion that humans
are predisposed to develop certain
phobias because they have survival value
 May explain common fears such as dark,
heights, and snakes

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning in
Humans

Many phobias are the result of classical
conditioning

The “Little Albert” experiment
demonstrated a classically conditioned
phobia
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
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Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
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+
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Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning In
Humans

Desensitization therapy
A technique that uses classical
conditioning to treat phobias
 Person learns to relax in presence of
stimulus that used to be upsetting

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Applications of Classical
Conditioning

Taste-aversion learning –
Biological tendency in which an
organism learns to avoid food with a
certain taste after a single experience,
if eating it is followed by illness
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
A Challenge to Pavlov
Why are some stimuli-consequence
combinations readily learned while
other combinations are highly resistant
to learning?
 What any organism can or cannot learn
in a given setting is due in part to its
evolutionary history

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning in Humans

Taste aversion
Learned association between the taste of a
certain food and a feeling of nausea or
revulsion
 This learning can occur quickly, often with
only one pairing
 Speed of learning is likely related to survival
instincts

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
How Do We Learn
New Behaviors by
Operant Conditioning?
In operant conditioning, the
consequences of behavior,
such as rewards and
punishments, influence the
chance that our behavior will
occur again
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Operant and Classical
Conditioning Compared
Classical conditioning involves the
association of two stimuli (UCS + CS)
before the response or behavior
 Operant conditioning involves a
reinforcing (reward) or punishing
stimulus after a response or behavior

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
How Do We Learn
New Behaviors by
Operant Conditioning?

Trial-and-error learning –
Learner gradually discovers the correct
response by attempting many behaviors and
noting which ones produce the desired
consequences
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Operant Conditioning
 Learning
in which an
organism’s behavior is
followed by a reward or
punishment
 Organism learns to perform
behavior in order to gain a
reward or avoid a punishment
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism

B.F. Skinner believed that the most
powerful influences on behavior are its
consequences
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Elements of Operant
Conditioning
 Reinforcer
A
stimulus or event that follows a
behavior and makes that behavior
more likely to occur again
 Punisher
A
stimulus or event that follows a
behavior and makes that behavior
less likely to occur again
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
IMPORTANT!
“Reinforce” means to
increase the probability of
that response happening
again
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
IMPORTANT!
 “Positive”
(+) Add
“Negative”
(-) Remove
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Power of Reinforcement
reinforcers –
Stimulus presented after a response that
increases the probability of that response
happening again
 Negative reinforcers –
Removal of an unpleasant stimulus,
contingent on a particular behavior
 Positive
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Types of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcer
(+)
Adds something
rewarding following
a behavior, making
that behavior more
likely to occur again
 Giving a dog a treat
for fetching a ball is
an example


Negative reinforcer
(-)
Removes something
unpleasant from the
environment
following a behavior,
making that
behavior more likely
to occur again
 Torturing a prisoner
for information

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Power of Reinforcement

Primary reinforcers –
Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that
have an innate basis because of their
biological value to an organism
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Power of Reinforcement
• Secondary reinforcers –
Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that
acquire their reinforcing power by their
learned association with primary
reinforcers
(also called conditioned reinforcers)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Contingencies of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement –
Reinforcement schedule in which all
correct responses are reinforced
 Partial reinforcement –
Reinforcement schedule in which some,
but not all, correct responses are
reinforced
(also called intermittent reinforcement)

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Contingencies of Reinforcement

Extinction –
In operant conditioning, a process by
which a response that has been learned
is weakened by the absence or removal
of reinforcement
How does this differ from extinction in
classical conditioning?
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio schedules –
Provide reward after a certain number
of responses
 Interval schedules –
Provide reward after a certain time
interval

Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Interval (VI)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio
(VR)
Fixed Interval
(FI)
Rewards appear after
a certain set number
of responses
e.g. factory workers
getting paid after
every 10 cases of
product are completed
Variable Interval
(VI)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio
(VR)
Fixed Interval
(FI)
Rewards appear after
a certain number of
responses, but that
number varies from
trial to trial
e.g. slot machine payoffs
Variable Interval
(VI)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio
(VR)
Fixed Interval
(FI)
Variable Interval
(VI)
Rewards appear after
a certain fixed amount
of time, regardless of
number of responses
e.g. weekly or monthly
paychecks
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio
(VR)
Fixed Interval
(FI)
Variable Interval
(VI)
Rewards appear after
a certain amount of
time, but that amount
varies from trial to
trial
e.g. random visits
from the boss who
delivers praise
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Schedules of Reinforcement

Interval schedules
 Reinforcement depends on the
passing of time
 Fixed-interval schedule
 Reinforcement
follows the first behavior
after a fixed amount of time has passed
 An example would be receiving a
paycheck every two weeks
 Variable-interval
schedule
 Reinforcement
follows the first behavior
after a variable amount of time has
passed
 An example would be pop quizzes
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Schedules of Reinforcement

Ratio schedules
Reinforcement depends on the number of
responses made
 Fixed-ratio schedule

 Reinforcement
follows a fixed number of
behaviors
 For example, being paid on a piecework basis

Variable-ratio schedule
 Reinforcement
follows a variable number of
behaviors
Psychology:be
An Introduction
 An example would
playing slot machines
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Response Patterns to Schedules
of Reinforcement
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Problem of Punishment
–
An aversive stimulus which
diminishes the strength of the
response it follows
 How does this differ from
negative reinforcement?
 Punishment
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Punishment
 Goal
of punishment is to decrease
the occurrence of a behavior
 Effective punishment
 Should
occur as soon as possible
after the behavior
 Should be sufficient, i.e., strong
enough
 Should be certain, occurring every
time the behavior does
 Should be consistent
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Punishment vs. Negative
Reinforcement
Negative
Reinforcement
Loud Noise
Response
Consequence
Press Lever
Loud Noise
Removed
Press Lever
Loud Noise
Applied
Punishment
No Noise
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
The Problem of Punishment
punishment –
The application of an aversive
stimulus after a response
 Positive
• Omission training (negative
punishment) –
The removal of an appetitive
stimulus after a response
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Punishment
Not as effective as reinforcement
 Does not teach proper behavior, only
suppresses undesirable behavior
 Causes upset that can impede learning
 May give impression that inflicting pain
is acceptable

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Four Kinds of Consequences
STIMULUS
+
Present
Remove
Positive or
appetitive
Negative or
aversive
Positive
Reinforcement
Punishment
Bonus for working
hard
leads to more hard
work
Negative
Reinforcement
Aspirin curing
headache causes
more aspirin use
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Getting speeding ticket
leads to less speeding
Omission
Training
Missing dinner leads to
less staying out late
The Use and Abuse of
Punishment


Power usually disappears when
threat of punishment is removed
Punishment




Often triggers aggression
May inhibit learning new and better
responses
Is often applied unequally
When does punishment work?
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Alternatives to Punishment
Extinction
 Reinforcing preferred activities



Premack principle
Prompting and shaping
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
How Does
Cognitive Psychology
Explain Learning?
According to cognitive
psychology, some forms of
learning must be explained
as changes in mental
processes, rather than as
changes in behavior alone
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
How Does
Cognitive Psychology
Explain Learning?
Insight learning –
Problem solving occurs by means of a
sudden reorganization of perceptions
 Cognitive maps –
A mental representation of physical
space

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Observational Learning:
Bandura’s Challenge to
Behaviorism

Observational learning –
Form of cognitive learning in which
new responses are acquired after
watching others’ behavior and the
consequences of their behavior
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Brain Mechanisms and
Learning

Long-term Potentiation –
Biological process involving physical
changes that strengthen the synapses
in groups of nerve cells; believed to be
the neural basis of learning
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Operant Conditioning is
Selective
Operant conditioning techniques work
best with behaviors that would typically
occur in a specific situation
 Superstitious behavior

Tendency to repeat behaviors that are
followed closely by a reinforcer, even if
they are not related
 For example, a particular pair of socks
might become “lucky” if something good
happened when you wore them

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Learned Helplessness


Failure to try to
avoid an unpleasant
stimulus because in
the past it was
unavoidable
Possible model for
depression in
humans
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Behavioral Change Using
Biofeedback
Biofeedback is an operant technique
that teaches people to gain voluntary
control over bodily processes like heart
rate and blood pressure
 When used to control brain activity it is
called neurofeedback

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

Response Acquisition
Classical
conditioning
 Naturally

occurring
responses are
attached to
conditioned
stimulus by pairing
that stimulus with
the unconditioned
stimulus
 Spacing of trials
Operant conditioning
 Learning
process in
which desired
responses are
followed by
reinforcers
 Shaping, reinforcing
successive
approximations to a
target behavior, can
speed up
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning


US and CS are no
longer paired,
eliminating the CR
 Spontaneous
recovery occurs
when the CR
temporarily returns
without additional
training

Extinction occurs when
reinforcement is
stopped, eliminating the
conditioned behavior
 Spontaneous recovery
occurs when behavior
temporarily returns
without additional
training

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

Generalization and
Discrimination
Classical
Operant conditioning

conditioning


Stimulus
generalization
 Stimulus
generates
similar responses
 Organism
learns to
respond to other
similar stimuli

Response generalization

Response discrimination
Stimulus
discrimination
 Organism
learns to
respond only to
specific stimuli
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
 Only
specific responses
are reinforced in the
presence of specific
stimuli
New Learning Based on
Original Learning
 Higher-Order Conditioning
in Classical Conditioning
 New
conditioning based on
earlier conditioning
 Earlier CS is used as a US for
further training
 Desensitization is based on this
principle
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
New Learning Based on Original
Learning

Secondary reinforcers in operant
conditioning

Primary reinforcer
 Intrinsically
rewarding
 Food, water, sex

Secondary reinforcer
 Acquire
rewarding properties by being
associated with primary reinforcers
 Provide ability to obtain primary reinforcer
 Example would be money
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Contingencies in Classical
Conditioning
Research has shown that a CS must
provide information about the US in
order for conditioning to occur
 This predictive relationship between
the CS and US is referred to as a
contingency

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Contingencies in Operant
Conditioning
Behaviors that are reinforced
intermittently are more resistant to
extinction
 Most behavior is reinforced with some
type of intermittent schedule

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Cognitive Learning
Learning that depends on mental
activity that is not directly observable
 Involves such processes as attention,
expectation, thinking, and memory

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Latent Learning and Cognitive
Maps

Latent learning is learning that takes
place before the subject realizes it and
is not immediately reflected in behavior

A cognitive map is latent learning
stored as a mental image
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Insight and Learning Sets

Insight is when learning seems to
occur in a sudden “flash” as elements
of a situation come together

Learning sets refer to increasing
effectiveness at problem solving
through experience, i.e., organisms
“learn how to learn”
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

Learning by
Observing
Social learning theory focuses on what we
learn from observing other people
 Observational or vicarious learning occurs
when we see the consequences of other
people’s behavior
 Vicarious reinforcement or vicarious
punishment affects the willingness of
people to perform behaviors they learned
by watching others
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Cognitive Learning in
Nonhumans
 Nonhumans
are capable of
classical and operant conditioning
 Nonhumans are also capable of
latent learning
 Research has also demonstrated
that animals are capable of
observational learning
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall