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The Psychology of Mr. Hoffman Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Learning Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes Habituation – Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Learning Mere exposure effect – Learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed Behavioral learning – Forms of learning that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses (e.g. classical and operant conditioning) Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall What Sort of Learning Does Classical Conditioning Explain? Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Neutral stimulus – Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning Acquisition – Initial learning stage in classical conditioning; conditioned response becomes elicited by the conditioned stimulus Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning Conditioned response (CR) Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response Conditioned response (CR) Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Prior to conditioning Neutral stimulus (tone) (Orientation to sound but no response) Unconditioned stimulus (food powder in mouth) Unconditioned response (salivation) Conditioning Neutral stimulus CS (tone) + Unconditioned stimulus (food powder) Conditioned response (salivation) After conditioning Conditioned stimulus (tone) Conditioned response (salivation) Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Learning in which a response naturally caused by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral stimulus Ivan Pavlov Accidentally discovered classical conditioning His experiments on salivation in dogs turned into research on learning Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer Spontaneous recovery – Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Elements of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US) A stimulus that automatically causes a specific response in an organism And example of a US would be food Unconditioned response (UR) The response caused by a US The UR is automatic and unlearned An example of a UR is salivation in response to food Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Elements of Classical Conditioning Conditioned stimulus (CS) A formerly neutral stimulus that is paired with a US and eventually causes the desired response all by itself An example of a CS is the bell in Pavlov’s studies Conditioned response (CR) The learned response to the CS An example is salivation in response to the bell Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Procedure Before Conditioning Bell (CS) No Response Food (US) Salivation (UR) Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Procedure During Conditioning Food (US) Bell (CS) Salivation (UR) Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning Procedure After Conditioning Bell (CS) Salivation (CR) Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall (1) Acquisition (CS + UCS) (2) Extinction (CS alone) (Time) Trials Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Rest period Strength of the CR (Weak) (Strong) Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery (3) Spontaneous Recovery (CS alone) Classical Conditioning: Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus generalization involves giving a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the CS Stimulus discrimination involves responding to one stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar Confusing stimuli may cause experimental neurosis Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning in Humans Classical conditioning is selective Preparedness is the notion that humans are predisposed to develop certain phobias because they have survival value May explain common fears such as dark, heights, and snakes Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning in Humans Many phobias are the result of classical conditioning The “Little Albert” experiment demonstrated a classically conditioned phobia Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall + = Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall + + = Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning In Humans Desensitization therapy A technique that uses classical conditioning to treat phobias Person learns to relax in presence of stimulus that used to be upsetting Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Applications of Classical Conditioning Taste-aversion learning – Biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall A Challenge to Pavlov Why are some stimuli-consequence combinations readily learned while other combinations are highly resistant to learning? What any organism can or cannot learn in a given setting is due in part to its evolutionary history Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Classical Conditioning in Humans Taste aversion Learned association between the taste of a certain food and a feeling of nausea or revulsion This learning can occur quickly, often with only one pairing Speed of learning is likely related to survival instincts Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior, such as rewards and punishments, influence the chance that our behavior will occur again Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared Classical conditioning involves the association of two stimuli (UCS + CS) before the response or behavior Operant conditioning involves a reinforcing (reward) or punishing stimulus after a response or behavior Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? Trial-and-error learning – Learner gradually discovers the correct response by attempting many behaviors and noting which ones produce the desired consequences Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Operant Conditioning Learning in which an organism’s behavior is followed by a reward or punishment Organism learns to perform behavior in order to gain a reward or avoid a punishment Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism B.F. Skinner believed that the most powerful influences on behavior are its consequences Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Elements of Operant Conditioning Reinforcer A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior more likely to occur again Punisher A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior less likely to occur again Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall IMPORTANT! “Reinforce” means to increase the probability of that response happening again Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall IMPORTANT! “Positive” (+) Add “Negative” (-) Remove Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall The Power of Reinforcement reinforcers – Stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again Negative reinforcers – Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior Positive Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Types of Reinforcement Positive reinforcer (+) Adds something rewarding following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again Giving a dog a treat for fetching a ball is an example Negative reinforcer (-) Removes something unpleasant from the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again Torturing a prisoner for information Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall The Power of Reinforcement Primary reinforcers – Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall The Power of Reinforcement • Secondary reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers (also called conditioned reinforcers) Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Contingencies of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced Partial reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced (also called intermittent reinforcement) Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Contingencies of Reinforcement Extinction – In operant conditioning, a process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement How does this differ from extinction in classical conditioning? Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI) Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses e.g. factory workers getting paid after every 10 cases of product are completed Variable Interval (VI) Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Rewards appear after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial e.g. slot machine payoffs Variable Interval (VI) Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses e.g. weekly or monthly paychecks Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial e.g. random visits from the boss who delivers praise Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Schedules of Reinforcement Interval schedules Reinforcement depends on the passing of time Fixed-interval schedule Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed An example would be receiving a paycheck every two weeks Variable-interval schedule Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a variable amount of time has passed An example would be pop quizzes Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio schedules Reinforcement depends on the number of responses made Fixed-ratio schedule Reinforcement follows a fixed number of behaviors For example, being paid on a piecework basis Variable-ratio schedule Reinforcement follows a variable number of behaviors Psychology:be An Introduction An example would playing slot machines Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Response Patterns to Schedules of Reinforcement Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall The Problem of Punishment – An aversive stimulus which diminishes the strength of the response it follows How does this differ from negative reinforcement? Punishment Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Punishment Goal of punishment is to decrease the occurrence of a behavior Effective punishment Should occur as soon as possible after the behavior Should be sufficient, i.e., strong enough Should be certain, occurring every time the behavior does Should be consistent Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Loud Noise Response Consequence Press Lever Loud Noise Removed Press Lever Loud Noise Applied Punishment No Noise Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall The Problem of Punishment punishment – The application of an aversive stimulus after a response Positive • Omission training (negative punishment) – The removal of an appetitive stimulus after a response Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Punishment Not as effective as reinforcement Does not teach proper behavior, only suppresses undesirable behavior Causes upset that can impede learning May give impression that inflicting pain is acceptable Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Four Kinds of Consequences STIMULUS + Present Remove Positive or appetitive Negative or aversive Positive Reinforcement Punishment Bonus for working hard leads to more hard work Negative Reinforcement Aspirin curing headache causes more aspirin use Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Getting speeding ticket leads to less speeding Omission Training Missing dinner leads to less staying out late The Use and Abuse of Punishment Power usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed Punishment Often triggers aggression May inhibit learning new and better responses Is often applied unequally When does punishment work? Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Alternatives to Punishment Extinction Reinforcing preferred activities Premack principle Prompting and shaping Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? Insight learning – Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions Cognitive maps – A mental representation of physical space Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism Observational learning – Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Brain Mechanisms and Learning Long-term Potentiation – Biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells; believed to be the neural basis of learning Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Operant Conditioning is Selective Operant conditioning techniques work best with behaviors that would typically occur in a specific situation Superstitious behavior Tendency to repeat behaviors that are followed closely by a reinforcer, even if they are not related For example, a particular pair of socks might become “lucky” if something good happened when you wore them Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Learned Helplessness Failure to try to avoid an unpleasant stimulus because in the past it was unavoidable Possible model for depression in humans Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Behavioral Change Using Biofeedback Biofeedback is an operant technique that teaches people to gain voluntary control over bodily processes like heart rate and blood pressure When used to control brain activity it is called neurofeedback Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Response Acquisition Classical conditioning Naturally occurring responses are attached to conditioned stimulus by pairing that stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus Spacing of trials Operant conditioning Learning process in which desired responses are followed by reinforcers Shaping, reinforcing successive approximations to a target behavior, can speed up Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Classical conditioning Operant conditioning US and CS are no longer paired, eliminating the CR Spontaneous recovery occurs when the CR temporarily returns without additional training Extinction occurs when reinforcement is stopped, eliminating the conditioned behavior Spontaneous recovery occurs when behavior temporarily returns without additional training Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Generalization and Discrimination Classical Operant conditioning conditioning Stimulus generalization Stimulus generates similar responses Organism learns to respond to other similar stimuli Response generalization Response discrimination Stimulus discrimination Organism learns to respond only to specific stimuli Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Only specific responses are reinforced in the presence of specific stimuli New Learning Based on Original Learning Higher-Order Conditioning in Classical Conditioning New conditioning based on earlier conditioning Earlier CS is used as a US for further training Desensitization is based on this principle Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall New Learning Based on Original Learning Secondary reinforcers in operant conditioning Primary reinforcer Intrinsically rewarding Food, water, sex Secondary reinforcer Acquire rewarding properties by being associated with primary reinforcers Provide ability to obtain primary reinforcer Example would be money Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Contingencies in Classical Conditioning Research has shown that a CS must provide information about the US in order for conditioning to occur This predictive relationship between the CS and US is referred to as a contingency Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Contingencies in Operant Conditioning Behaviors that are reinforced intermittently are more resistant to extinction Most behavior is reinforced with some type of intermittent schedule Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Cognitive Learning Learning that depends on mental activity that is not directly observable Involves such processes as attention, expectation, thinking, and memory Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps Latent learning is learning that takes place before the subject realizes it and is not immediately reflected in behavior A cognitive map is latent learning stored as a mental image Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Insight and Learning Sets Insight is when learning seems to occur in a sudden “flash” as elements of a situation come together Learning sets refer to increasing effectiveness at problem solving through experience, i.e., organisms “learn how to learn” Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Learning by Observing Social learning theory focuses on what we learn from observing other people Observational or vicarious learning occurs when we see the consequences of other people’s behavior Vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment affects the willingness of people to perform behaviors they learned by watching others Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Cognitive Learning in Nonhumans Nonhumans are capable of classical and operant conditioning Nonhumans are also capable of latent learning Research has also demonstrated that animals are capable of observational learning Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall