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BIOH111
Session 1 (Lectures 1 and 2)
Homeostasis & anatomical
terminology
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BIOH111
o Cell Module
o Tissue Module
o Skeletal Module
o Muscle Module
o Nervous Module
o Endocrine Module
o Integumentary Module
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Textbook and
required/recommended readings
o Principles of anatomy and physiology. Tortora et al; 14th
edition: Chapter 1
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Objectives
Lecture 1:
 Level of human body organisation and basic life processes
 Homeostasis – what is it and why is it important?
- negative
and positive feedback loops
- homeostatic imbalances
Lecture 2:
 Basic medial terminology used for the gross anatomy of the human
body
- Anatomical positions
- regions
- directional terminology
- planes and sections
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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
o The chemical level – this is covered in BIOB111
• atoms, the smallest units of matter that participate in chemical
reactions, and molecules, two or more atoms joined together.
o Cells – BIOH111 sessions 1, 2 and 3
• the basic structural and functional units of an organism.
o Tissues – BIOH111 sessions 4 and 5
• groups of similarly specialized cells and the substances
surrounding them that usually arise from a common ancestor
and perform certain special functions.
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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
o Organs
• structures of definite form that are composed of
two or more different tissues and have specific functions.
o Systems
• related organs that have a common function.
• 11 systems of the human body are: the integumentary,
skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine (BIOH111)
cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, urinary, digestive
and reproductive (BIOH122)
o The human organism
• a collection of structurally and functionally integrated systems; any
living individual – i.e. YOU 
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BASIC LIFE PROCESSES
Life processes distinguish living things from nonliving things.
o Metabolism is the sum of all chemical processes that
occur in the body, including catabolism and anabolism.
o Responsiveness is the ability to detect and respond to
changes in the external or internal environment.
o Movement includes motion of the whole body, individual
organs, single cells or even organelles inside cells.
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BASIC LIFE PROCESSES
o Growth refers to an increase in size and complexity, due
to an increase in the number of cells, size of cells, or both.
o Differentiation is the change in a cell from an
unspecialized state to a specialized state.
o Reproduction refers either to the formation of new cells
for growth, repair, or replacement, or the production of a
new individual.
What happens when one of these life processes does not occur properly?
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INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY
Human body can be studied on two different levels:
o Anatomy
• science of structure
• relationships revealed by dissection (cutting apart) and
imaging techniques
o Physiology
• science of body functions
• normal adult physiology is studied in this text
• some genetic variations are described
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ANATOMY
Definition: Anatomy is the study of structure and the
relationships among these structures. Anatomy is divided
into subdivisions:
surface anatomy, gross anatomy, systemic anatomy,
regional anatomy, radiographic anatomy, developmental
anatomy, embryology, cytology and pathological
anatomy.
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PHYSIOLOGY
Definition: Physiology is the study of how body structures
function. Physiology is also divided into subdivisions:
cell physiology, systems physiology, pathophysiology,
exercise physiology, neurophysiology, endocrinology,
cardiovascular physiology, immunophysiology,
respiratory physiology, renal physiology and
reproductive physiology
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CLINICAL APPLICATION
Clinicians use three non-invasive techniques to assess specific
aspects of body structure and function:
o Palpation - the examiner feels body surfaces with the
hands; e.g. pulse and heart rate determination
o Auscultation - the examiner listens to body sounds to
evaluate the functioning of certain organs; e.g. listening to
the lungs or heart
o Percussion - the examiner taps on the body surface with the
fingertips and listens to the resulting echo; e.g. fluid in the
lungs
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HOMEOSTASIS
Definition: Homeostasis is a condition of equilibrium or balance in the
body’s internal environment produced by the interplay of all the body’s
regulatory processes.
o Dynamic process – it is able to maintain the internal environment within
specific physiological limits by responding to the changing conditions (e.g.
volume and composition of body fluids; blood glucose level is kept within
narrow range 3.5-6.3mmols/L)
o Homeostasis is able to respond to both internal and external environment
disruptions (internal blood pressure; external CO2/O2 levels and temperature)
o First described by French physiologist Claude Bernard in 1865 and later
named Walter Cannon in 1926.
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BODY FLUIDS
o Composition of the surrounding fluids must be precisely
maintained at all times. 2 types:
1. Fluid inside body cells is called intracellular fluid.
2. Fluid outside body cells is called extracellular fluid
(ECF); since ECF is in constant motion throughout the
body and also surrounds all body cells, it is often called
the body’s internal environment found in two principal
places.
• ECF filling the narrow spaces between cells of tissues is called
interstitial fluid, intercellular fluid, or tissue fluid.
• ECF in blood vessels is termed plasma.
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CONTROL OF HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis is regulated by the nervous system and
endocrine system, acting together or independently,
using feedback systems.
• The nervous system detects changes and sends nerve
impulses to counteract the disruption; rapid change
• The endocrine system regulates homeostasis by
secreting hormones; slow change
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FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
Feedback system is a cycle of events in
which information about the status of a
condition is continually monitored and reported
to a central control region.
•
Any disruption that changes a controlled condition
is called a stimulus.
Feedback system consists of three basic parts:
o Receptor monitors changes
o Control center sets the range of values within
which a controlled condition should be
maintained
o Effector is a body structure that receives output
from the control center and produces a response
or effect that changes the controlled condition
Two types of feedback systems exist –
negative and positive
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NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
SYSTEMS
Negative feedback system reverses a
the original stimulus.
E.g: homeostasis of blood pressure (BP; force of
blood on walls of vessels)
1. Pressure receptors (baroreceptors) in
walls of certain arteries detect an increase
in BP (what can be the stimulus?)
2. Brain receives input and then signals heart
and blood vessels
• Heart rate slows and arterioles dilate
(increase in diameter)
3. BP returns to normal
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POSITIVE FEEDBACK
SYSTEMS
Positive feedback system enchances a
the original stimulus.
E.g: normal childbirth:
1. Stretch receptors in walls of the uterus
send signals to the brain (what is the
stimulus?)
2. Brain releases a hormone (oxytocin) into
bloodstream
3. Uterine smooth muscle contracts more
forcefully
4. More stretch  more hormone  more
contraction  etc.
5. The cycle ends with birth of the baby &
decrease in stretch
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HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
Disruption of homeostasis can lead to disorders, diseases and
death and can be determined using diagnosis.
o Disorder is a general term for any abnormality of structure
or function.
o Disease (local and systemic) is a more specific term for an
illness characterized by a recognizable set of signs and
symptoms.
• Signs are objective changes that a clinician can observe and
measure; e.g. fever or rash.
• Symptoms are subjective changes in body functions that are not
apparent to an observer; e.g. headache or nausea.
o Diagnosis is the science of distinguishing one disease from
another or determining the nature of a disease
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Talk in groups of 3-4: think in an integrative
way about the cells, tissues and
homeostasis in the process of aging.
Aging is characterized by a progressive decline in the
body’s responses to restore homeostasis. The “aging”
changes are apparent in all body systems, e.g. crinkled
skin, gray hair, loss of bone mass.
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Review videos
o Negative feedback:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YQMgV9pkwwA
o Positive feedback:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=heWOEkjutHc
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OBJECTIVES
Lecture 1:
 Level of human body organisation and basic life processes
 Homeostasis – what is it and why is it important?
- negative
and positive feedback loops
- homeostatic imbalances
Lecture 2:
 Basic medial terminology used for the gross anatomy of the human
body
- Anatomical positions
- regions
- directional terminology
- planes and sections
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BASIC ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
This material will also be covered in the
tutorial that accompanies this lesson
Anatomical position
Directional Terms
Body Cavities
Regions of the body
Body positions
Planes and Sections
Abdominopelvic Regions
and Quadrants
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Anatomical Position
The anatomical position is a
standardized method of observing or
imaging the body that allows precise
and consistent anatomical
references.
o When in the anatomical position,
the subject stands.
•
•
•
•
•
•
standing upright
facing the observer, head level
eyes facing forward
feet flat on the floor
arms at the sides
palms turned forward (ventral)
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Reclining Position
o If the body is lying face down, it is in the prone position.
o If the body is lying face up, it is in the supine position.
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Regional Names
Regional names are
names given to
specific regions of
the body for reference.
For example: cranial
(skull), thoracic
(chest), brachial (arm),
patellar (knee),
cephalic (head) and
gluteal (buttock).
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Directional Terms
Directional terms are used
to precisely locate one
part of the body relative to
another and to reduce
lengthy explanations.
Commonly used directional
terms: dorsal, superior,
medial, and distal
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Directional terms: Superior/Inferior &
Dorsal/Ventral
o Superior
• towards the head
e.g. eyes are superior to the mouth
o Inferior
• away from the head
e.g. stomach is inferior to the heart
o Dorsal or Posterior
• at the back of the body
e.g. brain is posterior to the
forehead
o Ventral or Anterior
• at the front of the body
e.g. sternum is anterior to the heart
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Directional terms: Medial/Lateral &
Proximal/Distal
o Medial
• nearer to the midline
of the body
o Proximal
• nearer to the attachment
of the limb to the trunk
e.g. heart lies medial to the lungs
e.g. knee is proximal to the ankle
o Lateral
• farther from the midline
of the body
o Distal
e.g. thumb is on the lateral side of
the hand
• further away from the
attachment of the limb
to the trunk
e.g. wrist is distal to the elbow
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Planes
Planes are imaginary flat
surfaces that are used to divide
the body or organs into definite
areas.
Principal planes are:
• sagital
• frontal (coronal)
• transverse (cross-sectional or
horizontal)
• oblique
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o Sagittal plane
• divides the body or an organ into left
and right sides; 2 types:
1. Midsagittal plane produces equal
halves
2. Parasagittal plane produces unequal
halves
o Frontal (coronal) plane
• divides the body or an organ into front
(anterior) and back (posterior) portions
o Transverse(cross-sectional) or
horizontal plane
• divides the body or an organ into upper
(superior) or lower (inferior) portions
o Oblique plane
• some combination of 2 other planes
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Sections
Sections are flat surfaces resulting from cuts through body
structures based and named according to the plane on
which the cut is made (transverse, frontal, and midsagittal
sections)
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Body Cavities
Body cavities are spaces that
enclose internal organs within the
body.
-
function is to protect, separate and
support internal organs
separated by bones muscles and
ligaments
Principal cavities are:
•
•
•
•
cranial
vertebral canal
thoracic
abdominopelvic
Dorsal
body cavity
Ventral
body cavity
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Dorsal Body Cavity
Near dorsal surface of body
o Contain 2 cavities:
• cranial cavity
– holds the brain
– formed by skull
• vertebral or spinal canal
– contains the spinal cord
– formed by vertebral column
o Meninges line dorsal body cavity
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Ventral Body Cavity
Near ventral surface of body
o Contains 2 cavities:
• thoracic cavity
• abdominopelvic cavity
o Diaphragm separates the two
ventral cavities
-
large, dome-shaped muscle
o Organs called viscera
o Organs covered with serous
membrane
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Thoracic Cavity
Contains:
1. two pleural cavities that enclose the lungs
2. pericardial cavity enclosed by the mediastinum, which includes
and surrounds the heart
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Abdominopelvic Cavity
The abdominopelvic cavity is divided into
a superior abdominal and an inferior
pelvic cavity.
•Viscera of the abdominal cavity
include the stomach, spleen,
pancreas, liver, gallbladder, small
intestine, and most of the large
intestine
•Viscera of the pelvic cavity include
the urinary bladder, portions of the
large intestine and internal female
and male reproductive structures.
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revision point – BIOH111 Session 5 (lecture 10)
Serous Membranes
Include the pleura, pericardium and peritoneum:
o Pleural membrane surrounds the lungs
• visceral pleura clings to the surface of the lungs
• parietal pleura lines the chest wall
o Pericardium is the serous membrane of the pericardial cavity
• visceral pericardium covers the surface of the heart
• parietal pericardium lines the chest wall
o Peritoneum is the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity
• visceral peritoneum covers the abdominal viscera
• parietal peritoneum lines the abdominal wall
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What is covered by blue box and represents white line?
Red box and represents black line?
Why are there only 2 boxes on the diagram?
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Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants
To describe the location of organs
or abdominopelvic abnormalities
easily, the abdominopelvic cavity
may be divided into:
• quadrants by passing imaginary
horizontal and vertical lines
through the umbilicus
• nine regions by drawing four
imaginary lines
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