Download Botanical Nomenclature

WHMF121
Session 1
Introduction to
plant taxonomy
and botanical
nomenclature
Photograph with permission of Wendy Williams
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Subject Objectives
1. Describe, explain and demonstrate the application of
botanical terminology, taxonomy and nomenclature
throughout the unit of study
2. Describe, differentiate and demonstrate a sound
knowledge of plant morphology through the application
of botanical keys, spotting characteristics and other
investigative methods for the purpose of plant
identification.
3. Explain, investigate and reflect upon traditional and
current research techniques commonly used in the
Australian complementary medicine industry specific to
the evaluation of dried plant material
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Subject Objectives
4. Explain and differentiate between the ecological factors
that can impact on plant conservation and raw material
quality.
5. Explore and critically evaluate current Australian
legislative guidelines as they relate to herbal medicine
growing, manufacture, dispensing and dosage forms
6. Discuss, compare and contrast the advantages and
disadvantages of a range of different herbal
preparations/dosage forms
7. Demonstrate the ability to manufacture a range of
different types of herbal preparations
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Prescribed Texts & Readings
Textbooks:
o Capon, B. (2010). Botany for gardeners. (3rd ed.).
Portland, OR: Timber Press.
o Adams, J. & Tan, E. (2006). Herbal manufacturing: How
to make medicines from plants. Melbourne,
Australia: Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE.
Useful text:
o Tan, E. (2013). Botany of the flowering plants. (4th ed.).
Melbourne, Australia: Northern Melbourne Institute
of TAFE.
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Academic Honesty and Plagiarism
• Definition: the intentional or unintentional copying or
presentation of any part of another person’s ideas, words
or work without acknowledgement for the purpose of
presenting the other persons work as one’s own work.
1. Negligent plagiarism – innocent or careless mistakes in
referencing
2. Dishonest plagiarism – knowingly presenting another person’s
work as ones own
• Turnitin®– plagiarism detection software
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Student, Policies, Procedures & Forms
• Assessment Policy –
outlines College’s
assessment philosophy
and principles
• Student Integrity Policy
– outlines policy around
academic honesty and
plagiarism
Student Integrity Policy, available at: http://www.endeavour.edu.au/docs/policies-and-handbooks/Student_Integrity_Policy.pdf
Assessment Policy, available at: http://www.endeavour.edu.au/docs/policies-and-handbooks/Assessment_Policy.pdf
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Assessment for WHMF121
• This subject requires an 80% attendance.
• This means that you can be absent up to twice (per
component) within the course of the semester and still
have a “Pass” grade.
• If you miss a 3rd session you need to apply for Special
Considerations to avoid a “Fail” grade.
• The overall pass rate for this subject is 50%.
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Assessment for WHMF121
o 1st Quiz – Session 11 - mix of Botany & Manufacturing
o
(20 %) - 40 minute MCQs/short answers done in class
o 2nd Quiz – Session 25 - mix of Botany & Manufacturing
o
(20 %) - 40 minute MCQs/short answers done in class
o Botany Project – Session 20 (20%)
•
Hand your projects into your lecturer in class
o Manufacturing Project – Session 20 (20%)
•
Hand your projects into your lecturer in class
o Workbook Botany Component – Session 26 (10 %)
•
Load your workbook onto the LMS by Sunday midnight of week 14
o Workbook Botany Component – Session 26 (10 %)
•
Load your workbook onto the LMS by Sunday midnight of week 14
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Plant Project
• How to start this project:
• Read about how to collect specimens
• http://www.qld.gov.au/environment/assets/document
s/plants-animals/herbarium/collecting-manual.pdf
• Start looking for specimens from today - your own
gardens, local parks, bush lands or nurseries
• If you are not certain about the plants, take a photo with
your phone and bring it to class
• Follow the marking criteria
• Hand your project in when you come to class on week 9
• Name, student number and the marking criteria attached
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This is a beautifully
presented project.
What’s wrong with it?
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Plant Family Identification
• Endeavour College has been
given permission to use Dr
Lena Struwe’s guide.
• This has the information on
all plant families you may
need to study for exams and
for your Botany Project.
• It is included in your study
material as a reading.
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Welcome to the Study of Botany
o Today’s Topic
• Discuss the different forms of assessment for botany
– As per Endeavours policy, all forms of assessment
must be attempted
• Introduction to the study of Botany
• Taxonomy
• Plant Phylum
• Botanical nomenclature
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Botany
•
From the late Latin ‘botanicus'; early Greek 'botanikos'
meaning “fodder or plants”.
•
The study of photosynthetic organisms - green plants,
fungi, various coloured algae and the like are included
in this science.
• Definition: “The biological science that studies plants”.
(Wohlmuth, 1992, p.2)
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Branches of Botany
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bacteriology: the study of bacteria
Cytology: the study of plant cells
Genetics: the study of heredity and its laws.
Geography: the study of plant distribution
Morphology: the study of form and structures.
Paleobotany: the study of fossil plant records
Physiology: the study of the activities and functions in
plants
• Taxonomy: the naming and classification of plants
(Wohlmuth, 1992, p.2)
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Plant Taxonomy
oThe science that systematically defines plants according to:
1.
Description - what they look like, colour, shape etc
2.
Identification - is it recognised or unknown to science
3.
Nomenclature - only one scientific name (Latin)
4.
Classification - ranking or relationship between plants
•
•
Taxonomy is based on phylogeny.
Phylogeny is defined as the evolutionary or ancestral
relationships between organisms and is based on the
theory of evolution.
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Charles Robert Darwin
Charles Darwin, born in 1809,
was a noted English naturalist
and academic.
He studied both medicine and
theology, and it was his book
“On the Origin of Species”,
published in 1859, that rocked
the academic world and
changed history forever.
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Theory of Evolution
• Charles Darwin’s ‘On the Origin of Species’, remains
the cornerstone of the theory of Evolution.
• According to this theory, the environment presents
challenges to the organism through:
1.
Natural Selection: The organism either adapts to this
change (fitness) or dies out in time
2.
Genetic Drift: A genetic modification is random
Genetic make up of populations (group of the same species capable
of breeding) changes over time.
(Simpson, M.G. 2006)
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The Five Kingdoms
oThe entire biological world can be divided or classified into 5
kingdoms…
oThese kingdoms are:
1)
Kingdom Animalia - animals
2)
Kingdom Plantae - plants
3)
Kingdom Fungi - fungus
4)
Kingdom Protista - algae & the like
5)
Kingdom Monera - single cell/bacterium
oAll living beings that we know off fall into one of these above
mentioned categories.
oKingdoms are the first and largest officially recognised
category, or taxa, of taxonomy.
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Living Things
Classified or ranked accordingly:
1) Kingdom
2) Phylum
3) Class
4) Order
5) Family
6) Subfamily
7) Tribe
8) Genus
9) Species
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Human Ranking
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Hominidae
Genus: Homo
Species: sapiens
Latin: Homo = man
Sapiens = wise, rational
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Plant Ranking
•Kingdom: Plantae
•Phylum: Magnoliophyta
•Class: Magnoliopsida
•Family: Asteraceae
•Subfamily: Cichorioideae
•Tribe: Lactucae
•Genus: Taraxacum
•Species: Taraxacum Officinale
photo of a dandelion
Keng tc. (2007) Close up
Keng tc. (2007) Close up photo of a dandelion.
Retrieved February 22, 2017 from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Top_view_o
f_a_dandelion.JPG
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The Twelve Phylum or Divisions of plants
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Phylum Hepaticophyta (liverworts)
Phylum Anthocerophyta (hornworts)
Phylum Bryophyta (starting point of primitive mosses)
Phylum Psilophyta (mosses)
Phylum Lycophyta (club mosses)
Phylum Equisetophyta or Sphenophyta (horsetails)
Phylum Polipodiophyta or Filicophyta (ferns)
Phylum Cycadophyta (cycads)
Phylum Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo biloba)
Phylum Coniferophyta (conifers)
Phylum Gnetophyta (Ephedra spp.)
Phylum Magnoliophyta (flowering plants)
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Plant Categories
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Non-Vascular Plants
• Comprises of the three most primitive phyla:
• Phylum Hepatophyta (liverworts)
• Phylum Anthocerophyta (hornworts)
• Phylum Brytophyta (mosses)
• Most common in warm and moist regions.
• Are sensitive to air pollution so are not common in
densely populated areas.
• Circa 23000 species.
• Small simple nonvascular land plants
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Non-Vascular Plants
Dendroceros sp., hornwort, growing on a tree
Lunularia cruciata, a thallose liverwort.
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Non-Vascular Plants
• No leaves, but have leaf like structures.
• Gametophyte is the dominant visible stage, albeit the
sporophyte grows upon and is nutritionally dependent
upon the gametophyte.
• No flowers fruit of seeds, therefore gametes need
water for fertilisation to occur.
• No roots, stems or vascular system
• Absorb water directly through the body surface.
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Phylum Psilophyta
• Evolved vascular tissues that conduct fluid around the plant
•
•
•
•
with increasing sophistication, some have true leaves, stems
and roots
Only two living genera: Psilotum (eg whiskferns) & Tmesipteris
(eg hanging fork-ferns)
Sporophyte is the dominant stage for reproduction.
Whiskferns are small plants with branching stems, Possess
rudimentary vascular system but no roots or leaves.
There are no flowers, fruit or seeds. Water is absorbed into
the underground part of the stem and carried to the aerial
parts. Water is needed for fertilisation.
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Phylum Psilophyta
Tmesipteris tannensis
Peter Woodard. 2011. Tmesipteris truncata, Avondale Creek
Turramurra. Australia. Retrieved February 23, 2017 from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tmesipteris#/
media/File:Tmesipteris_truncata_Turramurra.jpg
Psilotum nudum
Forest & Kim Starr. 2004. Psilotum nudum (habit).
Location: Maui, Auwahi.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Psilot
um_nudum#mediaviewer/File:Starr_0401310017_Psilotum_nudum.jpg
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Phylum Lycophyta
• Approximately 1000 living species in 5 genera.
• Examples include: Club mosses, spike mosses and quillworts.
• Sporophyte is the dominant stage for reproduction.
• Distinct roots - the first plants to evolve roots
• Stems and leaves as well as a vascular system to service
these structures.
• There are no flowers, fruits or seeds and require water for
fertilisation.
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Phylum Lycophyta
Lycopodium clavatum, a
spore bearing vascular
plant belonging to the club
moss family.
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Phylum Sphenophyta
• 1 genus called Equisetum - 25 species.
• Sporophyte is the dominant stage for reproduction.
• Small scale like leaves, specialised vascular tissue for transport
of water and nutrients from the roots.
• Organs that produce the spores are called strobili (cone like
structure born on the end of a stem).
• No flowers, fruit or seeds. Water needed for fertilisation.
• Examples include: horsetails, scour rushes
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Phylum Sphenophyta
Photograph with permission of Wendy Williams
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Phylum Filicophyta
• AKA the ferns, of around 12000 species.
• Larger plants with more sophisticated vasculature to meet
the needs of their size.
• Ferns have no have flowers, fruit or seeds. Water is
required for fertilisation.
• The fern plant is the sporophyte body, the spore producing
organs can often be found on the underside of the fern
fronds.
• Spores germinate into a flat, heart shaped gametophyte
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Phylum Filicophyta
Photograph with permission - Wendy Williams
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Phylum Filicophyta
Observe the
spores
contained on
the underside
of the fronds,
indicative of
ferns.
Doodia aspera (Prickly Rasp Fern)
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Doodia_aspera_(Pri
ckly_Rasp_Fern)_-_cultivated_3.jpg viewed on 4/7/16
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Seeded Plants
oEvolutionary advantage on primitive plants as they
evolved to have:
• Seeds that contain a starchy food source so the embryo
can survive until conditions are optimal
• Protective outer coat so the embryo is protected from the
environment until it germinates
• Pollen, which transports sperm so the plants are not
dependent on water for fertilisation but wind or air
movement
• Woody secondary growth giving plants structural
strength so they can grow bigger.
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Seeded Plants
• These seeded plant phylums are called gymnosperms
•
Gymno - naked and sperm - seed
• The seeds are not enclosed in fruit - they are fruitless
plants
• These include:
• Cycadophyta
• Ginkgophyta
• Coniferophyta
• Gnetophyta
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Phylum Cycadophyta
• Roughly 240 species of cycads in 10 genera.
• Prehistoric plants that have been around since the dinosaurs.
• Resemble palm trees with frond like leaves growing directly
from the trunk.
• Trunk is covered in the bases of shed leaves.
• Reproductive organs are found in cones in the centre of the
leaves at the top of the trunk.
• Mode of reproduction is specialised.
• Male & Female cones on separate plants.
• No flowers or fruit in this phylum.
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Phylum Cycadophyta
Male Cycuas revoluta
Photograph with permission - Wendy Williams
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Phylum Cycadophyta
Female Cycas revoluta
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flickr_-_brewbooks__Megasporophylls_of_Female_Cycas_revoluta.jpg viewed 4/7/16
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Phylum Ginkgophyta
• Only one species in this entire division.
• This is Ginkgo biloba (maidenhair tree) is a slow growing tree, they have
a sophisticated woody vascular system.
• Male and female reproductive organs grow on separate plants.
• The pollen is produced in groups of strobili on male plants.
• Ovules exist on the branches of the female plants.
• Ginkgo fact:
• Fertilisation occurs on the tree after the ovules have fallen
to the ground. No flowers or fruit.
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Phylum Ginkgophyta
Photograph with permission - Wendy Williams
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Ginkgo biloba
Male & female trees, the ovules
develop into nuts
female ovules
male strobili
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Ginkgo_b
iloba#mediaviewer/File:Ginkgo_biloba__female_flower.JPG viewed 4/7/16
Photograph with permission – David Stelfox
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Phylum Coniferophyta
•
•
•
•
Seeds develop in the open on the cone scales
Conifers include Pines, Firs, Cypress, Juniper etc.
Circa 550 species grouped into 50 genera.
Largest tree in the world Sequoia sempervirens (see
picture)
• Reproduction is highly specialised, with male and female
cones found on the same plant.
• The larger female cones near the bases of branches and
small male cones towards the tips - reproduction is
similar to cycads
• No flowers or fruit in this group
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Phylum Coniferophyta
Female pine cone
Male pine cone
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pine_cones,_male_and_female.jpg
Viewed 4/7/16
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Phylum Coniferophyta
Sequoia sempervirens, a
member of this division,
are some of the largest
and oldest plants known.
This photograph was
taken in 2006 in the
Sequoia National Park the man is dwarfed by the
size of the tree trunk
Photograph with permission - Wendy Williams
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Phylum Gnetophyta
• Only 100 species in 3 genera:
• Gnetum
• Ephedra
• Welwitschia
• Present a number of advanced characteristics:
• Sophisticated vascular system
• Reproductive organs resemble those of the angiosperms.
• Although the strobili resemble flowers, members of this
division do not possess any flowers or fruit.
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Ephedra sinica
• Used in traditional Chinese
medicine for over 2000 years
• Specifically for asthma,
allergic rhinitis, URT infections
and as a general stimulant
tonic.
• It is a scheduled herb in
Australia due to the content of
ephedrine.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ephedra_californica_2.jpg viewed 4/7/16
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Welwitschia mirabilis
Watch the video
ohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PVLACJsoGjk
Permission Secret Life of Plants – David Attenborough
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Flowering Plants
• The most evolved plants: Phylum Magnoliophyta
• Advantage of seeds - future generations
• Advantage of flowers - streamline sexual reproduction
by attracting pollinators rather than leaving it to chance
(wind dispersal)
• Advantage of fruit - more efficient seed dispersal.
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Phylum Magnoliophyta
• Angiosperms
• From the Greek angion meaning vessel and sperma
meaning seed
• Most highly evolved in the plant kingdom
• 352,000 species, that grow in a myriad of shapes and
sizes. http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/A/
• Highly sophisticated reproductive and vascular systems.
• Plant body is the sporophyte stage
• Gametophyte stage is the pollen and ovules produced in
the male and female organs of the flower.
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Phylum Magnoliophyta
Divided into two classes based on the number of
cotyledons or seed leaves that they have:
• Class Liliopsida - one seed leaf
• Called monocotyledons or monocots for short
• Divided into groups of 20 orders
• There are about 62,000 species - including grasses,
lilies, irises, orchids and palms
• Class Magnoliopsida - two seed leaves
• Called dicotyledons or dicots
• Divided into groups of about 70 orders.
• There are about 290,000 species.
»
(We will discuss these next week)
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Botanical Nomenclature
• Phylogeny (evolutionary or ancestral relationships
between organisms) is the basis of taxonomy (system of
organising living things), in which the species is the basic
unit.
• This is essential to the understanding of taxonomy.
• Nomenclature is defined as: “The procedure of assigning
names to the kinds and groups of organisms listed in a
taxonomic classification”.
• Latin is used because that was the language used by
scholars during the 18th century when many of the
species were first identified and named. Greek is also
sometimes used…
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Botanical Nomenclature
•
•
•
•
Carl von Linné / Linnaeus (1707 – 1778) was the man
who pioneered the system of classifying all living
organism
Binomial nomenclature is the system of naming plants –
2 names
Linnaeus based his plant classification on floral
characteristics
Modern taxonomy combines a number of techniques to
classify plants:
• Comparative DNA
• Comparative morphology & anatomy
• Comparison of chemical compounds
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Botanical Nomenclature
A Latin binomial by convention is written in italics and
consists of two words:
1.Generic name
o - Always has a capital letter.
o - Is the name of the genus to which the species
belongs.
2.Specific epithet
o - Does not have a capital letter
o - Is specific to, or defines the species within the
genus.
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Botanical Nomenclature
Let’s look at how the herb Peppermint is botanically
classified:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Kingdom:
Phylum:
Class:
Order:
Family:
Genus:
Species:
Plantae
Magnoliophyta
Magnoliopsida
Lamiales
Lamiaceae
Mentha
piperita.
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Botanical Nomenclature
• The specific epithet may be used in combination with
different generic names to name different species. It will
often describe the species in some way:
• “piperita” means peppery
• “vulgaris” means common
• “sativa” means “of the fields”
• “tinctora” means it was used as a dye
• “longa” describing the length of leaf, stem etc
• “alba” meaning white
• “odorata” meaning fragrance
• “nigrum” meaning black
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Botanical Nomenclature
• Hundreds of herbs have the specific epithet “officinalis” or
“officinale”
• This is because they were official medicines included in
published Materia Medica (books that tell you how the use
the herbs) at the time Linnaeus set about to give each
species on earth it’s own specific name.
• Taraxacum officinale
• Zingiber officinale
• Rosmarinus officinalis
• Symphytum officinale
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Activity
o Refer to the reading:
o
“Botanical Latin - The Poetry of Herb Names”
• Find 6 medicinal plants you know, find their Botanical
Names and the meaning of their names
• Why does the spelling of the word officinalis / officinale
differ?
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Hybrid Plants
• Plants of two different species do not usually interbreed
• When interbreeding does occur the offspring is said to be
a hybrid.
• Hybrid species have not evolved like other species but
have been bred by crossing parents of different species.
• Hybrids are named using both parents names separated
by “x”
• Digitalis lutea crossed with Digitalis purpurea would be
“Digitalis lutea x D.purpurea.
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Botanical Nomenclature
• Herbalists do not use common names and always use the
herbs scientific name to avoid confusion.
• Dirr’s Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, 5th Edition.
• Nymphaea alba L. (White Waterlily) has:
• 15 common names in English
• 44 common names in French
• 81 common names in German
• – but only one Latin name
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The International Code of
Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)
• Most plants have a common name which varies from country to
country and regionally within countries.
• The ICBN formalises the convention for the scientific or
botanical naming of plants, especially the names of species.
• Formed in 1867, it regularly meets every six years to discuss
changes to plant names or the naming of new species.
• According to the ICBN, Latin names used in print are either italicised
or underlined.
o
Example: Mentha x piperita or Mentha piperita
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Botanical Names can Change
• Classification and names can be changed for 3 reasons:
1.
To be consistent with new conventions
2.
More information or material becomes available
3.
Information is reinterpreted or a different opinion
becomes accepted.
• More information regarding ICBN:
http://courses.washington.edu/bot113/summer/WebReadings/PdfReadings/BOTANICAL_NOMENCLATURE.pdf
4/7/16
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These names changed at the last meeting of the ICBN in
2012 in Melbourne & validated by the Australian Register of
Therapeutic Goods as the correct medicinal plant names.
Old Name
New Authenticated Name
Aloe barbadensis
Aloe vera
Anthemis nobilis
Chamaemelum nobile
Cassia senna
Senna alexandrina
Cimicifuga foetida
Actaea cimicifuga
Cimicifuga heracleifolia
Actaea heracleifolia
Cimicifuga racemosa
Actaea racemosa
Pulsatilla vulgaris
Anemone pulsatilla
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Changes to naming of Plant
Families
Common name
Former name
Current name
Typical genus
Parsely family
Umbelliferae
Apiaceae
Apium
Daisy family
Compositae
Asteraceae
Aster
Cabbage family
Cruciferae
Brassicaceae
Brassica
Bean family
Leguminosae
Fabaceae
Faba
Mint family
Labiatae
Lamiaceae
Lamium
Grass family
Graminae
Poaceae
Poa
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Tutorial Session
o Student Workbook: Session No.1 - answer the
questions and do the exercises
o It must be loaded via LMS and put through Turnitin® for
grading at the end of session 26 (week 14)
• The Turnitin® score may be high as you would all have similar
answers and that is OK
o Consistently work through your workbook each week
o We will try to cover the exercises in the workbook during
the tutorial – bring laptops with you
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Next Week
o Preparation:
• Read through the readings supplied, for Session No. 1 if you
haven’t already done so.
• Read the section in your textbook on this area:
– Pant taxonomy
– Nomenclature
– Plant diversity
o Next Week:
• The life cycle of flowering plants
• Seeds – we will be germinating some seeds
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Suggested Reading
oClarke, I. & Lee, H. (1987). Name that flower: The identification of
flowering plants. (pp. 50-51.). Carlton, Vic: Melbourne University
Press.
oBisset, N. & Wichtl, M 2004, Herbal Drugs and
Phytopharmaceuticals (2nd ed.). Stuttgart, Germany: Medpharm
Scientific Publishers.
oMauseth, J. (2014). Botany: An introduction to plant biology. (5th ed.
pp. 440-459.). MASS.: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
oStearn, W.T. (2004). Botanical Latin. (4th ed. pp. 14-38.). OR.: Timber
Press Publishers.
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References
Pictures:
o All pictures, photos and diagrams have been obtained in the public domain or
permission has been given from their owners for display as a resource.
Texts:
o Clarke, I. & Lee, H. (1987). Name that flower: The identification of flowering plants.
Carlton, Vic: Melbourne University Press.
o Darwin, CR 1859, On the Origin of Species, Retrieved on 22 February, 2017, from
http://www.literature.org/authors/darwin-charles/the-origin-of-species/
o Simpson, M.G. (2006). Plant systematics. MASS, USA: Elsevier Academic Press.
o Tan, E. (2013). Botany of the flowering plants (4th ed.). Preston, Vic: Northern
Melbourne Institute of TAFE.
o Wohlmuth, H. (1992). An introduction to botany and plant identification. (2nd ed.).
Lismore, NSW: MacPlatypus Productions.
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