Download 05 Vocab - Byzantium and the Dar al

Chapter Five: Byzantium and the Dar al-Islam
Byzantium: a Survivor and Transmitter Society
Period of Formation
Period of Survival
Golden Age
Decline and Fall
324 – 610
610 – 843
843 – 1071
1071 - 1453
Basil II (976-1025): Byzantine emperor, known as "Basil the Bulgar Slayer" for his successful
campaign against the neighboring Bulgars. After his victory at the Battle of Kleidion in 1014 C.E., Basil
reportedly commanded his forces to blind fourteen thousand Bulgarian survivors.
Belisarius: Brilliant general of the Justinian reign; launched military campaigns to reconquer Western
Europe in 533 and brought Italy, Sicily, northwestern Africa, and southern Spain under control of the
Byzantine Empire.
Charlemagne: Frankish ruler, received an imperial crown from the pope in Rome in 800, and thus
directly challenged Byzantine claims to imperial authority over the western lands of the former Roman
Empire
Constantine was the Roman emperor, known for his unification of the Roman empire after it was
divided by Diocletian into two administrative districts; established Constantinople as the new capital
city; also known as the first Christian emperor of the Roman empire, whose Edict of Milan in 313 C. E.
allowed Christians to practice their faith openly.
Constantine XI: was the last Emperor of the Constantinople who died defending his city from the
Ottoman Turks.
Edward Gibbon was a British historian who lived around the time of the Revolutionary War. He was in
many ways the first modern historian. In his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire blamed the
Christian religion for taking away the manliness and civic virtue of the ancient Romans and he carried
that prejudice into his evaluation of Byzantium.
Robert Guiscard was the Norman adventurer who led his Norman Vikings from Northern Europe
through the straits of Gibraltar, across the Mediterranean and conquered Byzantine Sicily and Southern
Italy in the 1060s.
Heraclius: first true Byzantine Emperor who in the early 7th century defeated both the invading Avars
and the Persian Sasanids who had captured Palestine. His victory was so complete that he retrieved the
Holy Cross from the Persian Capital and returned it to Jerusalem. Later invading Muslim armies
defeated his armies at Yarmuk and overran Syria and Palestine.
Justinian, 527-565: Byzantine emperor, known for his campaign of rebuilding Constantinople, his
codification of Roman law, and his military campaigns that succeeded in control of Italy, Sicily,
Northwestern Africa, and southern Spain.
Leo III was the Byzantine Emperor who in 730 launched the Iconoclasm movement designed to destroy
all religious images, especially the holy pictures called Icons.
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Liutprand was the Bishop of Cremona, who visited Constantinople in 949 and 968 on business for the
pope. He hated Hellenism and the Byzantines and described the emperor as, “a monstrosity of a man, a
dwarf, fat headed, and with tiny mole’s eyes” and Constantinople as a sleazy and dirty city with people
effeminate and cunning
Mehmed II was the Ottoman who conquered the city of Constantinople in 1453 C.E.
Prince Vladimir was the ruler of the proto-Russian kingdom of Kiev; in 989, he converted to Orthodox
Christianity and compelled his kingdom to do the same.
St. Basil (329-379 C.E.): Patriarch of Constantinople whose effort to reform and regulate Byzantine
monasteries contributed to the spread of Basilian monasticism throughout the empire.
Sts. Cyril and Methodius: Two brothers from Thessalonica in Greece who were sent as missionaries by
Byzantine government to Bulgaria and Moravia (which included much of the modern Czech, Slovakian,
and Hungarian territories) during the mid-9th century; responsible for creating an alphabet, known as the
Cyrillic alphabet, for previously illiterate Slavic peoples.
Symeon was the Bulgarian king who collapsed from shock and died when he saw his surviving army
limping home with the eyes gouged out by Basil II.
Theodora (1): Wife of emperor Justinian; offered advice on sensitive political, diplomatic, and
theological issues.
Theodora (2): Empress who restored the Icons and Orthodoxy in 843.
Arianism: was the heresy which taught that Jesus was a divine being but created by the Father. It
appeared that Arius (a priest of Alexandria) and his followers believed that Jesus was an important
prophet and even divine, but also a man like other men. Constantine had the Council of Nicaea condemn
Arianism in 325. (cf. the orthodox position was that Jesus was fully God and fully man.)
Solidus or Bezant: was a Byzantine coin which became the standard currency of the Mediterranean
basin.
Boyars: the name of the Kievan and later Russian nobility
Bulgaria: Powerful kingdom in northern portions of Balkan peninsula; exerted constant pressure on
borders of the Byzantine empire; defeated by emperor Basil II at the battle of Kleidion in 1014 C.E.;
development strongly influenced by Byzantium.
Byzantine Empire: Eastern half of the Roman Empire named after Byzantium, a modest market town
and fishing village located on a strategically important location in the Sea of Marmora. The emperor
Constantine designated Byzantium as the site of a new imperial capital, Constantinople or the “City of
Constantine.” Beginning in the 7th century, it lost Palestine, Syria, and Egypt to Islam. Constantinople
finally collapsed in 1453 under the attack of Ottoman Turks.
Caesaropapism: Refers to the domination of imperial rule over Christianity in the Byzantine empire;
emperors not only ruled as secular lords but also played an active and prominent role in ecclesiastical
affairs.
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Corpus Iuris Civilis or Body of the Civil Law: was codified under emperor Justinian; influenced civil
law codes throughout much of Western Europe. It was the first great codification of Law since the Code
of Hammurabi.
Eastern Orthodox Church: Christian church of the Byzantine empire after the schism of Christianity in
1054 C.E. Its theology reflected the strong and continuing influence of classical Greek philosophy.
The Fourth Crusade (1204): Expedition originally intended to recapture Jerusalem and other sites holy
to Christians from Muslims, but diverted by Venetian merchants to the sacking of Constantinople in
1204. Byzantine forces recaptured the capital in 1261.
Greek Fire: A devastating incendiary weapon consisting of a mixture of sulphur, lime, and petroleum;
utilized effectively by Byzantine forces against Islamic invaders during the late 7th and early 8th
centuries.
Great Schism: was the rupture between the Eastern and Western Churches when each side mutually
excommunicated each other in 1054.
Greens and Blues: were two factions of fans for chariot races in Constantinople before the 7th century.
Often fought in the streets against each other, but in 532 the two factions united to protest against high
taxes. The rioters seized the Hippodrome (the large stadium for chariot racing) and proclaimed a new
emperor. The uprising was quelled and thousands of rioters were killed by the government army.
Hagia Sophia: Magnificent church constructed in Constantinople during the reign of Justinian. Later
became a mosque and a museum, which ranks as one of the world's most important examples of
Christian architecture.
Iconoclasm: Byzantine imperial policy inaugurated by Emperor Leo III (re. 717-741 C.E.) to destroy
religious images and prohibit their use in churches. Debates about iconoclasm raged in Byzantium for
more than a century. In 787 the Second Council of Nicaea, pushed along by the Empress Irene,
reaffirmed Icons, but later emperors again tried to enforce iconoclasm. In 843, however, the issued was
laid to rest when the Empress Theodora restored the use icons and iconoclasm was defeated. But the
idea did not die and was popular with Monophysites in Muslim lands. Much later in the early Sixteenth
Century during the Protestant Reformation some reformers, notably John Calvin destroyed Catholic
works of art which they felt were idols.
Monophysitism: taught that Christ had only one nature, the divine and was condemned at the Council
of Chalcedon in 451. Monophysite in Egypt and Palestine resented the Orthodoxy being forced upon
them they so easily which helps to explain why these areas fell so easily to Muslim invaders in the 7th
century. Monophysitism also spread to Armenia and Ethiopia and is found in these counties today as
well as communities in Syria and India.
Nestorianism: was a heresy that should never have been a heresy. Nestorius, the patriarch of
Constantinople, taught Christ was one person in two natures, as opposed to the orthodox position that
Christ had one nature of two persons. Nestorius was condemned at the Council of Ephesus in 431, but
now we know he meant that same thing as the orthodox. NEVERTHELESS, many of Nestorius
followers began to adopt the idea that Christ had two independent natures. Nestorianism was popular
in Syria and the Persians helped the Nestorians. Although it died in the Empire, Nestorianism spread
along the Silk Roads into central Asia, reaching Chinese capital of Chang’an (Xian) by 635 – and, later
on, Korea and Mongolia.
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Normans: A Scandinavian people who seized Normandy (in northern France) during the early 11th
century and settled there. Within a few decades, Norman armies led by Robert Guiscard took over
southern Italy and expelled Byzantine authorities there.
Ottoman Turks: Muslim Turks who captured Constantinople in 1453 and absorbed Byzantium into
their expanding Ottoman empire.
Roman Catholic Church: was the Christian church of Western Europe presenting opposing doctrinal
positions to those of the Eastern Orthodox churches of the Byzantine Empire.
Second Rome was another name for Constantinople, which (like Rome in its heyday of Imperial glory)
was a beautiful city of enormous palaces for the wealthy, but comfortable dwellings for the lesser
classes. It was a cosmopolitan city of churches, baths, taverns, restaurants, theaters and the Hippodrome.
Saljuqs or Seljuks: were nomadic Turkish peoples who invaded the Byzantine Empire in the 11th
century. In 1071, they defeated the Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert and took over much of
Anatolia.
Theme: Administrative organization of the Byzantine Empire devised to strengthen the free peasantry.
Each province (theme) was under the control of a general who assumed responsibility for both military
defense and civil administration. Generals recruited armies from free peasants who received allotments
of land in exchange for military service
The Dar al-Islam
Allah is the Supreme God who ruled the universe in the strictly monotheistic religion of Islam.
Muhammad: Muhammad ibn Abdullah (570-632 C.E.), founder and prophet of Islam; born in Mecca;
received revelations from Allah about 610 C.E. and by his own understanding and account, became the
last prophet of Allah.
Khadijh: First wife of Muhammad, a wealthy widow in Mecca.
Abu Bakr or Bekr: was a follower and friend of Muhammad’s and – as such - after
Muhammad's death, became the first caliph of the Islamic community.
The
Rashidun
or
Rightly
Guided
Caliphs
Omar (634-644) was the Second Caliph. Like Abu Bekr he was close friend of
Muhammad and under his guidance the Islamic conquest mushroomed defeating the
Byzantines at Yarmuk in 636 and the Sasanids at Battle of al-Qādisiyyah (also in 636),
near the banks of the Euphrates River.
Uthman (644-656) was and early convert and friend of Muhammad and became the
Third Caliph, who reigned for twelve years. During his rule, all of Iran, most of North
Africa, the Caucasus and Cyprus were conquered and incorporated into the Islamic
Empire.
Ali was a cousin and close companion of Muhammad and became the fourth caliph. But
the Umayyad tribe disagreed and managed to get their candidate, Mu’awiya, elected
caliph in 660. Ali and Mu’awiya agreed to divide the empire, but Ali was assassinated in
661 and Islam fractured into two sects: the Shiites, who supported the rights of Ali’s
descendents and the Sunni, who became the majority party.
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Abu al-Abbas: Descendant of Muhammad's uncle; allied with Shiites and with non-Arab Muslims to
launch rebellion against the Umayyad dynasty; founded the Abbasid dynasty that lasted from 750 to
1258 C.E.
Abd al-Rahman was a Umayyad prince who managed to escape the slaughter following the overthrow
of the Umayyad Dynasty. He managed to escape and found an Umayyad principality in al-Andulas
(Spain) where he called himself the Emir of Cordova.
al-Mansur was the successor of Abu al-Abbas who moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad in
Mesopotamia. The court at Baghdad soon became a center for the study of Islam and the caliphs
supported a community of scholars who interpreted the Quran, collected sayings of Muhammad and
studied Arabic grammar.
al-Musta'sim was the last Abbasid caliph, whom the Mongols had wrapped in a rug and trampled to
death with their horses in 1158.
Malik Ibn Anas was an Islamic scholar who included Zoroastrians among the Peoples of the Book
based on a verse in the Qur'an that says, "Those who follow the Jewish and the Sabi'een, Christians,
Magians and Polythesists — Allah will judge them on the Day of Judgement:" Quran 22:17.
Charles Martel: Frankish leader who defeated the Muslims at Tours in Southern France in 732.
Harun al-Rashid: was a famous caliph whose reign (786-808 C.E.) brought the Abbasid dynasty to its
high point; known for his support of artists and writers, lavish living, and luxurious gifts; his death led to
civil war over succession between his sons seriously damaging Abbasid authority.
al-Ghazali: Persian theologian and famous Islamic Sufi (1058-1111); argued that Greek philosophy and
human reasoning were vain pursuits that would inevitably lead to confusion rather than understanding,
and only through devotion to Allah and guidance from the Quran could human beings begin to
appreciate the uniqueness and power of Allah.
Ibn Rushd was a twelfth century Muslim philosopher (1126-1198), known in the west as Averroes. He
was called Shârih [or the Commentator] because of his explanations of Aristotle. He sought to articulate
a purely rational understanding of the world; had profound influence on the development of European
scholasticism during the 13th century.
Saladin became renowned in both the Muslim and Christian worlds for his leadership and military
prowess tempered by his chivalry and merciful nature. In 1171, he ended Fatimid power; in 1187, he
reconquered Jerusalem; he later (in the 1190s) held the city against the attacks of the Third Crusade, but
eventually agreed to a treaty whereby unarmed Christian pilgrims were given access to the holy city..
Abbasid: Islamic dynasty founded by Abu al-Abbas after the Umayyad dynasty; ruled the dar al-Islam
from Baghdad from 750 to 1258 C.E.
al-Andalus: Islamic Spain; established by Muslim Berber conquerors from north Africa during the early
8th century; refused to recognize the Abbasid dynasty and styled themselves caliphs in their own right
from the 10th century.
The Arabian Nights were also known as The Thousand and One Nights; collection of popular tales of
adventure and romance set in the Abbasid Empire and the court of Harun al-Rashid.
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Arabic Numerals: was the numerical system of India by Arabs westward; included a symbol for zero
and contributed to the development of mathematical thought.
Baghdad: Capital of the Abbasid dynasty (also capital of modern Iraq); a magnificent city that the early
Abbasid caliphs built near the Sasanid capital of Ctesiphon; protected by three round walls.
The Battle of the Talas River brought Chinese prisoners to the Islamic world who taught the art of
Paper Making. Paper was cheaper and more flexible than papyrus roles or vellum. By the 10th century
paper mills were flourishing from Persia to Spain - and the industry would soon spread to Europe.
Bedouin: Nomadic people of the Arabian Peninsula; society based on herding of sheep, goats, and
camels; organized themselves through kinship networks such as family and clan; became the earliest
converts to Islam.
The Buyids were Persian Shiites from the mountains of Northern Iran who seized control of the Abassid
Caliphate in 945. As Shiites, they had little respect for the Sunni traditions, but quietly assumed real
power in the bureaucracy and kept the caliph as a figurehead.
Caliph literally meant "deputy.” The caliphs were the successors of Muhammad and combined the
functions of head of the state, religious leader, chief judge, and military commander of the Islamic
world.
Dar al-Islam was the Arabic term for "house of Islam," referring to the many lands of varied cultural
background under Islamic rule.
The Fatamids believed that they were the descendants of Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad and wife
of Ali. In the early tenth century, they established an empire, which included Egypt, North Africa, Sicily
and Syria. The built the city of Cairo and turned it into an imperial military and cultural center.
Five Pillars are the religious duties obligatory for all Muslims. They are as follows:
1.
Muslims must acknowledge Allah as the only God, and Mohammad as his prophet.
2.
Muslims must pray daily to Allah, facing Mecca.
3.
Muslims must observe a fast during the daylight hours during the month of Ramadan
4.
Muslims must contribute alms for the relief of the weak and the poor
5.
Muslims must, if financially and physically possible, must make the hajj and make at least
one pilgrimage to Mecca to honor Mohammed.
Ka'ba. In 632, Muhammad's visit to the Ka'ba changed the pagan shrine into an Islamic holy site and
the hajj into an Islamic tradition.
The Harem and the Veil were the dual symbols the Abbasid Dynasty and of this falling status of
women. The Harem was the place in the palace where concubines were guarded by eunuchs and the veil
referred to the veiling of women in public. Although Muhammad and the Quran granted many rights to
women, the problem was that, as Islam expanded into areas of Southwest Asia with its male dominant
standards, evolving Islamic law evolved to a point that effectively canceled any gains made by women
in the Quran.
Hijra: meant "Migration"; refers to the flight of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in
622 C.E.; recognized as the beginning of the official Islamic calendar.
The Lateen Sail was a triangular sail the allowed ships (called Dhows) to tack at angles against the
wind; in other words, the Lateen sail freed sailors from complete reliance of Monsoonal Winds.
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Islam: means "Submission" and is the newest of the major world religions. It was founded by
Muhammad ibn Abdullah on the Arabian Peninsula. Islam required obedience to the rule and will of
Allah, the only God recognized by its believers.
Jizya: Special head tax levied by Arab conquerors on those who did not convert to Islam during the
Umayyad dynasty.
Madrasas or Institutions of higher education appeared in the 10th century and became common in
major Islamic cities during the 12th century. Their appearance underscores that, along with the
Byzantines and the Irish, Muslim scholars helped preserve and transmit the great literary works of the
Classical era.
Mamluks were slave soldiers who converted to Islam and served the Muslim caliphs and the Abbasid
sultans during the Middle Ages. Over time they became a powerful military caste, and on more than one
occasion they seized power for themselves, for example, ruling Egypt in the Mamluk Sultanate from
1250-1517.
Mecca: Arabian city located on the west coast of the Red Sea; original home of Muhammad; holy site of
the Ka'ba, and became chief religious pilgrimage point in the Islamic world beginning with
Muhammad's visit in 632.
Peoples of the Book referred to the monotheistic Abrahamic religions older than Islam, which received
revelation(s) from God; they included Judaism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism.
Qadis: "Judges" and moral authorities of Islamic communities; heard legal cases and rendered decisions
based on the Quran and sharia.
Quran (Koran) was and is the holy book of Islam. Its beautiful poetry contains revelations received by
Muhammad from Allah and was compiled in the early 650s by devout Muslims. It served as the
definitive authority for Islamic religious doctrine and social organization.
Rashidun or Rightly Guided Caliphs were the first four caliphs: Abu Bekr, Omar, Uthman, and Ali
Omar Khayyam’s Rubaiyat was a book of poetic wisdom inspired by Persian influence, which was
very popular in the Islamic world.
Sakk: Letters of credit in the banking system of the Islamic world; enabled merchants to draw letters of
credit in one city and cash them in another; the root of the modern word for "check."
Saladin was the Islamic chieftain became renowned in both the Muslim and Christian worlds for his
leadership and military prowess tempered by his chivalry and merciful nature. In 1171, he ended
Fatimid power and in 1187 he reconquered Jerusalem
Seal of the Prophets was a title used by Muhammad to refer to himself and by it he meant that he was
the final prophet through whom Allah revealed his divine message to humankind.
Seljuk Turks invaded and conquered most of Southwest Asia in the Eleventh Century. They replaced
the Buyids and kept the caliph as a figurehead. In 1071, they demolished a Byzantine army in Eastern
Anatolia at the Battle of Manzikert and captured the Fatimid territories of Syria and Palestine. Under
the Seljuks, the Abbasid state continued to deteriorate and became part of Seljuk Empire that stretched
from Anatolia to the borders of India
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Sharia was and is Islamic holy law which reflected social and ethical values and offered detailed
guidance on every aspect of life. Through the ethical and social values in this holy law, Islam became
more than a religion, but also a way of life.
Shia (the Shiites) was and is a political and theological sect within Islam. It originally the sect was
formed to support Ali and his descendants as caliphs. However, it has always served as a refuge and a
source of support for opponents of the dominant Sunni sect.
Sufis were mystics of Islamic faith who sought an emotional and mystical union with Allah rather than
an intellectual understanding of Islam. Their zeal made them especially effective as missionaries
because of their kindness, holiness, tolerance, and charismatic appeal.
Suljuq Turks were a nomadic people from central Asia; invaded the Byzantine empire and ruled the
Islamic empire in the name of Abbasid caliphs from the mid-11th century.
Sunnis were the dominant, numerically and orthodox political and theological sect within Islam;
supported the legitimacy of the Umayyad caliphs.
Taifa were small Muslim states in Spain; their disunity made them prey for the Spanish Reconquista or
reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula.
Ulama (p. 312) - "People with religious knowledge"; learned officials and moral authorities of Islamic
communities; pious scholars who sought to develop public policy in accordance with the Quran and
sharia.
Umayyad Clan (Dynasty) was the most prominent Meccan merchant clan; dominated politics and
economy of Mecca; established dynasty and built capital city at Damascus; dynasty lasted from 661 to
750 C.E.
Umma: means "Community of the faithful" and refers to communities originally organized by
Muhammad and his followers in Medina, which soon became the model of Islamic social ethics.
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