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Definition of Sociology: Sociology is the systematic and scientific study of human behavior in groups and society. Sociologists study various aspects of social life, including behavior in large organizations and small groups, deviant behavior, and the characteristics of political and religious institutions and social movements; sociologists study the socialpsychological explanations for behavior. Ex: A person that goes to a football game to watch the people rather than the game. Knowledge: Knowledge accumulates in one of three general ways:. Mysticism- refers to knowledge gained by intuition, revelation, inspiration, magic visions, or spells. Rationalism- refers to knowledge gained through common sense, logic, and reason. Empiricism- (real world knowledge) refers to knowledge that is gained by sense observation-by observing or experiencing phenomena with the sense of touch, sight, hearing, smell, or taste. Ex: Based on scientific Observations. The Sociological Perspective: If sociology is the systematic and scientific study of human group behavior, and a perspective is a viewpoint, or a particular way of looking at the world. Then, the sociological perspective is a particular of looking at the world of human activities that focuses on their social nature. Humans are social animals that congregate to establish families, groups, tribes, communities, and nations. Our desire to be social, far outweighs biological and instinctual drives of other animals that cluster for survival. This choice of collectivities with rules, laws and various other guidelines; sacrifices freedoms of the individual. Yet, it protects the individual in the sense that society is made up of individualsbut laws govern the collectivity or Macro-level as well as Microlevel or individuality. The term sociology was not coined until the latter part of the nineteenth century. Human behavior, and why people behave the way they do, has been a part of the human consciousness, writings of philosophers, poets, and religious leaders, and ancient civilizations. The Pioneers of Philosophy and the Social Sciences: Greece had a profound impact on western social thought with three very distinctive social philosophers: Socrates- (469-399 B.C.) is noted as being one of the most profound thinkers and teachers of all time. He refused to accept the classical or traditional explanations of religion, politics, and the rights of the individual in relation to the state. He came up with the “Socratic Method” of teaching (questioning and answering orally rather than written). The Pioneers of Philosophy and the Social Sciences: Greece had a profound impact on western social thought with three very distinctive social philosophers: Plato- (427-347 B.C.) is noted as being a student and follower of Socrates. Plato, in Athens, developed the Academy-a school where he incorporated the “Socratic Method.” He drilled his students endlessly of questions that became central to philosophical and sociological inquiry. The Pioneers of Philosophy and the Social Sciences: Greece had a profound impact on western social thought with three very distinctive social philosophers: Aristotle- (384-322 B.C.) is noted as being a student and follower of Plato. Aristotle was more practical in his beliefs of government and society. Whereas, Plato was more idealistic and utopian. Aristotle and his students in the Lyceum, which was like a modern university, through the “Socratic Method” explored social issues, religion, politics, education, the rights and duties of the citizenship, and the relationship between the individual and the larger society. During the 17th and 18th centuries, or the Age of Enlightenment, Western Culture emerged from the middle ages, also known as the Dark Ages, into a new era of social thought. Over several centuries, the standard way of explaining social events shifted from a theological to a scientific. Rather than attributing human behavior and social conditions to supernatural forces, people searched for logical-rational cause-and-effect explanations. As a direct result, the religious bodies, such as the church, were replaced by the universities as the primary source of knowledge. Polar Extreme Model Religion Universities To Explain And Scientists Everything To Explain Everything This era created Francis Bacon (1561-1626), who is largely credited with developing the “Scientific Method.” The Scientific Method is the basic steps that provide a systematic framework to guide the research process. Although social thinkers and philosophers has long pondered the influence of society on human behavior, the formal discipline of sociology did not emerge until the early nineteenth century. Sociology began in France, it gained momentum in Germany, and Great Britain, and it eventually arrived in the United States as each of these countries experienced an industrial revolution. The transition from feudalism to industrialism in Europe is believed to be responsible for the development of the social sciences, especially “Sociology.” In the industrialization and urbanization periods, the proletariat or common-folk/working class, were now considered to be important members of society because they were consumers/workers. During the feudalism periods they were not as such. This era focused on the conditions of their lives. Never before had society been confronted with such a rapid social change. People were made aware of social problems such as: poverty, unemployment, homelessness, mental disorders, and crime. The time was just right for a systematic approach to the study of society. Auguste Comte- (1798-1857)-is honored with the title “Father of Sociology.” Comte was somewhat an eccentric person (he claimed to practice “Mental Hygiene” or refused to read the works of others as he felt it would contaminate his own originality or thoughts. He is regarded as one of the most original thinkers of all time. It was he who coined the term “sociology” and argued, in 1838, that the methods of science should be applied to the study of society Comte wrote Positive Philosophy-the first systematic sociological approach to the study of society, which offered solutions to social problems. Comte’s new approach or science, emphasized “Positivism” –the use of observation, comparison, experimentation, and the historical method to gain necessary facts to analyze society. Comte established two specific problems for sociological investigation: “Social Statics” and “Social Dynamics.” Social Statics- refers to the problem of order and stability or social structure or the relatively stable elements found in every society. Social Dynamics- refers to the problems of social change. • What make society or societies change and what shapes the nature and direction of the changes? Comte was so confident that the scientific method would unlock the secrets of society that he came to regard sociologists as the “Priesthood of humanity.” They were experts that would not only explain society or social events, but would guide society in the direction of greater progress. Comte believed sociologists could cure the social ills of society. Although later sociologists have generally had more modest ambitions, they have continued to wrestle with the problems of social order and social change. Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)- she is considered to as a co-founder of sociology along with Comte. In 1838 she wrote “How to Observe Manners and Morals.” This was one of the first books on social research. While Comte was introducing sociology to France, Martineau was laying the ground-work for sociological research in the United States and Great Britain. Martineau produced another book entitled “Society in America” which was on e of the first and most thorough sociological treatments on American social life. This book addressed moral values; compared the system of social stratification in Europe to that in America. Martineau also condensed and translated Comte’s six volume positive philosophy into two volumes and became the first to present sociology to England. Martineau had similarities to Comte in her views on social order and social change. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)- was considered to be a major influence in sociology. He devised a theory to explain the problems of social order and change. He also compared human societies to living organisms. Ex: The parts of an animal, such as the heart and the lungs are interdependent and contribute to the survival of the total organism. Similarly, Spencer argued, the various parts of society, such as the state and the economy, are also interdependent and work to ensure the stability and survival of the the entire system. To explain change, Spencer pushed from his analogy even further. Applying Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution to human societies, or “On the Origin of Species” (1859), he argued that they gradually evolve from the forms found in the primitive societies of his own time. Spencer believed that evolution- means progress, and he strongly opposed attempts at social reform on the grounds they might interfere with the natural evolutionary process. This position was called Social Darwinism or “Survival of the Fittest.” This was believed to save the world, but later helped to understand it. Karl Marx (1818-1883): He was educated in history, economics, and philosophy. He declared that the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige, and other limited resources were not the result of “Natural Laws” but were caused by the exploitation of one social class by another. Marx believed the “Bourgeoisie” or the power “elite” ruling class, possessed power not because they were the “fittest”, but because they owned and controlled the means of production. Marx believed the bourgeoisie used deception, fraud, and violence to seize the profits of the proletariat, or the working class, whose labor produced the majority of societies material assets. Marx concluded that a slow, natural evolutionary process would not bring necessary social change. The modern communist movement owe their inspiration directly to Marx. Marxism is not the same as communism. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917): One of his most important contributions was his explanation for suicide not as a personalized individual act, but as a sociological act. Durkheim’s first step was to develop a clear-cut, working definition of suicide. For example: Is it suicide for a soldier to rush into enemy fire, knowing he will probably be killed, in order to save the lives of his comarades? Durkheim said YES: Suicide occurs whenever an individual knowingly causes the end of his own life, whether or not he puts the gun to his head himself. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917): Durkheim, through various methods, found three types of suicide: Egoistic Suicide: When people do not feel attached to a group or community that commands loyalty and participation, they find it easier to opt out once and for all, via suicide. Ex: The kid that is singled out to be a potential gang member by a gang. He has to prove himself, but finds he can’t kill anyone like the gang is asking. He finds it easier to kill himself than face the gang everyday. Altruistic Suicide: An act of self-sacrifice for the welfare of others. Ex: When the group becomes more important than life itself. The individual is willing to sacrifice himself to its needs (i.e. suicide bombers). Emile Durkheim (1858-1917): Anomic Suicide: Traditional guidelines for behavior and shared standards of good and bad n longer apply. What once seemed impossible now seems probable. Hopes soar, and people may become angry and lose hope when their unrealistic expectations are not fulfilled. Durkheim called this breakdown of the collective order “Anomie” from the Greek word “Lawlessness.” Durheim was concerned about explaining social order. He believed that Social Solidarity, which is a feeling of collective conscience by societal members, was responsible for social order. He distinguished between two types of social solidarity: Mechanical Solidarity: which is small, simple societies whose members share the same beliefs and values (homogeneity). Organic Solidarity: which develops in advanced, more complex societies despite individual’s dissimilar beliefs; people are bonded by reciprocal needs, and fulfill different tasks in society. Georg Simmel (1858-1918): He believed that other sociologists had defined sociological study too broadly. Earlier sociologist had taken the Macro-Level Approach- which was study sociology on the broad scale and viewing it as more than the sum of its parts. Whereas Simmel believed that a more meaningful understanding of society could be derived by a “Micro-Level Approach”, which was focusing more on small group interactions and the relationships between the individual and society. He also contributed the conceptual analysis of small group behavior. • Especially the “DYAD”- which is the smallest group possible consisting of two people/ • And the “TRIAD”- which is a group of three people. Simmel’s theoretical and methodological contributions were the basis for the Interactionists perspective in sociology. Max Weber (1864-1920): He thought scientific objectivity was important. He was insistent on using “Verstehen”, which is the somewhat subjective, empathetic introspective, analysis of the interaction, in understanding the meaning of social interaction. “Verstehen”, relieves the sociologist of the rigors of objective verification. Another important contribution was his concept of the “Ideal Type.” This is a conceptual model or typology that is constructed from direct observation of a member of specific cases and represents the essential qualities found in those cases. Ex: Weber used “bureaucracy” as an ideal type to analyze and explain the increasing rationalization that is part of formal organizations. He stated to maximize efficiency, formal organizations had become more bureaucratic in structure. The Three Interchangeable Lenses (Schools of Thought): Conflict Theory: suggests that competition and conflict are common in social interaction and that the study of these processes is the most appropriate way to understand society. Symbolic Interaction: focuses on interactions between people on the processes by which individuals come to develop viewpoints about themselves and to relate to their associates. Structural Functionalism: also known as functional analysis, focuses on the structures that emerge in society and the functions that these structures perform in the operation of society as a whole. * Each of these perspectives can be viewed as interchangeable lenses in a camera. Some American Sociological Influences: William Graham Sumner (1840-1910)- He was influenced by Herbert Spencer’s ideas of social evolution. One of his most important contributions to sociology was his book on Folkways (1906), which described the process through which societal norms and customs develop. This led to two types of norms: Folkways: Which are the informal rules and guidelines based on tradition that govern everyday behavior. These are the “SHOULDS” of society. Ex: If you celebrated Halloween at Christmas time. Mores: Which are norms based on moral precepts or obligatory norms, these are the “MUSTS” of society; sanctions for violations of mores are harsh. Ex: If you ate your neighbor’s dead dog. Some American Sociological Influences: Lester F. Ward (1841-1913)- He was considered the first systematic sociologist. He attempted to synthesize the major theoretical ideas of Comte and Spencer. Ward created two subdivisions of sociology in his work : Pure Sociology (1903)-involved the study of society in an effort to understand and explain the natural laws that govern its evolution. Applied Sociology (1906)-used sociological principles, social ideas, and the ethical considerations for the improvement of society. Some American Sociological Influences: W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963): • Founded the African American Sociology. • He was instrumental founding the (N.A.A.C.P.) National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Some American Sociological Influences: Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)- He developed the concept of the “Looking Glass Self”-which was to describe the process whereby an individual’s self-concept is largely a reflection of how he or she is perceived by other members of society. Society is used like a mirror to reflect back a sense of self doubt or selfworth or pride. Ex: Like self-realization in psychology, positive or negative self-concept. Some American Sociological Influences: George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)- He was a big contributor to the Interactionist Perspective. He insisted that humans were not functionaries responding to an existing social structure, but that the process of social interaction and the creating, defining, and redefining of meaningful symbols made society possible. He wrote Mind, Self, and Society (1934), where he outlined his theoretical perspective and development of a sense of self. Some American Sociological Influences: Erving Goffman-He was a University of Chicago Student that developed an analytical framework within symbolic interactionism called “Dramaturgical Analysis” which uses the analogy of the theater to analyze social behavior. Some American Sociological Influences: Robert Merton & Talcott Parsons- Shifted the attention of sociology from the study of day-to-day social interaction back to the macro-level of societal analysis. This theoretical approach came to be called Structural Functionalism, and this perspective dominated sociology for almost two decades and remains as sociology’s major theoretical perspective. It views society as a system of interdependent and interrelated parts. Each part fulfills a specific function. Some American Sociological Influences: Merton wrote a book called “Social Theory and Social Structure.” He differentiated between two types of functions: Manifest Functions: which are the intended and recognized functions. Latent Functions: which are the unintended and less obvious, often unrecognized functions. Merton pointed out that society, or aspects of society, are dysfunctional because they threaten to disrupt social stability. Some American Sociological Influences: C. Wright Mills- Described the sociological imagination as “the ability to grasp history and biography and the relationship between the two within society.” Some American Sociological Influences: Students, you will see some overlap from chapter to chapter. You have just been exposed to some of the major contributors of sociology. We will make reference to them from time to time.