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PATERFAMILIAS, ROME AND SOCIETAL TRANSFORMATIONS
Robert N. St. Clair, University of Louisville
Introduction
The evolution of society is a fascinating interdisciplinary quest. Many scholars investigate societal types
and how ancient societies evolved into modern industrial megacomplexes. However, one of the more
fascinating aspects of these societal changes can be found in the historical study of ancient Rome and
other ancient cities that emerged with similar patterns of culture not because of their societal types, but
because of their belief systems. These belief systems provide sociological insight into the family
structure, religion, and culture of that time. In the work by Fustel de Coulanges (1980), one finds insights
into the primordial character of the family and how family religions were tied to rights of property and
early jurisprudence. These insights emerged from the study of the Roman patriarch (pater familias). For
it is from the study of the family that one comes to better understand the structure of the family. These
include the stem families based on primogeniture, the extended family (gens), and the nuclear family.
From these primordial relationships, emerge the aggregations of families into phrateries and tribes. This
historical research demonstrates how the ancient city of Rome remained an aggregation of families long
before it developed it municipal character.
The Earlier families of Rome were situated in Cermalus, Cispius, Fagutal, Oppius Palatium, Sucusa, and
Velia
The later developments were those of Aventinus (Aventine), Caelius (Caelian), Capitolium (Capitoline),
Esquiliae
(Esquiline),
Palatium
(Palatine),
Quirinalis
(Quirinal)
and
Viminalis (Viminal)
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When people come together to form a unit, what rules their behavior? What is it that makes them
function together and how are they structured in order to achieve these goals? Many of the answers to
these questions come from the study of the primitive religion that constituted the Greek and Roman
family. In these primitive social structures one finds all of the elements that led to the founding of the
ancient cities and their religious bonds. These people, for example, did not see death as the dissolution
of being. Nor did they believe in metempsychosis. Hence, they differed from those early belief systems
in which the immortal spirit escaped from the body upon death and animated other corporeal forms. If
they believed in a soul, it was not the soul that resided into a celestial home after the demise of the
body. They looked upon death as a change of life. The soul remained with the body and they were
buried together in the grave. Death did not separate the soul from the body. This ancient belief explains
numerous aspects of the customs of the time. For example, burial was a necessity because it confined
the soul to its subterranean abode. If the departed one was not buried, the he had no dwelling place. A
soul without a dwelling place became a wandering spirit that could become malevolent and torment the
living. It could present them with diseases, ravage their harvests, or torment them with apparitions. The
soul that was not buried was miserable. Another ancient custom that can be explained by this Roman
belief was the rites of sepulture. There were numerous religious rituals to insure that the soul was at
rest and did not continue to appear to the living. To supplicate these spirits, a meal was carried to every
tomb. The ancients believed that the dead still had human frailties and were offered wreaths of grasses
and flowers. They were given cakes, fruits, and libations. Roman tombs even had kitchens (culina) to
prevent the deceased from being condemned to a perpetual hunger. A happy spirit, they believed,
would return t consul the living and protect them
The ancients believed that the dead not only roamed beneath the earth, but they were also
subterranean gods (manes). These divine beings were worshipped as well as feared. There were among
these spiritual entities (manes) both benevolent (lares) and malevolent (larvae) forces.
There were many different types of guardians. There were the guardians ot the family (lares familiares),
the guardians of the household (lares domestici), the guardians of the house (lares patrii or lares privati),
the guardians of the sea (lares permarini), the guardians of the land (lares rulrales), the guardians of the
crossroads (lares compitales), the guardians of travelers (lares viales), and the guardians of the state
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(lares praestitis). These guardians were depicted as dancing youths with a horn cup in one hand and a
bowl in the other. In the symbology of domestic religions one found depictions of a phallic serpent that
accompanied the progenitor of the family.
In order to appease the gods, Roman homes had an altar that housed the sacred flame. This fire was
kept alive both day and night. They considered this flame to be a living entity (vesta) and they knew that
if it were to be extinguished, the entire family would perish. An extinguished hearth meant that the
whole family and their ancestors would perish. This explains why enemies in war sought to extinguish
the flames of the family altar. If the flames were extinguished, the subterranean gods ceased to exist. If
they no longer existed, the family would be without protection and their prayers would no longer be
answered .
Foustel de Coulanges (1980: chapter III) relates these rituals of the eternal flame with those of the Hindu
deity, Agni. He notes that the Rig-Veda contains numerous rituals relating to the Laws of Manu. He also
notes how a similar pattern of ancestral worship occurred among the Greeks who also relied upon their
ancestral spirits (demons, heroes). The reason for these similarities has to do with the fact that this
ancestral religion was Indo-European. It was part of the common culture, a time when Greeks, Romans,
and Hindus shared a common culture. However, the analogy ends here. The Law of Manu had to do with
the metaphor of society as a (human) body with an imposed hierarchy of caste systems. (Múller, 1886).
THE RISE OF THE ROMAN CITY
Italy and her populations entered the historical period with the advent of the Iron Age. Early in the first
millennium BC, several indigenous groups could be found in the territory. One of these was the Itali, a
group that settled in present-day Calabria and from which Italy derives its name. Other major groups on
the peninsula included the Ligures (on the coast of Liguria) and the Sicani (in the interior of Sicily). Many
other populations could be found in central Italy. These groups figure predominantly in the history of
Rome because they were always mentioned in the historiography of the Roman Legions and these
include the Estrucans, Samnites and the Sabines. The most interesting of these groups was the Latini
from which the Latin language emerged.
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Somewhere between 900 and 800 BC, the Italian peninsula was settled by the Etruscans. This agrarian
group is important because it brought civilization and urbanization to the area. This group settled in the
city of Latium and used to local population to farm the area for them while they furthered their own
interests in commerce and industry. The first king of Rome was Etruscan. Eventually, they were replaced
by the Latinate monarchy. These Latin tribes were neolithic at the time when the agrarian Etruscans
replaced them.
This group was both agricultural and pastoral and is associated with the founding of Rome towards the
800 BC. What is now Rome surrounded the Tiber River and this included the marshy depressions near
the riverbanks. Hence, it is not surprising that Rome would be built upon its seven hills . In particular, it
was on the Palatine Hill that Rome was built during the royal period (753-510 BC) by Romulus. In 510509 BC, Rome changed from a monarchy (ruled by a king) to a republic (ruled by the representatives of
the aristocracy). It was around this time that the Laws of the Twelve Tables were carved in bronze (450
BC), establishing Roman municipal statutes. Prior to investigating the Rise of Rome and the Fall of its
Empire, one must first go back in history to the time when Rome was an ancient city because it was at
this time that one finds the underlying religious structures upon which this city was built (Connolly and
Dodge, 1998: 106-107).
The Seven Kings of Rome
Romulus
Legendary founder of Rome, His twin brother was Remus. They founded "Square Rome" on the Palatine in
753 B.C. In a quarrel Romulus slew his brother and become the first king of Rome.
Numa
Pompilius
Ruled Rome around 700 B.C. He invented the Roman calendar, instituted the function of Pontifex
Maximus and founded the order of the Vestal Virgins.
Tullus
Hostilius
He was the King of Rome in the 7th century B.C. He built the first senate-house, known as the Curia
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Hostilia (evidently, he was a bellicose ruler).
Ancus
Martius
He ruled Rome in the latter half of the 7th century B.C. He built the Mamertine Prison. Crime emerged as
a problem in this fast-growing city. He also founded the port of Ostia, which gave Rome a base for its
naval fleet. His army was eventually defeated by the Etruscans and an Etruscan king came to rule Rome.
Tarquinius
Priscus
He was the king of Rome around 600 B.C. and was of Etruscan origin. He introduced new construction
techniques into the city, such as the rounded archways reminiscent of many Etruscan townships. During
his reign, the Cloaca Maxima was built to drain the Roman Forum. He extended Rome's sphere of
influence by defeating the Volscii, Latini and Sabini peoples, but was killed by Roman nationalists who saw
the Etruscans as an occupying force.
Servius
Tullius
He ruled Rome from 578 to 534 B.C. He was the son of one of Tarquinius Priscus's servants (hence the
appellative Servius). He built the first stone walls (Servian Walls) to protect Rome from attacks by rival
city-states. He reorganized the army and founded the democratic institutions that eventually led to the
Republic.
Tarquinius
Superbus
He was the last of the Seven Kings (534-509 B.C.). His name means Tarquin the Proud. He was hated by
the Roman people. An Etruscan by origin, the son of Tarquinius Priscus, he brought Etruscan artists and
architects to Rome to build the Temple of Jupiter on Capitol Hill. He continued to expand the city's
influence, defeating the inhabitants of Gabii and besieging the town of Ardea. During the siege, the
episode known as the Rape of Lucrece took place, sparking the revolt of the Romans and the Founding of
the Roman Republic in 509 B.C. Tarquinius Superbus was forced to flee to the Etruscan town of Caere
(modern Cerveteri).
THE FAMILY STRUCTURE
How did this belief in ancestor worship impact on the Roman family? How did it manifest itself in the
daily activities of these early families of Rome? The answers to these questions are interesting because
they demonstrate how the daily activities of the family were shrouded in ancestral ritual.
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In the Ancient City described by Fustel de Coulanges (1980), the father was the high priest and his wife
was the high priestess. In the family lodging, there was a temple, a sacred altar, dedicated to the spirits
of the ancestors. The father (pater familias) perforced the sacred rituals and the incantations.
When was married, he carried his new bride across the door and into her new home. Her bare feet were
placed on the sacred grounds of her new home. Her new duties were that of the keepr of the flame. This
ancient Indoeuroprean tradition was also found in the tradition of the Vestal Virgins and the Vestal
Temple in Rome.
First, the father was the family priest. It was his duty to perform the sacred rituals (parentare). He knew
the sacred incantations and protected this information. Since the family altar was sacred, strangers were
forbidden from entering the funeral banquet over which he presided. He was the family patriarch (pater
familias). He owned his family. He could kill them or sell them for he was the sacred priest of the family,
the master of their domain. If the paterfamilias died, the family would fall to the next oldest ascendant
in the male line (potestas) .
Second, the wife was the keeper of the flame. When she was brought into the family, she had to forego
her own hearth religion and partake in the family religion of her husband. She could no longer pray to
her subterranean gods. She had to worship those of his family.
In Roman mythology, the Penates (the inner ones) were the patron gods of the storeroom. Later, they
became known as the patron gods for the entire household. The Penates were worshipped at the hearth
and were given daily meals. When Rome became a municipality, the tradition continued and the state
had its own patron gods of the household (penates publici).
Third, the son was chosen to perform the libations and to do the sacrifices at the ancestral tomb. He had
an agnastic relationship with his father. This meant that he would assume the role of the family priest
upon the death of his father. For this reason, he was next in line to inherit whatever property his father
owned, and this included the servants. When the son was born, he underwent an initiation at the
ancestral hearth on the ninth day after birth. He was presented to the domestic gods and carried several
times around the sacred fire. In performing this act, he was purified. He was officially proclaimed to be
in line of male kinship that would someday make him an honored ancestor. Third, the sister did not have
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the same relationship to the family as her brother. She was not destined to inherit any of the family
fortune. She would be given away in marriage to another family religion. She would forsake her family
ancestors and commit herself to those of another family. She would learn to perform the mysterious
ceremonies of another family. As a young girl, she would be carried to the house of her husband. The
procession is led by a nuptial torch, the bride is dressed in white, and have her face covered by a veil.
When her new husband arrives to possess her, she must cry out for help and the women around her
must pretend to defend her. She will not be allowed to enter her new home without ceremony. Her
husband must carry her over the family threshold in order to prevent her from contaminating the family
hearth. She is brought into the presence of her new domestic divinity and sprinkled with lustral water.
She touches the sacred fire. Prayers are given and she shares cake or a loaf with her new husband. She is
now in communion with their ancestral gods. She has left her paternal hearth and has come to worship
his domestic spirits (penates) . The wife is now married. She now belongs to their family. She can no
longer return to her parents. One cannot belong to two families. The institution of marriage is sacred
because it is connected with the rituals of ancestral worship and she is of their family and must worship
their ancestors. The new bride ensures that her new family will perpetuate itself forever. She is there to
guarantee that the descendants should not die out. She is there to give her husband a son, the fruit of
their religious marriage .
The Patrician Class is Rome's elite aristocracy, the powerful Founding Families of Rome. For centuries
Patricians governed Rome exclusively. For them, the Senate was a birthright. This was because their
bloodline could be traced back to the Senate of Romulus himself. It was an honored position.steeped in
honors, culture, and tradition. . . The Patrician Class was Rome's old guard. It was this group that
originally helped to build Rome into the great empire. Patricians sewed a broad purple stripe (three
inches wide or more) down the right side of their tunics to signify their high rank. Historically, Patricians
also wore an iron ring, and shoes of red leather.
Fourth, every family had servants. In the early domestic religion, these servants were not slaves. That
came about after Rome had attained her status as the center of the Empire. These servants were part of
the family. Many were adopted and admitted to the hearth, the family religion. They participated in a
ritual (in sacra transit) that made them members of the family. These servants were called clients. They
were asked to partake in the ancestral worship, they denounced their old family goods, and they were
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owned by the family patriarch. Adoption was important in ancient Rome because families that did not
have sons, establishing a male heir .
What is important about this domestic religion is that it continued to structure group relationships.
When a family expanded into a phratry, familial religious rites united the group. This larger group shared
a temple of ancestral worship where the eternal flame was kept. When these phrateries grew into
tribes, they also established communal temples, performed sacred rituals, and shared in ancestral
offerings of food and libations. By the time that Rome was emerging into a city, it consisted of an
aggregation of tribes based on family religions. Hence, it is not surprising that Rome would eventually
become a municipality with its own city gods, vestal temples, and vestal virgins (two from each tribe). It
was this tradition of the hearth religion that led to a stratified Rome ruled by the patricians, tribal
members who shared a family religion. The plebeians did not share in these tribal gods and were
considered to be outsiders.
ROMAN KINSHIP SYSTEM
The kinship relationship among Romans was not based on birth, but on worship. The father was the
family priest who knew the rituals of ancestor worship. It was religion that was transmitted from one
male heir to the next (agnates). The mother was the keeper of the flame, the family hearth. This was a
system of primogeniture in which the son of the family would inherit the role of the domestic priest
upon the death of his father. It would eventually become his task to maintain the hearth religion. This
belief system was imparted to the son and formalized in the Roman kinship system, the rule of agnation.
This system differs from those of blood relationships in which sisters and brothers are treated as blood
relatives. In this system, only the males who are agnates matter. Consider the case of L. Cornelius Scipio
who died about 250 BC. He had two children, a son, (Publius Scipio) and a daughter, (Cornelia. Scipio).
The son married and also had a son, Luc. Scipio Asiaticus. All of these males are agnates in that they
share the same consanguineous relationship with their ancestral father. What happens to the daughters
in this kinship system? How are their sons treated within the family tree? Are their sons considered to
be blood relatives? No, because they have left the family religion to join another. Upon marriage, a
daughter renounces her hearth religion and accepts the religion of her new husband as her own. When
she has sons, they are not related to L. Cornelius Scipio because they no longer share the same family
religion. These sons, born of Cornelia Scipio are not agnates. They share a uterine relationship with their
mothers and are seen as cognates (cognatio). The crucial element in this system of ancestral
relationships is the son, the male heir of the family religion. Hence, the system of primogeniture can be
traced back into the ancient religions of Rome. It is the same system that one found in other IndoEuropean cultures. The system was still in place at the time that the Law of the Twelve Tables was
written. It continued to be the basis for laws of family inheritance throughout the Middle Ages.(cf.
Roman Nomenclature)
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Naming of Male Roman Citizens during the Republic
Praenomen
(plural praenomina)
Nomen
(plural nomina)
Cognomen
(plural cognomina)
This was a personal,
individualizing name and was
given through naming
ceremony
This was the name of the
This was the name of the branch
clan (gens) to which the
of the clan to which the man
man belonged; a hereditary
belonged; also a hereditary name
name
This name was used primarily
within the family or among
intimates; usually
abbreviated in inscriptions
This name was used to
designate the man in most
circumstances, especially if
he had no cognomen
This name most commonly used to
designate the man; in formal
circumstances in which all three
names were used
Marcus
Gaius Tullius
Julius
Caius
Julius
Caesar
Publius
Vergilius
Maro
THE ROMAN RELIGIOUS CALENDAR
Knowledge of the Roman calendar comes mainly from Ovid, a Roman born in 43 BC, and from
Plutraarch, a Greek biographer who wrote about 105-115 AD. These men had access to historical
documents that are no longer extant. Ovid was an expert in Roman mythology and he traces the
calendar back to a time before the founding of Rome. At this time, the year had only ten months. It
began in March, in honor of the Mars (martius) who was the Roman god of war. March began the New
Year, the time of the vernal equiinox. It was followed by the month of April (aprilis) who represented
Venus . Following the month of April was May (maius), named after one of the daughters of the
mythological Atlas. The month of June (Juno) is also named for a goddess. Both May and June are known
as sky-gods. The remaining months of the year were merely numbered V-X (quintilis, sextisilis,
septembis, octobris, novembris et decembris). Those who live by the modern calendar are wondering
what happened to February, March, and August. Under the second emperor of Rome, Numa Pompilius,
the months of January (januarius) and February (februarius) were created. They marked the beginning
and the end of the year. February only had 24 days. It would end when needed at the end of the year.
The Romans had always worshipped Janus, the sky-god. He was responsible for the beginning of each
day, month and year. They believed that he opened the gates of heaven at dawn to let out the morning
and it was he who also closed them at night. Hence, this word has come to mean "the god of all doors."
Emperor Numa Pompilius found it fitting to have January mark the beginning of each year. He also
added the month of February to complete the year. At this time February was not the second month of
the year, but the last. It was the month of purification and expiate It was the time was calendar and
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natural year lengths were reconciled. Numa Pompilius also created an intercalary (intercalaris) month
following February. It consisted of 22 days and was called Merecedinus .
At the time when Julius Caesar became emperor, he changed the Roman lunar calendar (lunar
calendars) into a solar one (solar calendars). The former was based on the monthly motions of the
moon, as was the Greek lunar calendar with its Metonic Cycles. The lunar month was replaced by the
sidereal month . Caesar based his year on 354 day rather than on the earlier cycle of 354 days. This is
close to the orbital period of the Earth (365.242199 days). He compensated for this by giving February
(the last day of the month) an extra day every four years. Later, the Roman Senate was to honor Julius
Caesar by naming a month after him, July (julius). This month replaced the fifth moon (quintilius) . After
Caesar's death, his adopted son and nephew, Octavian became the new emperor. He was called
Augustus. The month of August (sextilis) is named after him. Later reforms placed the month of
February after January and readjusted Easter (dies dominum) to fall on a Sunday (dies solis).
The Roman priest (pontifex minor) was in charge of the calendar. He watched the phases of the moon
and when it was just about to begin to form a crescent, he would call out the beginning of the next
month. The word calendar (kalendar) comes from this word to call out (calare). The Romans named the
first day of each month as kalendae and designated it by the letter "K." Each month was sectioned into
three parts. The kalends, nones, and ides. The nundinal letter (nundinae) represented the market day.
The letter "C" designated the ninth day. This is because it was the day when committees of citizens
could vote on civic matters (dies comitatiales). Every ninth day (nones) was a market day. The kalends
was used before the name of the month. The days of the week were numbered from A through H and
designated the regular market day for that year.
C = dies comitatiales
K = Kalend used before the name of the month
APR = the month of April
F = letter day. The days of the week were number from A through H.
Other designated days on the calendar were F (dies fasti) and N (dies nefasti). The former (F)
represented business days, the latter (N) designated non-business days. It is interesting to note that in
current calendric systems, the days of the month begin with one and ascends to 28-31. In the Roman
calendar, the days were assigned numbers that were assigned to three sections. These numbers began
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with a high value and decreased as the month progressed. There was a special day (Pridie) that marked
a change in the numbering phase. This day marked the ending of one moon phase and the beginning of
the other. Finally, there was the Ninth (nones). This was originally the day when the moon reached its
first quarter phase. The last phase (ides) of 15-17 days represented the countdown until the next new
moon. This system of reckoning time was truly based on a lunar calendar. The Calends was based on the
new moon, the nones on the quarter moon and the ides on the full moon.
Martius
Calends
VIII
XVII
VI
VII
XVI
V
VI
XV
IV
V
XIV
III
IV
XII
Priedie
III
XII
Nones
Priedie
XI
Ides
X
IX
VIII
VII
VI
V
IV
III
Pridie
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It should be noted in closing that special days in the Roman calendar were marked in red. Hence, one
can ascertain the meaning of the term "It is a red letter day."
PERSONAL NOMENCLATURE
Naming practices are important because they shed light on how individuals are perceived within a social
system. Latin names are structured into three parts. This is evidenced in the Latin system for naming
individuals. There is the first name (praenomen), the family name (nomen), and the family branch
(cognomen).
Adopted names could also be found during the Republic. A family that did not have a male heir could
adopt the adult son of a family that already had a male heir. For example Publius Cornelius Scipio
Africanus could adopt Lucius Aemelus Paullus. The new name of the adopted male would include all
three names of the adoptive father and was usually marked with the suffix -anus. Hence, the adopted
male would be renamed as Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus. He did not adopt the name Africanus as
this was an honrary title.
Women's names included the feminine form of the clan into which they were born. Hence, the daughter
of Julius was named Julia and the daughter of Cornelius was named Cornelia. In public, these women
were given cognomina. For example, the daughter of Julius Caesar was called Julias Caesaris (Julia, the
daughter of Caesar). If a man had several daughters, they were be distinguished by the words maior (the
elder) and minor (the younger). They could also be named as the first (Julia prima), second (Julia
secunda), or their third (Julia tertia) daughter. If Gaius Cornelius Calvus, for example, had a daughter,
she would simply be named Cornelia. The second daughter would be named Cornelia secunda or
Cornelia minor.
Roman nicknames were cognomina that denoted certain traits or deeds. For example, Flaccus meant
"big ears." Cicero meant "chick pea" because he was probably a garbonzo bean farmer. The cognomina
of Jucundus meant pleasant or delightful.
THE ROMAN LEGIONS
There are many reasons why Rome grew beyond an Italic city and emerged as a vast empire stretching
from Britain to Persia and ruling over eighty millions subjects. One of these reasons, however, can be
found in the strength of the Roman Military. The Roman legions were the best equipped, trained, and
disciplined fighting force that the ancient world had ever known. Because of these fighting forces, Rome
held together an empire that would last for many centuries.
The core of the Roman legion consisted of heavily armored infantry (hoplites). These men were trained
and disciplined by Centurions. These soldiers feared him more than they feared any enemy. He made
them undergo force marches of great distances and insured that they remained in precise formation
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while carrying heavy loads. His concern with endurance also included swimming. He drilled them
relentlessly and provided them with different types of weapons that they had to master. The standard
training drill involved the use of a wooden or a real sword in a Gladiatorial drills (Armatura) where he
had to strike assigned targets accurately and with great force.
CE = Common Era, Formerly AD
BCE = Before the Common Era
CE stands for "Common Era." It is a relatively
new term that is experiencing increased
usage and is eventually expected to replace
AD. The latter is an abbreviation for "Anno
Domini" in Latin or "the year of the Lord" in
English. The latter refers to the approximate
birth year of Yeshua of Nazareth (a.k.a. Jesus
Christ). CE and AD have the same and value.
2004 CE = 2004 AD.
BCE stands for "Before the common era." It is
eventually expected to replace BC, which
means "Before Christ." BC and BCE are also
identical in value. Most theologians and
religious historians believe that the
approximate birth date of Yeshua of Nazareth
(Jesus) was in the fall, sometime between 7
and 4 BCE, although we have seen estimates
as late as 4 CE and as early as the second
century BCE.
The Roman soldiers fought in a formation that was deployed for battle. During the 4th century BC. , this
formation consisted of a rectangular formation of 975 yards wide and 130 yards deep. One can only
image the impact of marching soldier in tight formation advancing in a formation that is equivalent to
nine football fields wide and one football field deep. By the first century BC. this formation doubled in
size. There were several tactics used by the military in a front attack. One of them consisted of a wedge
shaped formation that had the effect of dividing the offensive line of their opponents and allowed them
to enter the formation of their enemy and attack from within and behind their ranks. Another formation
used by the Roman legionnaires was the turtle (Testudo). This formation was used when the enemy
showered missiles at them. The legionnaires held shields over their heads and along their sides and
deflected the enemy fire quite effectively.
Early in the fourth century BC., the legions were re-organized (Landels, 1978). Above the common
soldiers (miles) were the centurions. These centurions were officers who commanded one hundred
men. These were further divided into ten squads of eight soldiers who shared a tent (contubernia), the
smallest unit in the legion. Each squad had a leader, decurion. There were usually sixty of these
centurion commanding officers in an army unit (legione). Under the new system, two centuries were
combined into a larger unit called the manipulus. It consisted of 120-160 men who fought in an
extended formation. They were accompanied by a mobile light infantry (velites) who filled in the gaps
around the infantry (hoplites) in the new maniple formation. The result of this re-organization was a
division (legione) of 3,000 to 6,000 men. The mobile light infantry (velites) was abandoned in the late
Republic and replaced by auxiliary troops (auxilia), the Calvary (Alae). Among the heavy infantry, the
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younger soldiers (hastati) formed the first line, the veterans (principes) formed the second, and the
most experienced soldiers (triarii) formed the rear ranks. Among the officers, each centurion was given
an aide (optio) to assist him. The legion was divided into cohorts (the basic fighting unit) and the leader f
the first cohort (cohors) was given a special status (primus pilus). He was the prefect of the camp
(praefectus castrorum) because his cohort was double the size of the others and flanked both sides of
the battle formation. Beneath him were centurions of the other centurions in the same cohort (primi
ordines). There were also six tribunes per legion who rarely saw combat. They were equestrians from
the Patrician social class and they were there to further their political careers. From these six tribunes,
the senior tribune (tribunus laticlavius) went on to a position of power in the government bureaucracy
because he served in war with honor (cursus hononrum). This senior tribune, however, was usually an
ex-centurion who had served as the prefect of the camp. He had already served his country in war and
was now allowed to follow a career path into the aristocratic senate (Luttwak, 1976: Chapter 1).
THE ROMAN LEGION
Headquarters
Leaders (Legate)
Technical Staff
Medical Staff
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Cohorts II to IX
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Each cohort was made up of a six centuries of 80 men each. The first cohort was doubled in number as it
flanked the legionnaire formation. This amounted to 5,280 foot soldiers (cohors peditata). When the
auxiliary troops and support staff was added, the legion amounted to about 6,000 men. There were
many Roman legions and their names consisted of numbers (numerus) followed by its location or place
of origin. Legio IV Macedonica, for example, ws the legion that fought in Macedonian territory. Legio XIII
Gemina and Legio XIV Gemina are legions that fought in Germany. As the Roman Army expanded, it
encountered numerous difficulties at its frontiers (limes). Hence, it created frontier troops (limitanei) in
addition to its field troops (comitatenses). Many of the soldiers that made up these frontier troops were
barbarians from within the conquered regions.
THE ROMAN MITHRAIC TEMPLES (MITHRAE)
Fustel de Coulanges (1980) believes that the ancient family religion of Rome goes back in time to the
Indo-European era. He makes this assumption on the basis of certain common features shared in the
mystery religions of Rome, Greece, and India. There are several problems with this assumption. There
are villas in Pompeii associated with the Mithraic rituals and this cult of Mithra was immensely popular
among the Roman Legions from 1 BC to 4 AD. The remains of Mithraic temples can be found through
out the Roman Empire from Palestine to North Africa and from Central Europe to England. Mithraism
was officially accepted in Rome as evidenced by several emperors (Nero, Commodus, Septimius Severus,
Caracalla, and the Tetrachs) participated in this secret religion. The fact that these Mithraic mysteries
occurred within the Roman Empire is not the reason for associating them with the ancient family
religion of Rome. What Fustel de Coulanges found in this rituals were certain similarities, in particular,
the sacred altar of the eternal flame. Each As noted earlier, the Romans worshipped the dead as sacred
beings (Fustel de Coulanges, 1980: 13). They believed that the dead continued to live underground after
internment where they became subterranean gods. They called these dead entities Manes and they
constructed temples that housed their tombs. Some of these subterranean gods were benevolent
15
(Lares, Genii) and some were malevolent (Larvae). Before the tomb was a sacred altar from which they
performed rites for the dead. If they did not perform these rites of providing food and libations for the
dead, they would suffer their wrath of the Larvae or not be rewarded by the Lares. The father of the
family (pater familias) was in charge of the sacred rites for these divine beings. Every home had an altar
and on that altar was an eternal flame, a sacred fire. The ancients believed that if the fire ceased to
glow, the entire both past and present family would perish. If the fire was extinguished, these gods
would cease to exist. If they ceased to exist, they could no longer protect the living members of the
family and they could no longer act propitiously towards them. Hence, the ceremony was sacred. What
is important about this sacred fire is that it was personified and identified with the Goddess Vesta. She
was a "living flame." In these domestic religions, the father was the priest of the family and the wife was
the keeper of the sacred flame. As families grew into larger groups, phrateries, and emerged as tribes,
they kept their religious beliefs. These phrateries eventually became tribes and at this stage of
unification, they established a communal temple in which an eternal flame was housed. The keepers of
these flames were the Vestal Virgins. They were young girls who where chosen from each tribe at
puberty and served until the third decade of their lives. When Rome was founded, three of these tribes
existed and founded the sacred temple of the city (mithreum). There were six Vestal Virgins at this time,
two from each tribe. As the city grew and more tribes were assimilated, the number of Vestal Virgins
increased.
The name Mithras is the Greek masculine form of Mitra, the Persian god who was the mediator
between Ahura Mazda and the earth. However, some of the attributes of Roman Mithras may have
been taken from other Eastern cults: for example, the Mithraist emphasis on astrology strongly suggests
syncretism with star-oriented Mesopotamian or Anatolian religions. At least some of this synthesis of
beliefs may have already been underway by the time the cult was adopted in the West. When Mithraism
was introduced by Roman legions at Dura-Europos after 168 CE, the savior god assumed his familiar
Hellenistic iconic formula.
When one looks at the cult of Mithra in greater detail, one finds that there are very few similarities with
the Iranian god, Mithra. For example, the typical temples of Mithra in the Roman Empire were
subterranean chambers of 75 feet by 30 feet. It had a vaulted ceiling with an aisle that ran along the
center of the temple. One found stone benches alongside the altar where members could recline during
the ceremonies. At one end of the aisle was a carved relief or statue or painting depicting a bull slaying
scene (tauroctony). The god of the cult, Mithra, is accompanied by a dog, a snake, a rave, and a
scorpion. The god is shown in the act of killing the bull. If these subterranean chambers were borrowed
16
from Iran, one would expect to find them in the Near East. As a matter of fact, the famous Belgian
historian, Franz Cumont (1956), wrote a two-volume tome based on this assumption, that it is an Iranian
myth.
The
problem
is
that
no
such
occurs.
In no known Iranian text can one find Mithra having anything to do with the killing of a bull. What one
does find in their mythology, however, is a bull-slayer known as Ahriman. He represents the force of
cosmic evil in Iranian religion. Cumont assumed that the cult of Mithra was a variant of this myth. This
assumption goes unwarranted, as there is no evidence that connects these two myths. There are no
written texts, no archeological findings, and no historical evidence that the tauroctony icon of the
Roman cult of Mithas is connected to the Iranian myth of Ahriman. This lack of evidence has led scholars
to believe that the Mithraic temples of Rome was actually a new religion that had merely borrowed the
name of Mithra (Greek mithras) in order to provide it with legitimacy.
Every two thousand years a new constellation appears over the horizon in the evening. These
constellations were named after different animals because that is how they were identified in the
evening sky. Thesuccession of these signs are known as the zodiac belt.
David Ulansey (1991) if the myth of Mithra did not represent an ancient Iranian myth and if it was a new
religion, then what did it represent? According to his interpretation, the pictorial representation of the
tauroctony is not an Iranian myth, but an astronomical star map. The first rationale for this insight
comes from the fact that every figure in the tauroctony has a symbolic significance with the zodiac. The
Bull has a parallel in the Constellation of Taurus; the dog can be representative of the Constellation
Canis Minor; the snake is the constellation Hydra; the Raven is illustrative of the Constellation Corvus;
and the Scorpion is reminiscent of the Constellation Scorpio. The second rationale for this insight that
the tauroctony is a star map comes from the fact that the Bull Taurus is being killed just at the time in
astronomical lore when the Age of Taurus is leaving and the Age of Aries is entering the Zodiac. What
this suggests is that the Mithraic temples were designed to represent an image of the Cosmos. Within
the context of a geocentric cosmology in which the Earth is the center of the cosmos, every day the sun
rotated around the earth. The sun was not the only celestial object that rotated around the earth. The
great sphere of the stars also rotated around the earth along with the sun. The circle traced by the sun
in the course of a year was known as the Zodiac, the little zoo. It was assumed, at this time, that the Sun
was the great mover of the stars along the celestial equator. As the earth wobbles on its axis, it
influences the appearance of the Constellations along the celestial highway. Every 2,160 years a new
constellation of the Zodiac is associated with the Spring Equinox. This slow procession along the celestial
highway takes 25,920 years to complete the entire zodiac. What one finds in the tauroctony is the
procession of the constellations of the zodiac. Currently, the Constellation of Pisces appears at the time
17
of the Spring Equinox. In a few hundred years, the Age of Aquarius will appear and replace Pisces as the
constellation to appear during the Spring Equinox. At the time of the cult of Mithra, the Constellation of
Taurus appeared during the Spring Equinox and The Constellation of Leo (the lion) and Aquarius
appeared during the two solstices . This period lasted from 4,000 to 2,000 BC. At this time Scorpio
appeared during the Autumn Equinox. Aries eventually replaced Taurus along the celestial equator. The
slaying of the Bull represents this change of constellations along the celestial equator during the Spring
Equinox. What is important about all of these astrological changes is that the ancients believed that a
new god, Mithra the Cosmic Bull-Slayer, was responsible for these changes. Such a god could only move
the cosmos if he stood outside of the celestial equator where he would be in a position to move the
constellations out of its customary procession. In the iconography of this religion, Mithras is shown in
the role of the god Atlas, who holds stands outside of the celestial sphere, the Mithraic cave as seen
from the outside. Hence, the cult of Mithra did represent a new god in the Roman cosmology. The old
god of Ahriman of the Iranian Pantheon was the original bull-slayer, but Mithras, sun god and mover of
the zodiac replaced him. The Romans made him their cosmic bull-slayer. With the advent of Christianity,
the religion of Mithraism came under attack by the Apologists. What is interesting is that Catholicism
has preserved some of the symbols and rituals associated with Mithraism.
1
The celebration of Christmas parallels the celebration of
the autumnal equinox.
2
Christian priests are called "father" even though this was
Mithraic title was not allowed by Christianity (Matthew
23:9).
3
The Mithraic Holy father wore a red cap, red garments,
and a ring. He also carried a shepherd's staff. Christianity
adopted this title and apparel.
4
Only males could be priests in the Mithraic cult and only
males can be priests in the Catholic Church.
ROMAN GOVERNMENT
As the families grew into extended families (gens) and these developed further into phrateries (curia)
and into tribes (several groups of phraterie or curies), Roman government changed to reflect those
developments. In order to understand the political organization of Rome, one must begin with the
family structure with its father as the high priest of the family. This individual literally owned his family.
He was able to sell his wife and children and he was not accountable by civic law, as there was none.
Hence, the extended family (gens) was the first form of society in Ancient Rome. What law did exist was
private law. Each family has its religion, its gods, its priesthood, and its private laws. Furthermore, each
18
family had its own property in which one found an ancestral tomb, a sacred altar, and land markers
(termini) that were inhabited by familial gods that protected the land. As these families grew, they each
had their own chiefs (curion) who performed religious rights. When families united, they established
new gods to represent them. These new gods were housed in a sacred altar belonging to the phratry.
The laws of the phrateries (curae) were separate from those of the private laws of the families (Fustel de
Coulanges, 1980: 105). As time progressed, family farms (curae) combined with other phrateries to
create tribal units. There were three such tribes existing in Rome at the time of its founding.
Every family had its clients. These were servants attached to the family patron. One may associate them
with slaves, but this would be an oversimplification. When a client was brought into a family, he or she
was adopted as a family member and made to go through the same rituals of ancestral worship. If a
client were in trouble, the family patron would protect him. This is because the client was seen not
merely as a domestic, but as a family member. Hence, the eternal flame protected these clients and
clientship was seen as a sacred bond. What is important about clients is that they were not really slaves,
domestics who where treated as outsiders by the family. They did not have the rights of the family
patron (pater familias), but neither did his wife and his children. They were, in essence, part of the
aristocracy, but without its powers and legal rights. They were associated with the Patrician class.
At the opposite end of the system of social stratification was the working class (plebs). They did not have
the right to make laws. That power was given to the Patricians. They were not allowed to become
officers of the legion as that was reserved for the Patricians. Civic law (jus civiles) did not protect them
as that law was made by the Patricians and for the Patricians. They were not even allowed to reside
within the gates of the city as only the Patricians lived within the walls of the city. Hence, at its earliest
stage of development, Rome was stratified by two classes: Patricians (Latin patricius, from patres
senators, from plural of pater father )and Plebeians. The Plebeans were common people. They could be
rich merchants, farmers, craftsmen or even beggars. They could never become patricians. Although they
were the majority, they had fewer votes.
It is not surprising to find that members of the Patrician class governed Rome. There were two Patrician
leaders who ran the Senate and represented the Noble Houses of Rome. They were the consuls. The
Senate consisted of Patricians (Adkins & Adkins, 1994: 32-34) who had distinguished themselves
politically and served as elected officials. They also felt themselves to be special because their bloodline
could be traced to Romulus, the Founder of Rome (Kebric, 1993). Hence, they were steeped in honors,
culture, and tradition and they were the Old Guard. They controlled the treasury, they voted on new
legislation, and they established policy. Later, a new group was added to the Senate, the Equestrians.
These were men of the Calvary (equites) who wore purple. Some Equestrians were elevated into
Senatorial Treasurers (Quaestors). These men served as procurators and oversaw any purchases made
collectively in the name of Rome. They also provided funds for the priests (aedile) who performed
sacred rites at major events (battle, games, races, feasts, sacred hunts, etc.). From the Senate emerged
the special Patrician (praetor) who ensured that all the laws of Rome (lex Romana) were obeyed. What
is obvious from this discussion of the Patrician class is that they excluded the Plebeians from
19
government. This exclusion took many years to overturn. With the passage of time, the Plebeians voiced
their resentment to this exclusion. They were allowed, at first, to distinguish themselves in military
action and some were rewarded by becoming Roman citizens. They were given a special place within the
senate as voting members of the Tribune. Later, they were allowed to become Equestrians and shared
this honor with the Patricians. What eventually emerged in Rome was a political hierarchy controlled by
the Consuls of Rome.
Only Senators who have served as Praetors may become
Consults. Only consuls may introduce new laws. Only
consuls may call for a vote or for an election. Only two
consuls are elected.
The Consuls (2)
The Praetor was in charge of the judiciary of Rome. He
was the chief law officer. He acted as the chief judge,
apart from the consuls who possessed higher authority,
should they choose to use it. He also acted as a deputy to
The Praetor (8 Judges)
the consuls, in particular regarding the administration of
the provinces. And it is therefore that provincial governors
were either drawn from former consuls (proconsul) or
from former praetors (propraetor).
The Aedile was the supervisor of public works. He
oversaw the public works, temples and markets. Censors
who had similar or related duties.) Also he oversaw the
organization of festivals and games. In 367 BC BC the
refusal of the plebeian aediles on one occasion to stage
circus games for the length the senate desired, led to the The Aedile (2 curules
senate simply creating two new patrician aediles, the so- and 2 Pelbeian Priests)
called curule aediles (aediles curules) who then obliged in
staging the games for the appropriate length of time. The
curule aediles were hence of senior authority. But within
twelve months the differences were settled and also
plebeians were allowed into the
The Quaestor was in charge of the military and civic
treasury of Rome as well as keeping records. The
quaestors also acted as aides to the consuls.
The Quaestor (20
Treasurers)
The Censor ) was the registrar of Rome. He also oversaw
the finances, including taxation, inspected the quality of
Censors (2)
20
public works and - more controversially - oversaw public
morality. He and his staff compiled lists of all Roman
citizens, recording their name, age, ancestry, families,
wealth as well as which one of the three tribes of Rome
they belonged to. If the initial purpose of the census, the
counting of the people, was to allow for the military
strength of Rome to be assessed, then it was naturally the
censor, during the time of conscription, were in charge of
assigning men, according to their status, to the various
types of infantry or cavalry.
In times of crisis, a Dictator could be appointed. His time
in office could not be longer than six months. But for his
time in office he possessed the absolute power of a king.
The office of dictator was a very ancient office, having
The Dictator (1)
originated from times when one military commander
might be appointed over the armies of several Latin cities.
This rank then had been referred to as 'master-ofinfantry'.
Religion was firmly in the hands of the Pontifex Maximus
(High Priest) - a title still held by the present day Pope. The
pontifex maximus was, as were pretty much all official
positions, an elected office. But unlike other offices its
holder enjoyed a residence at the Roman forum in the
Pontifex Maximus
very heart of Rome. His chief duty was to preside at a
state ceremonies, but apart from that he also oversaw the
calendar and chose the vestal virgins, as well as some of
the priesthoods. He also possessed powers to discipline
members of the priesthood.
The Dictator was appointed by the consuls and was asked to serve for six months if a national
emergency came about. He chose a subordinate (magister equitem) to assist him. The Censors were
elected once every five years to maintain the list of citizens (census) and their public status. They were
in charge of public morals.
THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE
In 70 BC, the old system of Roman consular leadership changed. . Pompeii the Great, who gained his
fame in defeating the rebel Populares in Spain, ran for consul along with Marcus Liciuus Crassus, a rich
patrician who suppressed a revolt of slaves in Italy led by Spartacus. The next yar, 69 BC. Caesar was
21
selected as quaestor and subsequently he became a crule aedile (the patrician priest for the State).
Caesar gained great popularity for putting on numerous gladiator games for the Roman public. He owed
this favor to Crassus who provided him with the funds to stage these events. These two men worked
well together and when Caesar returned from battle in 60 BC., he joined Pompeii and Crassus as consul.
These three leaders were called the Triumvirate. This alliance was known as the first triumvirate and
was enforced by Caesar who gave his daughter Julia in marriage to Pompeii. One year later, in 59 BC.,
Caesar was named as the governor of Roman Gaul. These three men (triumviri) did not always work in
unison. Pompeii and Crassus did not get along at all. Their armies were on the brink of civil war within
the city. Caesar, a friend of Pompeii, intervened as a neutral negotiator. He was successful in having
Pompeii work with Crassus. Pompeii was given the province of Spain, but was allowed to remain in Italy.
Caesar ruled as the leader of Gaul for another five years. Crassus went to Syria as a proconsul where he
was killed by the Parthian army in battle. In 43 BCE, Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed a Second
Triumvirate. During this period of time, Octavian and Antony were at war with each other. Octavian
went to Antony and persuaded him to join forces rather than to continue the conflict. This was sealed by
a marriage of the sister of Octavian, Octavia, to Marc Anthony. A third leader was brought in to form the
triumvirate. It was Lepidus, a wealth and powerful man who had distinguished himself in Spain. Octavian
was given control of Africa and Sicily, Antony was given the leadership of Gaul, and Lepidus was given
control of Spain. .
Triumvirates
Triumvirates were common in the Roman republic.
First Triumvirate
The First Triumvirate was the alliance of Julius
Caesar, Pompey, and Marcus Licinius Crassus formed
in 60 This was not strictly a triumvirate, since the
alliance had no official sanction. The three men were
able to control Rome, and the alliance aided Caesar's
rise to power by giving him the opportunity to
pursue the Gallic Wars.
Second Triumvirate
The Second Triumvirate was legally established as
the tresviri rei publicae constituendae [triumvirate
for reestablishing the public welfare].. The members
were Octavian (Augustus), Marc Antony, and Marcus
Aemilius Lepidus.. This group was granted enormous
power by the senate.
22
THE TWELVE TABLES
The religious traditions of Rome had remained as private law for many years. When the patricians
organized the senate, they created laws to fit their needs. This was to change as the Plebeians needed to
have the laws of the land codified, and more importantly, they needed to have their concerns reflected
in those laws. After forming the Office of the Plebeian Tribune, they pushed for laws that would protect
them against the patricians. The result of these efforts emerged as the Twelve Tables in 450 BCE (Before
the Common Era). The significance of this codification meant that judges could no longer exercise their
arbitrary will on the Plebeians based on the religious laws of the Patricians. The Twelve Tables were
written by ten consuls (decemviri consulari). At first, the law contained only 10 statues, but two later
statutes were added. One of these had to do with prohibiting marriage between the classes (patrician
and plebeian) and the other allowed the public prosecution of crimes whereby injured parties could
seek compensation in civil disputes. The significance of this last law protected the plebeians from the
abuses of the ruling patricians. It is important because Roman law was established sp that justice was no
longer based solely on the interpretation of the judges. Many aspects of the Twelve Tables reinforced
the old religious values. Table IV, for example, has to do with the rights of fathers. The statute allows a
father to kill his dreadfully deformed child. It allows him to surrender his son for sale and it states that a
child born ten months after the death of the father is not entitled to his legal inheritance. Another
interesting statute can be found in Table VI and VII. This is where the details of property and ownership
are specified. This is significant because it codifies the changes taking place in Roman society. In the old
system of private law, ownership belonged to the patron of the family, the father. The limits of these
powers were codified in these statutes.
Other legal reforms would follow the Twelve Tables. The Tribunes were formed in 444 BC and they were
designed to protect the plebeians against the unfair laws passed by the Patricians in the Senate.
Unfortunately, the Tribunes stood outside the Senate chamber and would yell "veto" against those laws
that were unfair to them. In 367 BC, the Licinian-Sexton laws limited the size of the estates held by
Senators. It also reinforced the power of the Tribunes. By 287 BC, the Hortensian laws allowed Assembly
of Tribes (comitia tributa) the Plebeians to vote. These actions (plebiscite) further strengthened the
rights of the Plebeians. What all of these changes signify is a change of judicial power from the private
laws (juris privati) of the Patricians to the public law (publici juris) of the Plebeians. The relationships
between these two kinds of laws were redefined. Public law was now interpreted as crimes against the
state and private law had to do with crimes against the individuals.
PUBLIC LAW: Against the State
One could be found guilty of crimes such treason by
act or word (maiestas), sedition (vis publica), offenses
against religion (sacrilegium), bribery (ambitus),
extortion or the corruption in public administration
(crimen repetundarum), embezzlement of state funds
and bribery of a judge or member of the jury
23
(corruptio judicis).
PRIVATE LAW: Against the
Individual
One could commit crimes of physical injury (injuria),
deception (falsum), indecency (stuprum), and murder
(caedes). There were also laws against pederasty (lex
Scantinia) and laws of obligations concerned with
duties related to contacts or torts (delict). Torts were
non-contractual wrongs committed against a person
or his property. Contracts were agreements that were
enforceable by law. They were not always written.
They were merely enforced verbally by uttering "I
promise"(spondeo).
The end result was a new kind of civil law (ius civilie) described as the Institutes of Justinian where
Roman citizens were asked to live honestly, to injure no one, and to give every man his due. However,
disparities in justice still occurred. For example, a full citizen had certain exclusive rights within the
domain of private law. These were the power of the father (pater familias), the power of a patriarch
over his children (patria potestas), the power of a husband over his wife (manus), the power of the
patriarch over his slaves and other kinds of property (dominium), and the power of the patriarch over a
freedman (mancipium). Only full citizens were allowed to participate in enslavement (servitus) and
bondage (mancipium). They were also given the rights of voting (ius suffragii), of holding office (ius
honrum) and engaging in commerce (ius commercii). They were even allowed to marry with a freeborn
(ius connubii).
THE FALL OF ROME
Rome was the undisputed master of the Mediterranean. What began as a city soon encompassed an
Empire. Each of these additions to the Roman Empire was won through battle. The Roman Legions
conquered new territories and sent back a variety of wealth. Those who attacked Rome succumbed to
the legendary force of its armies. Even when Rome began to seriously build a navy (clasis) based on the
Greek warrior ships (tiremes) .
24
The Romans also made copies of the Carthaginian ship that they called "The Five" (quinquereme). It
provided them with an instant navy. This ship had 112 oarsmen on the upper deck, 108 on the middle
deck, and 50 on the lower deck. Among the crew were some 30 sailors and from 40-120 marines. The
Romans never really mastered the sea. They were never good at maneuvering the Five and resorted to
the use of a large boarding plank (corvus) of 4 x 36 feet that they dropped on the enemies ship before
unloading their combatants.
Rome began developing its navy following its victory over Hannibal. The fleet commanders (praefecti)
were from the equestrian class. At first there were two naval bases, one at Ravenna and one at
Misenum. Later, detachments were established along the Rhine and the Danube rivers. Naval squadron
commanders received the title of Navarch. Their captains were called Trierarchs. Each ship also had a
Centurion (centurio), his assistant (optio) and a detachment of infantry. Those who benefited the most
from these acquisitions were the wealthy patricians. Through the Senate, they controlled the wealth
acquired through battle. The made Rome the economic center of the Empire and had all roads built so
that they would lead to Rome. However, these victories culminated in peace for only a short period of
time, 98-180 AD. After that period of time, 180-285 AD, civil wars continued to sap its strength. Some
argue that this was a major factor that led to the Fall of Rome (Gibbons, 1932). However, the situation is
far more complex (Barlett, 1994: 1-10). These factors need to be reviewed separately.
Following the murder of Caesar in 44 BC, his adopted son, Octavian, brought an end to the internal strife
by creating the Second Triumvirate of Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus. These long wars had taken a heavy
toll on the Roman economy. It had required steep taxes necessary to supply the army. Because the
battle took place along a crucial trade route with Egypt, this disrupted trade led to an increase in
inflation and a severely depressed economic growth for Rome. The Triumvirate brought temporary
peace and trade favoring Rome resumed. Octavian, it should be noted, was still the power behind the
leadership of Rome. He took the name of Augustus and became the first emperor of Rome in 27 BC. He
served until 14 AD. When Octavian took control of Egypt, he did not grant it economic freedom. This is
because Egypt was critical to Rome's survival. It was from Egypt that Rome received its main source of
grain. The free grain policy in Rome meant that all the citizens of that city were provided with free grain,
free food for some 200,000 people. This policy began in 58 BC (Barlett, 1994: 2). These policies
continued with Teberius, Rome's second emperor (14-37 AD). Both of these emperor considered Egypt
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to be their personal property. Gaius Gracchus (123 BC) attempted to modify this policy by allowing
monthly rations of grain at fixed prices. The distributions of grain ended with the dictatorship of Sulla
(90 BC). However, in 58 BC, Clodius brought back the free grain policy by abolishing the charges
established earlier by Gracchus. By the time of Julius Caesar, some 320,000 people were receiving free
grain from Egypt. The heavy toll on the budget of Rome increased further under Septimius Severus (193211 AD) who created a free oil policy. Subsequent emperors instituted free pork and free wine programs
for its citizenry.
Because of the increase demands on the budget of Rome, the treasurers (quaestor) found it necessary
to increase taxes. Since these taxes were on property and since only the patricians owned land, they
were the ones who absorbed this burden. This tax was levied on all forms of property, including land,
houses, slaves, animals, money, and personal acquisitions. Since the patricians involved in taking the
census failed to provide accurate information on their fellow wealthy patricians, the main form of
taxation took the form of a tithe levied on communities, rather than on individuals. How this tax
burdens were to be realized was the responsibility of the local communities (Goffart, 1974: 11). The
people who collected these levies were known as tax farmers. They would pay in advance for the right
to collect taxes in particular provinces. These individuals were middlemen. They provided money to the
state and collected it from the provinces. What is interesting about tax farming is that it was controlled
by the patricians who became wealthier in the process. They were in collusion with the governor and
the Senate. When Augustus ended tax farming it was because of the complaints from the provinces.
They complained of oppression and extortion. What happened after the demise of tax farming was a
return to direct taxation. The new system was based on a flat taxation based on wealth. Under this new
system, each individual knew in advance what his tax assessment would be. There were two ways in
which this increase demands on the budget of the Roman Empire could be handled. One would be to
increase taxes and the other would be to decrease the value of the currency. The basic unit of Roman
coinage consisted of the gold aureus, the silver denarius, and the copper 9or bronze sesterce. The
denarius was considered the basic coin. Twenty five of them made up one aureus;.and four sesterce
constituted on denarius. The silver content of the denarius was reduced to 90% under Nero (54-68 AD),
85% under Trajan (98-117 AD), 75% under Marucs Aurelius (161-180 AD) and 50% under Septimius
Severus (305-306 AD). By the end of the third century AD, the denarius had been devalued to a silver
content of just 5%. By the end of the third century, Rome reached a crisis. The state could no longer
maintain its budget. Under Emperor Diocletian (284-305 AD), the denarius contained only 2% silver.
Diocletian believed that the inflation the his country was due mainly to speculation and hoarding. He
established price controls and in the preamble to his edict of 301 AD, he instituted the death penalty for
those who violated his system of price controls. After many deaths resulted from the dire economic
circumstances, he repealed the edit. A new system of economics was established, the annona. This was
a price estimate based on how much it would cost to maintain a single soldier on the payroll for a year.
Under this new system, people united to form taxable organs of the state. Guilds and small businesses
organized themselves into corporations (collegia) in order to meet their burdens of taxation.
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Hadrian chose as his official title Imperator Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus. He was simply known
as Hadrianus Augustus).
Beginning with Hadrian, the army was decentralized and immobilized. It included many foreigners or
barbarians in its service to Rome. Hadrian was disturbed by the constant attacks by the Picts against his
army. He buld a great wall in northern Britain that stretched from Tyne to Solway. This event is known in
British history as "Hadrians Wall." It was one of the most impressive fortifications of the ancient world. It
was almost 80 miles long and stretched from Newcastle in the ast to Solway in the west. The work on
the wall began in 120 AD and formed a continuous wall of stone. Hadrian had milecastles built every
mile along the wall. These were fortified gateways manned by 16 soldiers. Every third of a mile, he
placed turrets as observation posts. Alonside the wall, he positioned entire forts covering five acres and
housing some 1,000 auxiliary infantry and irregular troops. This was not the first time that Hadrian built
a wall of protection around the parameters of a Roman hinterland. He also built a 340 mile palisade of
split oak logs (9 feet high) along the frontier in Germany. Behind these palisades were forts of earthwork
that were eventually replaced by stone. Hadrian left Britain. The Roman Empire found it difficult to
maintain its outermost legions. This is because they were also under attack by the Germanic tribes, the
Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Franks, and the Huns. In England, the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons entered
the British Isles and claimed it as their territory. It was no longer Roman. The Jutes settled in Kent, the
Angles remained in the vicinity of Northumbria and the Saxons stayed in central England and created the
territories of Sussex (South Saxon), Essex (East Saxons) and Wessex (West Saxons).
Edward Gibbons (1956) noted that other forces did not replace the powers of Rome, they were divided
from within and this also led to the Fall of Rome. What Gibbons had in mind when writing this was
Constantine (308-337 AD) who moved industry to the provinces and left Rome an empty municipality. It
was no longer the center of production, and it still was burdened by a heavy tax load. This added further
to the economic deterioration of the city with its over-regulation and lack of revenues sufficient to
maintain its prior lifestyle. The new shift in power went to Constantinople where the emperor resided.
This led to two capitol cities, one in the West and the other in the East. This rule of Constantine in the
East led to the decline of the ruin of the Roman power structures located in the West. Furthermore,
Constantine converted to Christianity and this led to the demise of many of the city religions
characteristically associated with Rome. The old religions were highly individualistic class-oriented and
27
they were replaced by a universal religion that did not differentiate between rich and poor, powerful
and powerless, patricians and plebeians, slaves and slaveholders.
There are other factors that could be mentioned that led to the demise of Rome. Among these were the
plaques. The first one happened in 180 AD and killed one forth of the entire empire. This was followed
by a second one (252-267 AD) in which five thousand deaths each day were reported in Rome alone. In
Egypt, Alexandria lost two-thirds of its population. About this time, the German tribes threatened many
of the cities around Rome and Emperor Aurelian built a great wall of protection around Rome. It was
twelve feet thick and twenty feet high.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
What is important about this investigation into the ancient city of Rome is that the city underwent many
structural changes. Sociologists are concerned with the nature of these changes because they provide
theoretical insight into on societal transformations. Structures change for many reasons, but what is of
central concern is the question of just what structures are maintained and why. Several patterns
continue to emerge as new structures develop. As families developed into phrateries and later into
tribes, one found a common element that was considered to be so important that it was maintained at
all cost. This element was of a religious nature. All new structures were couched within the symbolic
framework of the hearth religion. If the family had a priest, then the phratry had to have a priest and so
did the tribe. If the family had a keeper of the flame, so did the phratry and the tribe. When Rome
emerged as a municipality, it consisted of three tribes who provided the city with its priest (pontifex
maximus) and its keeper of the flame (the Vestal Virgins). At some point, the newly emerging structures
would conflict with religious framework. This could only come about with the decline of the patricians
who maintained their aristocracy in the name of ancestral lineage.
Another pattern that continued to emerge during over the centuries was the concept of patronage. The
father acted as the priest of the family. He maintained the system of ancestral relationship. When he
accepted a wife into his family, she had to take on his religion. When he adopted a son into his family,
the son had to partake of the new family religion. The adopted son was given a special status. He was
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above the plebeians. If he went to court, his stepfather would argue on his behalf. . In the patrician
families of Rome, the clients serve their patrons. When Rome extended itself into an Empire, conquered
states function as clients to Rome, their patron city. Obviously, this system of patronage did not end
with the fall of Rome. It continued into the Middle Ages and formed the basis for the feudal system in
which the lord of the castle provided for his followers in return for their patronage
The system of insiders and outsiders constituted another pattern to emerge from the religion of the
ancient city of Rome. A family protected its religion. It kept its rituals private. Each home had a sacred
alcove that was available only to family members. Every land had its tomb and the land had its markers
(termnini) to ward off outsiders. Strangers were avoided. They were unknown to the family and only
those who shared the same ancestral religion were not strangers. People who belonged to a phratry
shared the same gods and worshiped at the same temple. Those that did not were strangers, outsiders.
Similarly, members of a tribe all shared in common worship at a common tomb of some ancestral
father. Those that did not partake of this tribal religion were strangers. Plebeians were considered
outsiders. They did not partake of the religions of the patricians. Strangers were more than outsiders,
they were deemed as deviants. How does a system based on a network of deal with the outside world?
Rome had a seaport on the mouth of the Tiber River, Ostia. How did it interact with those from other
lands? The answer can be found in the Roman tradition of building walls around its cities. The walls had
four gates based on the cardinal directions and they were open in the morning to allow workers
entrance into the city. At night, they were closed to all except the citizens of Rome, i.e., the patricians.
Those who worked in the seaport of Ostia were outsiders and they worked with other outsiders. Their
profits, however, belong to the patricians who lived in the walled city of Rome. The wall takes on added
significance within the context of Roman culture, it marks the boundary between insiders and outsiders.
Hadrian's Wall in England, from example, was not merely a protective device against the Picts, it marked
them as outsiders, members of non-Roman territories.
The role of the father constitutes another pattern to emerge from the hearth religions of ancient Rome.
The father was the priest of the hearth, the paterfamilias. He was the protector of the property of his
ancestors. The property was important because it was where his ancestors resided. As families
developed into phrateries, it kept the father as the figure head of the family. Tribes also had male
figures who acted as the father head and tribal priest. When Rome was established, it had two fathers.
One was in charge of religious matters and the other was in charge of civic matters. Eventually, the civic
leader became two (duumvirate) and then three (triumvirate). The symbolism was retained but the roles
were separated. The city priest held a separate position from that of the civic leaders. The city priest was
concerned with sacred ceremonies, the keeping of the Kalends, and related matters of religion. The civic
leader controlled the Senate and acted as the Commander in Chief of the military.
Another interesting pattern to emerge from ancient Rome is that of the aristocracy. As families grew
into phrateries and tribes, they created themselves into the landed gentry. These patricians formed the
aristocracy of Rome. As Rome grew, these patricians continued to absorb the wealth that came from
outside of the city. They did not share these new forms of income with the plebeians. Later, the
plebeians would find a way to become members of this upper class. They would eventually be allowed
to become citizens and to vote. With the fall of Rome came a shift in the ruling aristocracy. It still
29
remained, but it was no longer under the control of the patricians. What is significant about the Roman
aristocracy is that it provided the structure and the rationale behind the system of class stratification
that characterized Europe until the French Revolution. Monarchs replaced patricians and the eccleiarchs
replaced monarchs. The concept of the middle class (les citoyens moyens) did not appear until the
French Revolution.
Another pattern to emerge from the study of the ancestral religion in Rome was the dichotomy of public
versus private spheres of interaction. When Rome was established, it was still an assemblage of tribes
with its own private gods, private lands, and private spheres of human interaction. All that existed
within the walls of Rome was private property. It was not until the rise of the plebeian class that Rome
was to become a municipality, a republic (res publica, a public thing). This dichotomy of public self
versus private self subsided during the Middle Ages but emerged once again around the time of the
second industrial revolution (Nisbet, 1968; Sennet, 1978).
There are two kinds of transformations that are of interest to a theory of societal transformations. One
resides in the changes in structural growth brought about by the expansions in populations from within
and the other comes from expansion from the outside, viz., foreign influences. Within each of these
expansions, one finds symbolic conflicts. When old values are retained, it means that those values are
important to a group and that they are protected from change, either consciously or unconsciously. The
values associated with the hearth religion of the ancient city of Rome provide a good example of this.
The symbolic structure of the ancient religion provided the motivating force behind the newly emerging
structural forms. If the family was a religion, it is not surprising to see that the phratry and the tribe
would also be treated as a religion. When Rome became a municipality, it was structured around the
rites and rituals of the religion of the tribes and their familial practices. When the influence of Mithras
began to influence Roman religion, it was modified so that it would not conflict with these ancient
patterns. The structure of the insiders versus the outsiders continued throughout the Roman Empire. All
roads led to Rome because all roads served Rome. Many Roman provinces wanted to share in the glory
of the metropole, but they could not because they were outsiders. The values of the hearth religion
were stretched to its limits and when it fell, so did the glory of Rome.
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