Download Theories and Models

Theories and Models
Christopher T. Inman
The University of Alabama
Behaviorism
In the simplest term, behaviorism is a philosophy of psychology which focuses on the
study of behavior. Someone who studies behaviorism, a behaviorist, studies the actions or
behaviors exhibited by humans and animals. For a behaviorist, it is impossible to tell the state of
mind of an individual without an exhibited behavior. Behaviorism ignores concepts such ideas,
emotions, or thoughts because such ideas are subjective. Instead, only behaviors are measured
and analyzed. Several individuals have been crucial in the development of behaviorism,
including Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, John Watson, and B.F. Skinner
In the late 1890s and early 1900s, Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov developed his theory
of classical conditioning by studying the behavior of dogs. In his research, Pavlov trained dogs
to associate a tone with a reward, food. When a dog would hear the specific tone, they then
would begin to develop saliva, thus indicating that they expected to be rewarded with food
(Eckart, 2007). Pavlov took these results and developed the theory of classical conditioning. In
essence, classical conditioning involves taking two subjects that already have a relationship (a
pre-existing stimulus and a pre-existing response), adding a new “conditioned” stimulus to the
relationship, and seeking to use the new stimulus to generate the old response (Booth-Butterfield,
1996).
Around the same time period, American psychologist Edward Thorndike developed the
theory of connectionism. According to the theory, associations are formed between a stimulus
and response, and these associations grow weaker or stronger based upon the frequency and
strength of the stimulus-response pairing (Kearsley, 2007a). Thorndike developed the theory
through trial and error; cats were placed in puzzle-boxes and escape times were measured. When
placed in the puzzle-box again, cats would repeatedly use the same escape methods to achieve a
reward, freedom (Kentridge, 2007a). Thorndike’s research led also to the development of the
law of effect, in which a response with a positive outcome increasingly becomes associated with
a situation. The research also led to the law of readiness, whereby a series of responses could be
linked together to achieve an objective, leading to irritation if unsuccessful and the law of
exercise in which connections are strengthened through practice (Kearsley, 2007a). In relation to
learning, connectionism suggests that learning requires practice and positive rewards, that
learning takes place due to previously encountered problems or situations, and that intelligence is
measured by the number of connections established (Kearsley, 2007a).
In 1913, American psychologist John B. Watson became widely recognized for founding
the philosophy of behaviorism with the publishing of the article, “Psychology as the Behaviorist
Views It”. This form of behaviorism has also been called classical behaviorism (Moore, 2007).
Watson built upon Pavlov’s classical conditioning theory to form behaviorism, while he rejected
Thorndike’s law of effect. Watson established the fundamental tenet of behaviorism, that
observable behavior should be studied and measured, not matters of the mind. Introspection of
the mind was rejected, as it held no scientific value.
In the 1950s, B.F. Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning, which built off
of the work of Pavlov. Skinner used a “Skinner box” for his experiment, and through trial and
error, trained rats to get food pellets under certain conditions (Kentridge, 2007b). For operant
conditioning, the emphasis is placed on reinforcement, usually verbal praise or an award, which
is used to produce a desired response (Kearsley, 2007b). Skinner also founded radical
behaviorism. Under radical behaviorism, a person begins as an organism and does not actually
become a person until it acquires and develops behaviors over the course of a lifetime through
various schedules of reinforcement; the person has no free will and is under the control of its
environment or setting (Athabasca University, 2007).
Today, aspects of behaviorism are used by teachers and administrators in U.S. public
schools on a daily basis. Teachers hand out grades as positive reinforcement, hoping that good
grades will encourage students to study. Teachers excuse students from taking a test or a quiz as
negative reinforcement, believing that students will work hard and study if they know they will
not have to take a quiz. Administrators assign students detention as a positive punisher, thinking
that making students stay after school will decrease unwanted behavior. Administrators take
away student privileges as a negative punisher in an attempt to encourage students to behave in
certain ways. Instructional designers must keep the basic concepts of behaviorism in mind when
creating tutorials and multimedia products.
References
Athabasca University. (2007). Part 4: Behavioral analysis. Behaviorism Tutorial. Article
retrieved October 8, 2007: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/Behaviorism/Part1/sec4.shtml
Booth-Butterfield, S. (1996). Classical conditioning. Steve’s Primer to Practical Persuasion
Version 2.0. Article retrieved October 8, 2007:
http://www.as.wvu.edu/~sbb/comm221/chapters/pavlov.htm
Eckart, A. (2007). Classical conditioning. Lehrstuhl für Genetik und Neurobiologie. Article
retrieved October 8, 2007: http://genetics.biozentrum.uniwuerzburg.de/behavior//learning/classical.html
Kearsley, G. (2007a). Connectionism (E. Thorndike). Explorations in Learning & Instruction:
The Theory into Practice Database. Article retrieved October 8: 2007:
http://tip.psychology.org/thorn.html
Kearsley, G. (2007b). Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner). Explorations in Learning &
Instruction: The Theory into Practice Database. Article retrieved October 8: 2007:
http://tip.psychology.org/skinner.html
Kentridge, R.W. (2007a). Operant conditioning and behaviorism: An historical outline.
Lehrstuhl für Genetik und Neurobiologie. Article retrieved October 8, 2007:
http://genetics.biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de/behavior//learning/behaviorism.html
Kentridge, R.W. (2007b). Training a rat in the Skinner box. Lehrstuhl für Genetik
und Neurobiologie. Article retrieved October 8, 2007: http://genetics.biozentrum.uniwuerzburg.de/behavior//learning/SkinnerBox.html
Constructivism
Constructivism is a learning theory proposes that true knowledge creation or construction
only takes place through an individual’s personal experiences with an object. Constructivist
practices are centered on authentic, collaborative projects which attempt to create learning
communities similar to those in the real world or community (Hsiao, 2007). When people work
together they bring their own unique set of experiences and beliefs, or framework, to the
collaborative process, thus providing differing perspectives. Exposure to different perspectives
allows individuals to negotiate and make shared decisions, while also engaging in meaningmaking (Hsiao, 2007). In regards to teaching, constructivism argues that learning should be
student-centered, and that students should have a part in the decision making process of choosing
content and activities. Several influential individuals have been proponents of constructivism,
including John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky, and Ernst von Glasersfeld.
Modern constructivist philosophical thought began with John Dewey. Dewey believed
that true learning could not occur with traditional memorization techniques. Instead, knowledge
was created through meaningful experiences in a given context, in which individuals manipulate
materials and form a community of learners who construct knowledge together (Thanasoulas,
2007). For Dewey, students could only learn by doing. In other words, students must be
engaged in meaningful activities which encourage knowledge creation or construction.
Though Dewey maintained constructivist beliefs, Jean Piaget is credited with formulating
and articulating the theory of constructivism. Piaget’s theory was a result of his research in
understanding child development, as he sought to learn how knowledge developed in humans
(Kearsley, 2007b). The theorist believed that a human’s behavior was controlled by cognitive
structures called schemas which individuals use to represent the world and to act. Furthermore,
these cognitive structures could be modified or adapted through the processes of assimilation and
adaptation (Huitt & Hummel, 2003). Assimilation involves transforming the environment to fit
the existing structure, while accommodation involves changing the existing structure to accept
something in the environment. Piaget also developed four stages of cognitive structure
development: sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, and formal operations (Kearsley,
2007b). In the sensorimotor stage, birth to 2 years of age, intelligence takes the form of motor
actions. In the preoperation period, roughly 3 to 7 years of age, intelligence is intuitive. During
the concrete operational stage, ages 8 to 11, intelligence is more logical, but it depends upon
concrete referents. In the formal operations stage, ages 12 to 15, thinking involves abstractions
(Kearsley, 2007b). The concept of cognitive constructivism grew from Piaget’s work.
Jerome Bruner, a cognitive constructivist, conducted research closely linked to the
research of Piaget. Bruner believed that learning was an active process whereby learners
constructed new concepts based upon their own current and past knowledge. During this
process, individuals use cognitive structures, or schemas, to give meaning and organization to
experiences, which allows individuals to create new ideas from a given set of information
(Kearsley, 2007a). In terms of learning, Bruner’s theory states that instruction must address four
issues: tendencies towards learning, ways in which knowledge can be structured so that content
is understood by the learner, effective sequencing in presenting material, and the use of rewards
and punishments (Kearsley, 2007a).
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist and social constructivist, differed from Piaget in
that Vygotsky emphasized the role of cultural mediation in the cognitive structure. For
Vygotsky, the meanings of an action and of a context were not independent of each other, and
instead were linked; cultural mediation was important in mental development (Cole & Wertsch,
2001). Vygotsky also originated the “zone of proximal development”, the zone which an
individual can only reach or attain through social interaction (Kearsley, 2007c). By interacting
with peers who are more advanced or with teachers who have more knowledge, individuals can
learn and understand concepts which they could not have grasped on their own.
Ernst Von Glasersfeld founded radical constructivism, which proposed that knowledge
creation was largely a self-contained cognitive process within an individual’s mind. Since
knowledge is itself a construct, it is difficult to discern which knowledge reflects reality. In
terms of teaching and learning, radical constructivism holds that teachers should take on the role
of facilitator or guide rather than as dispenser of knowledge. Essentially, the teacher should
introduce new concepts and encourage further action (Murphy, 1997).
Instructional designers should take constructivism into account when designing tutorials,
multimedia, and other instruments of instruction. Each individual brings a unique set of
experiences to any learning opportunity, and different cultural backgrounds do impact the
success of a learning transaction. Finally, individuals tend to learn more content in collaborative
situations as opposed to solitary study, as different people bring their experiences and knowledge
to the group and provide differing perspectives and ideas.
Resources
Cole, M. & Wertsch, J.V. (2001). Beyond the individual-social antimony in discussions of
Piaget and Vygotsky. The Virtual Faculty. Article retrieved October 10, 2007:
http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/virtual/colevyg.htm
Hsiao, J.W.D.L. (2007). Constructivism theory. CSCL Theories. Article retrieved October 8,
2007: http://www.edb.utexas.edu/csclstudent/Dhsiao/theories.html#construct
Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Educational
Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved October 10,
2007: http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piaget.html
Kearsley, G. (2007a). Constructivist theory (J. Bruner). Explorations in Learning &
Instruction: The Theory into Practice Database. Article retrieved October 9, 2007:
http://tip.psychology.org/bruner.html
Kearsley, G. (2007b). Genetic epistemology (J. Piaget). Explorations in Learning &
Instruction: The Theory into Practice Database. Article retrieved October 9, 2007:
http://tip.psychology.org/piaget.html
Kearsley, G. (2007c). Social development theory (Lev Vygotsky). ). Explorations in Learning
& Instruction: The Theory into Practice Database. Article retrieved October 10, 2007:
http://tip.psychology.org/vygotsky.html
Murphy, E. (1997). Constructivist learning theory. Constructivism: From Philosophy to
Practice. Article retrieved October 10, 2007:
http://www.stemnet.nf.ca/~elmurphy/emurphy/cle.html
Thanasoulas, D. (2007). Constructivist learning. TeachingLearning: Articles for teachers.
Article retrieved October 9, 2007:
http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Tagalog/Teachers_Page/Language_Learning_Articles/constru
ctivist_learning.htm
Information Processing
Information processing theory originated from the idea that there is limit to the amount of
information a human being retains in short term memory. In response to this realization,
information processing theory was formed, in which the processes of the human mind is
compared to computer processes. Historically, information processing theory developed from
the school of cognitive psychology which studies how human beings construct various thought
processes from childhood to adolescence and then adulthood. The focus of information
processing theory is the study of how the human mind processes information and uses various
types of memory.
Generally, there are three stages associated with information processing theory: encoding,
storage, and retrieval (Cassady, 2007). In the encoding stage, human beings perceive, sense, and
then attend to information. During the storage stage, information is stored for either a short
period of time or a long period of time, depending upon the processes we use following the
encoding stage. In the final stage, retrieval, information is located and used when it is needed.
Information processing theory also specifies different types of knowledge used: general or
specific, declarative (factual), procedural, and conditional (Cassady, 2007). Conditional
knowledge refers to human beings knowing when and why they use either declarative or
procedural knowledge.
There are several widely used theories of information processing. One such theory is the
stage theory model, proposed by R.C. Atkinson and R.M. Shiffrin in 1968 (Huitt, 2003). Stage
theory proposes that memory is processed and stored in three stages: sensory memory, short term
memory, and long term memory. During the sensory memory stage, information is taken in from
the environment and stores it for a short period of time. In order to retain the memory and to
send it to short term memory, the information received should either have interesting features or
a known and familiar pattern. Short term memory is also referred to as working memory and it
describes what human beings are thinking about a any given point in time. We use short term
memory when we use a concentrated stream of information, and we retain it until we think of
another subject or topic (Akdemir, 2002). To move short term memory to long term memory we
must use the information repeatedly. Long term memory represents permanent memory which
available for us to use for long periods of time. Sigmund Freud divided long term memory into
two types, preconscious and unconscious (Huitt, 2003). Preconscious refers to memory that is
easier to recall and use, whereas unconscious refers to information that is not readily available
during normal consciousness.
Another information processing theory is the level-of-processing theory, developed by
Fergus I.M. Craik and Robert S.Lockhart in 1972. The levels-of-processing theory differs from
the stage theory model in that it does not believe in distinct levels of memory storage. Instead,
an infinite number of processing levels processes memory as it is encoded. Yet another theory,
the parallel-distributed processing theory, proposes that information is processed at the same
time by different parts of the memory system. The connectionist model, proposed by David
Rumelhart and James McClelland, builds upon the parallel-distributed processing theory, by
suggesting that information is stored in several locations throughout the brain which exist as a
network of connections (Huitt, 2003).
Perhaps the most influential theorist in information processing theory is George A.
Miller. Miller proposed what is known as “chunking”, whereby short term memory could hold
only five to nine chunks at a time, in which a chunk represents a meaningful unit. Chunks can
refer to numbers, words, people’s faces, or any other measurable unit. The chunking concept has
become a basic premise for information processing theory.
Miller also proposed the TOTE
(Test-Operate-Test-Exit) theory. The theory suggests that within a TOTE unit a goal is tested to
see if it has been achieved, and if it has failed, another operation will be performed and repeated
until the goal is achieved. (Kearsley, 2007)
References
Akdemir, U. (2003). Information processing. Theories in Human-Computer Interaction.
Article retrieved October 16, 2007:
http://www.cs.umd.edu/class/fall2002/cmsc838s/tichi/infproctheory.html
Cassady, J.C. (2007). Information processing view of learning and memory. Department of
Educational Psychology, Teachers College, Ball State University: Jerrell C. Cassady,
Ph.D. Article retrieved October 16, 2007:
http://www.bsu.edu/classes/cassady2/EDPSYCH/infoprocess1.html
Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach to cognition. Educational Psychology
Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Article retrieved October 16, 2007:
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infoproc.html
Kearsley, G. (2007). Information processing theory (G. Miller). Explorations in Learning &
Instruction: The Theory into Practice Database. Article retrieved October 16, 2007:
http://tip.psychology.org/miller.html
Systems Theory
Systems Theory describes a methodical way of examining and studying the various
processes that occur in everyday life. Researchers and scientists study these processes by
classifying every object, person, interaction, and outcome as being part of a system, or
framework. Through this framework, the various processes can be analyzed, described,
documented, and if possible, augmented. Theoretically, systems can either be open or closed. A
closed system does not interact with its surrounding environment, and does not exchange any
energy, matter, or information. Conversely, open systems do interact with the surrounding
environment, as well as other systems, and exchange energy, matter, or information (Flint,
1997). Systems Theory has been widely applied to the study of processes in several different
fields, including instructional systems design. Theorists of note in studying systems theory
include Ludwig Von Bertalanffy, Ross Ashby, and Bela Banathy.
The modern field of systems theory originates from the work of Ludwig Von Bertalanffy.
Von Bertalanffy’s theory derived from his work in biology, as he believed that all organisms
would be best understood if they were examined as systems. Each organism works as a system,
with the organism representing the whole, and the processes making up the organism
representing the various parts of the system. Systems theory was also influenced by the work of
Norbert Weiner and Ross Ashby, who helped pioneer the field of cybernetics, which was initially
concerned with studying biological and artificial control systems (Webopedia, 2007).
Systems theory proposes that all systems are composed of at least four components. The
first component is an object. Objects represent the parts or elements of the system, and they may
be physical or abstract. Next, a system contains attributes, or the qualities and properties of the
objects and the system. Third, a system maintains relationships between the objects within the
system. The fourth aspect is that systems exist in an environment (University of Twente, 2004).
Generally, systems can be either closed or open. Closed systems do not take in information from
its environment, whereas open systems do take in information from its environment. Both
systems, however, are characterized by the interdependency of the parts within the system.
Nevertheless, open systems are more dynamic than closed systems in the sense that new
information is consistently acquired, and the newly acquired information changes the nature of
the system.
Open systems are associated with several attributes and assertions. The first assertion is
that of non-summativity, or the belief that the system is a separate entity which is greater than the
sum of its parts. Second, the system is characterized by interdependence, since all parts of the
system have an effect on the other parts within the system. Third, all complex systems exist in a
hierarchy whereby a system is actually a sub-system of a much larger system.
Fourth, open
systems self-regulate themselves to reach goals and objectives and to meet the needs of the
system. Fifth, an open system affects the environment, and the environment affects the system.
Sixth, an open system must maintain a balance in order to survive, and in order to maintain
balance, an open system much be able to change and adapt. Finally, open systems represent the
characteristic of equifinality, or the fact that the open system can reach the same objective
through several different routes. (Flint, 1996)
In 1968, Bela Banathy took the systems theory approach and applied it to instructional
design. Banathy’s work is very similar to today’s modern instructional design models such as
ADDIE. In Banathy’s instructional system, the system is comprised of three components:
purpose, process, and content (Clark, 2004). The purpose details what has to be done to achieve
the state objectives. The process describes the various operations taking place within the system
to achieve the purpose. The content represents the parts which comprise the system. Ultimately,
Banathy believed that a systems approach to instructional design would provide a dynamic
system which proved multi-directional and thus able provide and receive input and feedback.
Systems theory is a simple way to approach studying people, processes, and our
environment. Over the past fifty years, systems theory has been applied in engineering,
sociology, building and understanding organizations, understanding culture, and in computers.
Systems theory has also been applied to the modern field of instructional design. An
instructional designer, it is wise to view the design process as a system with interdependent parts
which require each other in order to reach stated goals and objectives. By viewing design as a
system, designers can have a more holistic approach, and can better understand the needs of
users and learners.
References
Clark, D. (2004). Bela Banathy-instructional systems-1968. Performance, Learning,
Leadership, & Knowledge. Article retrieved October 15, 2007:
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_isd/banathy.html
Flint, L. (1997). Systems theory. Ball State University home page. Article retrieved October
12, 2007: http://www.bsu.edu/classes/flint/systems.html
University of Twente. (2004). System theory. Theorieënoverzicht TCW: Communication
theories. Article retrieved October 15, 2007:
http://www.tcw.utwente.nl/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Communication%20Pr
ocesses/System_Theory.doc/
Webopedia. (2007). Cybernetics. Webopedia.com. Article retrieved October 15, 2007:
http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/c/cybernetics.html
Problem Based Learning
Problem based learning (PBL) is a student-centered, instructional method whereby
students investigate an issue or problem and search for the answers together with the help of
fellow group members. In this method, teachers act as guides and facilitators, while students act
as self-directed researchers and problem solvers. The process involves a teacher presenting a
situation to a group of students, generally around five students per group. Students, in turn, must
work together to explore the situation, to answer any questions, to pose new questions, and to
discover the solutions or correct answers. Such situations, however, are usually open-ended with
no true correct answer. Instead of requiring students to memorize and recite facts, they are
encouraged to apply knowledge to new situations to broaden conceptual understanding (Learning
Theories, 2007). Problem-based learning has drawn praise along with implementation, as well
as criticism.
The history of the modern form of problem-based learning begins in the 1960s with Dr.
Howard Barrows. Barrows originally established problem based learning to train physicians at
the medical school at McMaster University in Ontario, Canada (University of Cincinnati, 2007a).
Following the introduction of PBL, the instructional method spread to three other medical
schools: the University of Limburg at Maastricht in the Netherlands, the University of Newcastle
in Australia, and the University of New Mexico (Camp, 1996). Since that time, problem-based
learning has slowly spread to other medical schools, and has become very common at medical
institutions in the United States and around the world. Problem based learning also has been
adopted by disciplines other than medicine, including business, education, chemistry, and
mathematics (University of Cincinnati, 2007a).
There are several characteristics which distinguish problem based learning from other
learning methods and theories. Teachers introduce students to a problem that contains openended questions which have no true correct answer, and which challenge students to think
critically and develop learning skills. Each problem, or case, is presented in a specific context or
framework, but students decide how they will approach and solve the problem. Teachers act as
guides and facilitators, not as knowledge experts. Problem based learning typically occurs as
steps within a cycle. First, students are presented with the problem. Next, students read over
and discuss the problem with their fellow group members. At this point, either a teacher or the
students will assign specific roles or tasks to each group member, though this is not always the
case. After roles have been assigned, students conduct research either by themselves or on their
own, and then the information is presented to and discussed with the group. Once discussion has
taken place, students then work together to complete a finished product which seeks to answer
the problem. At this point, the teacher wraps up the lesson, either by providing a lecture, an
activity, or a group discussion. Finally, students are asked to reflect on the process and to
evaluate their own personal contribution, and the contributions of their fellow group members
(University of Cincinnati, 2007b).
Supporters of problem based learning point to several positive reasons for following the
learning method. Problem based learning promotes active learning which fosters a deeper
understanding of material and encourages skill development (Wood, 2003). The learning
method also requires all students to be engaged in the process. Problem based learning also
follows a constructivist approach, as students use prior knowledge and build upon that prior
knowledge to confront the problem at hand (Wood, 2003). Finally, problem based learning
encourages students to develop their problem-solving skills, which then translates to solving
problems in other content areas and in life in general.
Despite the previously mentioned positive aspects, problem based learning also has its
share of criticism. Detractors have pointed to shortcomings and potential problems for both
students and teachers. One such criticism from a student perspective is that it is difficult for
students to know what is important for them to learn (Learning Theories, 2007). It may also be
challenging for students to move to problem based learning after following traditional
approaches for much of their academic life. Students will also want to know exactly what they
have to do in order to earn a good grade, and therefore, a rubric may be necessary. In addition,
students may be hesitant about working in a group, and may openly resist the possibility of their
grade being partially dependent upon the work and contribution of other students. Teachers, on
the other hand, must learn how to relinquish a great deal of control to the students. In addition,
teachers must provide enough materials and resources for students to research. Teachers will
also have to shift to a new role, that of facilitator, which may be difficult to do. Finally, problem
based learning takes time to implement, and teachers must be patient to ensure its effectiveness.
In the past thirty years problem based learning has spread into various academic
programs in colleges and universities throughout the United States, as well as into primary and
secondary schools. Problem based learning encourages students to recall what they already
know, and challenges them to use their knowledge to solve problems. Students improve their
problem solving skills and critical thinking skills, and they learn how to work within a group
dynamic to achieve an objective. Several issues with problem based learning related to students
and to teachers, however, must be adequately addressed to achieve success.
References
Camp, G. (1996). Problem-based learning: A paradigm shift or a passing phase? Med-EdOnline.Org. Article retrieved October 14, 2007: http://www.med-edonline.org/f0000003.htm
Learning Theories. (2007). Problem-based learning (PBL). Learning Theories. Article
retrieved October 14, 2007: http://www.learning-theories.com/problem-based-learningpbl.html
University of Cincinnati. (2007a). Introduction to problem-based learning: History of PBL.
Problem-Based Learning at the University of Cincinnati. Article retrieved October 14,
2007: http://www.uc.edu/pbl/index.shtml
University of Cincinnati. (2007b). Introduction to problem-based learning: What is PBL?
Problem-Based Learning at the University of Cincinnati. Article retrieved October 15,
2007: http://www.uc.edu/pbl/intro_what.shtml
Wood, D.F. (2003). ABC of learning and teaching in medicine: Problem based learning.
BMJ.com. Article retrieved October 15, 2007:
http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/326/7384/328
Learning Styles
The focus and study of learning styles originates from the commonly held belief that
individuals prefer different ways of learning. In other words, learning styles refers to the way in
which individuals process information (Kearsley, 2007). Each individual interprets and
understands stimuli in unique ways, and learning styles help to define these ways. In terms of
education, researchers and educators believe that teachers should assess each student’s preferred
learning style and design individualized instruction based upon the measured, preferred learning
style. There are several different learning style models available, including Kolb’s learning
styles inventory, Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences, and the Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic
(VAK) model.
In the early 1900s, Carl Jung developed a personality theory that classified people into
two categories: the introvert and the extrovert. Introverts tend to be withdrawn and quiet, and are
more interested in ideas than in people. Extroverts are more social and outgoing. Jung also
believed that human behavior was composed of four psychic functions, thinking/feeling and
intuition/sensation, with thinking/feeling representing rational functions requiring conscious
decisions and intuition/sensation representing immediate experiences (Clark, 2000). These
theories were later used to develop the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) test. The MBTI
actually measures personality type, not learning style, but personality often plays a role in
learning style preference.
The Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic (VAK) learning styles model began its development in
the early 1920s, and has been influenced by researchers and theorists (Chapman, 2007). Though
variations of the model exist, VAK is the most common model used. The model details learners
as falling into three broad categories: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. Visual learners learn new
ideas and concepts more readily by reading and seeing words. Auditory learners, in contrast,
learn best by hearing and listening. Finally, kinesthetic learners achieve optimal learning by
engaging in hands-on activities. However, it is common for individuals to fall into all of the
categories, while being more dominant in one category over the other two. This model
encourages teachers and instructional designers to use a multi-sensory approach to teaching in
order to provide a wider range of learning opportunities.
In 1983, Howard Gardner published his book, Frames of Mind, in which he detailed his
theory of multiple intelligences. According to Gardner, human beings utilize seven different
types of intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic,
interpersonal, and intrapersonal (Guignon, 1998). Every person possesses all seven
intelligences, but each person develops the various intelligences at different levels (Brualdi,
1996). In terms of education, multiple intelligences theory means that each student has different
strengths and weaknesses. Gardner’s theory has helped to fuel the move toward more
individualized instruction and evaluation practices in schools.
In 1984, David Kolb described his theory of experiential learning with his book,
Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. The theory
outlined four styles of learning: concrete experiences (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract
conceptualization (AC), and active experimentation (AE) (Kearsley, 2007). CE and AC are
polar opposites of each other, and RO and AE are polar opposites as well. According the theory,
as an individual approaches a situation, the individual decides to either do (AE) or watch (RO),
and based on the experience the individual decides to either feel (CE) or think (AC). Kolb’s
theory also details four different types of learners: divergers, assimilators, convergers, and
accommodators (Kearsley, 2007). An individual who would rather do than watch, and who
thinks rather than feels is an accommodator. An individual who would rather do than watch, and
who thinks rather than feels is a converger. An individual who would rather watch than do, and
who feels rather than thinks is a diverger. Finally, an individual who would rather watch than
do, and who thinks rather than feels is an assimilator.
In practice, understanding a student’s learning style helps teachers select the types of
instructional methods and materials which will help each individual student learn best. Each
person learns in different ways, and each individual interprets stimuli using their own unique
intelligences, and their own strengths and weaknesses. Utilizing a student’s individual learning
style also takes advantage of that student’s strengths instead of forcing a student to learn in
unaccustomed or disadvantageous ways.
References
Brualdi, A.C. (1996). Multiple intelligences: Gardner’s theory. The Springhurst Project.
Article retrieved October 11, 2007: http://www.springhurst.org/articles/MItheory.htm
Chapman, A. (2007). Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences. BusinessBalls.com. Article
retrieved October 10, 2007:
http://www.businessballs.com/howardgardnermultipleintelligences.htm
Clark, D. (2000). Learning styles, or, how we go from the unknown to the known. Instructional
System Design-Development Phase: Chapter IV. Article retrieved October 10, 2007:
http://www.nwlink.com/~Donclark/hrd/sat4.html
Guignon, A. (1998). Multiple intelligences: A theory for everyone. Education World. Article
retrieved October 11, 2007: http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr054.shtml
Kearsley, G. (2007). Cognitive/Learning styles. Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The
Theory into Practice Database. Article retrieved October 10, 2007:
http://tip.psychology.org/styles.html