Download Learning Theories Examined

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Running Head: LEARNING THEORIES EXAMINED
Learning Theories Examined
Caty Reeves
California Baptist University
EDU 302
Dr. Roe
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Learning Theories Examined
The education system is the most important investment developed in America today.
Students coming out of our schools will be future politicians, businessmen, and inventors. The
education they receive will be a direct representation on how the economy and society will
expand from generation to generation. As such, theorists, researchers, and psychologists have
spent decades attempting to understand how individuals learn and how to make it more effective.
These efforts have led to a variety of theories and beliefs describing how the brain works and
how students respond to their environment. Analyzing each theory and finding applications for
the classroom setting will help teachers decide their own personal method of instruction.
Behaviorism
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to
bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to
become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchantchief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. -John Watson,
Behaviorism, 1930 (Cherry, n.d.)
One popular theory is behaviorism. Developed by Watson, Skinner, and Pavlov,
behaviorism focuses on children being able to observe and imitate behaviors, attitudes, and
reactions. Learning is mainly impacted by the effect the environment has on the student’s
behavior (Huitt & Hummel, 2006). The mind is viewed as a "black box" meaning that a response
to some stimuli can be observed and quantified regardless of the mental processes occurring.
Two terms strongly associated with this theory are stimulus and response. For example, a bell
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might be a stimulus and the response is to line up for recess. Anything that sparks a certain
reaction is called the stimulus. This is consistent with the classical conditioning approach
(Cherry, n.d.). Another common term is reinforcement which is used to strengthen the behavior,
characteristic of operant conditioning (Cherry, n.d.). Negative reinforcement is when a teacher
uses punishment or removal of privileges to attract the certain behavior while positive
reinforcement uses praise or rewards (Woolfolk, 2005).
The classroom is a perfect spot to analyze the effect of behaviorism on students. Grades
themselves are a form of reinforcement since giving feedback consistently and readily will
promote or demote actions by a student (Behaviorism Theory, n.d.). Instruction is generally
given on a step by step basis so students can repeat actions since they can see the steps it takes to
perform a task. Walking into a behaviorist classroom, it will quickly become clear that the
teacher leads and directs the class (Behaviorism Theory, n.d.). Lectures, demonstrations, and
drills are often used so that the student can see the process and eventually replicate it regardless
of the context used (Behaviorism Theory, ).
Brain Based Learning
In short, creating an organization around the way the brain naturally learns best
may be the simplest and most critical education reform ever initiated. In fact, of
all the reforms, nothing provides a better return on your investment of time,
energy, and money than developing a brain-based approach to learning. -Eric
Jensen (Jensen, 2008).
Brain based learning says that as long as nothing is hindering the brain from performing
its normal tasks, learning will occur (Brain- based Learning, n.d.). Experience tells us that if we
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do not use our brains, we will lose it since the neural pathways in our brain are either created
during learning or inactivated when left unused (Lackney, n.d.). Everybody is constantly
learning, regardless of whether it is conscious or not. Researchers have analyzed how learning
occurs and when it occurs from a brain based learning perspective. They have determined that
often when learning occurs later on in life, emotions kick in stronger than during younger years
(Lackney, n.d.). When students have more emotion or passion about the subject they learn, they
are more likely to apply themselves and be interested. To apply this in theory, we can see that
emotions help link learning to previous experiences thus aiding in memory and sensory reactions
(Lackney, n.d.).
There is a list of principles regarding the main concepts of brain based learning that
revolve around how we take in information and how the brain stores that information. A couple
of these principles include the fact that our brain can process wholes and parts at the same time,
it can perform multiple tasks at once, and it engages the whole physiology (Brain- based
Learning, n.d.). Memory is another main aspect of the theory stating that we can understand best
when information is stored in our spatial memory (Brain- based Learning, n.d.). Developed by
Eric Jenson, this theory demands attention is given to the processes of gaining and retaining
information.
A brain based learning classroom revolves around real life issues and allow students to
work through situations pertaining to these events. As such, the material and curriculum selected
is based upon the students’ interests (Brain- based Learning, n.d.). The environment itself is
stimulating with a variety of colors and textures (Lackney, n.d.). Group learning is a
characteristic of brain based learning so providing adequate space that utilizes both indoor and
outdoor areas that promote learning are encouraged (Lackney, n.d.). As mentioned above,
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emotions increase learning. Teachers should strive to create safe places to learn but also
environments that spark emotions and stress to promote higher learning (Lackney, n.d.). This is
consistent with the concept of relaxed alertness, the idea that fear is eliminated in the classroom
but challenges still exist (Brain- based Learning, n.d.). The concept of orchestrated instruction
puts students fully immersed into the learning environment and a third concept of instruction is
active processing where students are actively involved in the learning process (Brain- based
Learning, n.d.). Students learn best by doing because the information can then be stored in the
spatial memory (Lackney, n.d.).
Cognitivism
The principle goal of education in the schools should be creating men and women
who are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other
generations have done. -Jean Piaget (Jean Piaget Quotes, n.d.)
While behaviorism takes the mental processes out of the equation, cognitivism puts the
focus on the mind as an information processor. The student has the ability to add meaning and
remember it in an active, engaged role as the learner (Duczeminski, 2009). One major
contributor to cognitivism was Jean Piaget who determined that learning can be described as
functions and cognitive structures (Cognitivism, 2008). Functions would be considered inborn
tendencies that do not change over a lifetime and cognitive structures would be ever changing
dependent upon one’s age (Cognitivism, 2008). Functions can be broken into organisation, the
integration of new information to make our cognitive structures more elaborate, and adaptation,
the ability to change in order to fit into the environment through assimilation and
accommodation (Cognitivism, 2008).
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Cognitivists look for unique answers, focusing more on the how and why questions as
opposed to the who, what, and where questions (Duczeminski, 2009). This puts the focus on
deep levels of processing and high-level learning, depending on memory to construct concept
models to understand the information and analyze. In the classroom, students are encouraged to
create for themselves (Jean Piaget, n.d.). Instruction is primarily hands on in order for students
to use functions to add meaning and it should not be expected for all students to come up with
the exact same answers or meanings (Jean Piaget, n.d.).
Multiple Intelligences
If I know you're very good in music, I can predict with just about zero accuracy
whether you're going to be good or bad in other things. – Howard Gardner
(ThinkExist.com, n.d.)
In the education system, learning styles are often discussed. The main three we hear
about are auditory, visual, and kinesthetic learning styles. Howard Gardner uses multiple
intelligences theory to discuss how appealing to only these three are not reaching all the children
who might learn differently based on their strengths. There are nine specific intelligences as
determined by Gardner. They are linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence,
spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, musical intelligence, interpersonal
intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, naturalist intelligence, and existential intelligence
(Anderson, n.d.). Each refers to a different skill or ability that defines how a student connects to
learning.
The big aspect of this concept is the implementation of it in the classroom. If we can
characterize students based on these intelligences, we must now find a way to cater to each one.
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Too often schools continue in strictly lecture based lesson plans that do not appeal to students
who might specialize in communication skills or the arts. The basis of teaching in a multiple
intelligences classroom includes variety. Using different techniques and combinations of
activities to stimulate different intelligences will reach more children then sticking with the same
outline each time (Anderson, n.d.).
The difficulty in implementing this theory for teachers is expanding the activities when
much focus is spend on standardizing classrooms to ensure every child is receiving the same
education. With this in mind, it is often difficult for teachers to veer off the path already
developed for them in curriculum choices even though research tells us the current teaching
methods are not working. The toll on teachers to implement multiple intelligences is increased
but the satisfaction is increased as well knowing the students are learning (Hoerr, 2002).
Teachers guide the students, based on the types of intelligences present within the classroom, to
lessons geared directly towards their skills and abilities being shown (Hoerr, 2002).
Social Constructivism
Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the
social level, and later on the individual level; first, between people
(interpsychological), and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies
equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formulation of
concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relations between human
individual. - Lev Vygotsky (Nicholl, 1998)
Constructivism gives the responsibility of learning to the child. It explains that children
construct new knowledge around previously held views and what they already know (Abdal-
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Haqq, 1998). Social constructivism, developed by Vygotsky, adds a sociocultural aspect to
education which helps the learner to internalize cultural meanings that are shared by a group
(Abdal-Haqq, 1998). The thought is that by constructing knowledge around previous knowledge,
the student will be able to apply that knowledge in a broader range of situations as opposed to
someone who is just told the information for an exam (Abdal-Haqq, 1998). It is only when
students are involved in the content and lessons being presented, as opposed to imitation or
repetition, that they can add meaning to information (Abdal-Haqq, 1998). As classroom become
more diverse, this interaction becomes even more important in order to understand societal
changes.
Learning is seen as a social process (Kim, 2001). As such, often classrooms following the
social constructivism approach will be filled with group projects, problem solving activities, and
hands-on demonstrations (Abdal-Haqq, 1998). Students use their own individual talents to aid in
the process of working in a team so that each person feels like he or she has contributed (Kim,
2001). Teachers guide students in finding answers but are more there for support and
encouragement (Abdal-Haqq, 1998). Assignments are given within a context as well. This is so
that when the student discovers for his or her self the implications of the situation or answer, they
can be applied and used to improve the environment around them or the social interactions they
have.
Social Learning Theory
Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people
had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.
Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling.
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– Albert Bandura (Thinkexist.com, n.d.)
Albert Bandura’s social learning theory is similar to behaviorism in that it relates to
imitating behaviors, but is affected by the environment and peers with the same intensity than an
authoritative figure. At the same time, social learning theory puts the person back into the
personality (Bandura, n.d.). Instead of the trained approaches of conditioning in behaviorism, the
student wants to demonstrate the behaviors in social learning theory (Rollins, 2009). Behaviors
that are modeled are translated into guides for how a person should act and respond. In reality,
social learning theory is everywhere in our daily lives. Advertisements are just one example
because they are there to persuade people to use their product by showing what could happen if
one uses it.
There are four distinct processes in social learning theory. The first two are attention and
retention, describing how students must first concentrate on the model and then remember the
correct the behavior (Social learning theory. n.d.). The next is motor reproduction where the
learner replicates the behavior or action being modeled (Social learning theory. n.d.). The final,
and perhaps most important aspect, is motivation (Social learning theory. n.d.). If the learner
does not have a desire or need to use that behavior, it is less likely to be remembered. Selfefficacy affects this as well because if a learner is incapable of reproducing the behavior, it can
have a negative effect on their effort and attention (Social learning theory. n.d.).
Since students learn from watching one another, social learning theory is utilized best
through group activities and workshops (Rollins, 2009). Keeping in mind with the motivational
aspect, a teacher that discusses the consequences or rewards of repeating an action will be likely
to increase desired behaviors and decrease inappropriate behaviors (Social learning theory. n.d.).
Confidence building is necessary to help build self-efficacy to help students learn. Modeling
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success or learning in an environment that is at the proper level will help students meet their
goals and press on past those goals (Social learning theory. n.d.).
My Personal Theory
After examining the six learning theories mentioned above, it seems to me that they could
not stand on their own in entirety. Meaning, the theory used most effectively in a humanities
class may not be the same in a science classroom. Different subjects require different teaching
methods. I can think of my own personal experiences where many of these theories were
demonstrated and used effectively. I think of my social studies class in tenth grade when a group
project was assigned to create a magazine about a world religion. This to me falls under the
multiple intelligences theory because each group member could use his or her own skills and
abilities to express the needed information in pictures, word puzzles, articles, or biographies.
Social constructivism was used in my eleventh grade history class when we were given a prompt
and asked to create a story that illustrates the policy or event in history. We created a new
method of adding meaning to the event that would help us remember it. It math, we used
behaviorism and social learning theory to see how to solve problems and then replicate the steps
on other problems.
In class, we talked about how it is important to make the material emotional for the
students to understand fully and be engaged. As a teacher, I think it is necessary to step on some
people’s toes every now and then to motivate a student. This can be done by either by playing
devil’s advocate or by challenging the student to go deeper into the analysis of a topic. We have
also talked about the generational differences and how that affects society and the student
population. Catering to the avenues of communication for the current generation of students is
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necessary in order to keep their attention. Using technology whenever possible, as long as it does
not lower the standard of quality, can be an effective tool to get students interested in the topic.
Looking at my own future career as a teacher, the topics discussed here have shaped my
personal theory. Math teachers face challenges that are hard to overcome. In this discipline,
technology has hurt education. Students are used to relying on calculators as opposed to solving
problems on their own and thus have fewer math skills. At the same time, there also appears to
be a lack of effort in math classes. Instead of working through the problem or making attempts to
find the answers, students are giving up sooner or immediately asking for help.
Based on these observations, I fall mainly under the behaviorism approach. As a math
teacher, I feel it is crucial to the students’ success to see examples and replicate them. Just telling
a student how to solve a problem is inadequate. Showing them how to do it will help make the
connections. As a student, I understood math much better with teachers following this method as
opposed to those who spent more time talking about the how or why aspect of it. While that is
important as well, it should not dominate the discussion. Conditioning is another part of teaching
mathematics that most people over look. The key to this is to train the students to look for
patterns or situations where they will need to apply a formula or method in order to solve. By
teaching the student to see and recognize those stimuli, the student will be able to quickly
respond appropriately.
One aspect where I tend to venture away from the behaviorist approach is the issue
regarding context. Behaviorists tend to view that subjects should be taught out of context so that
they can be applied more widely. I believe that the students’ passion for math is lowered
significantly these days and the question of “when will I ever have to use this in life?” is asked
regularly. To counter this, I will use real life situations to emphasis the applications of math.
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People use math everyday but are not aware of it. Making the connections to everyday situations
will help students understand how to perform the task as well as help them develop a better way
of solving problems outside of the classroom. This will help students learn critical problem
solving skills that can be applied in many other disciplines.
Math is a complicated and scary subject for many people. As such, it is important that the
instruction of the material is clear and precise. I have been in classes where students were asked
to explain a new topic and often I felt lost. This was because the students did not have the
terminology correct or did not know how to explain the concept in multiple ways for people who
needed clarification. Behaviorism follows the need for the teacher to be the main presenter of
information so that the students can learn correctly the first time and then continue to use it
throughout the rest of their school years and beyond. Structuring the class in a way that addresses
each concept one by one and builds upon each other will aid in learning as well.
Observation, imitation and replication are key for a student to be successful in math.
Without this process, math will look like a foreign language. This is why I feel the behaviorist
approach to learning is the best method for implementing in a math classroom. There are right
and wrong answers in math that cannot be questioned. Otherwise, the entire subject would be
relative to the learner and uniformity would be nonexistent. Characteristics and aspects of the
other five learning theories mentioned in this paper will be present in the learning environment
occasionally but will not dominate the instructional method.
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