Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Artificial gene synthesis wikipedia , lookup
Nucleic acid analogue wikipedia , lookup
Primary transcript wikipedia , lookup
Point mutation wikipedia , lookup
Genetic engineering wikipedia , lookup
Microevolution wikipedia , lookup
Polycomb Group Proteins and Cancer wikipedia , lookup
History of genetic engineering wikipedia , lookup
Study Guide – Honors Biology Scientific Method _C_ hypothesis _A_ independent variable _D_ dependent variable _B_ control group A. the variable the individual (“I) changes in the experiment B. the standard for comparing experimental effects C. an educated guess/prediction about the relationship between the variables D. the variable that responds to the changes in the independent variable Ecology Energy Flow…….. What is the original source of almost all energy in most ecosystems ? What organisms can capture the energy from the sun to produce food ? What is the other name used …… What organisms must eat other organisms to get energy because they cannot make their own food? What is the other name used ……. What organisms that break down and obtain nutrients/energy from dead organisms ? Give examples …… What organism feeds only on animals/consumers ? What organism feeds only on plants/producers ? What organism feeds on both animals and plants ? In the pyramid of energy, are the consumers or producers at the bottom ? In the pyramid of energy, do you find the most energy at the bottom or the top ? sunlight * autotroph * producer * heterotroph * consumer * decomposers * bacteria, fungi carnivores herbivore omnivore producers at the bottom with the producers Arrange the words listed in a food chain and label each trophic level below it: mouse ……grass………hawk……….grasshopper grass ---------------grasshopper ------- mouse ----------------hawk (primary producer)(primary consumer)(secondary consumer)(tertiary consumer) What percent of the energy stored in an organism can be passed onto the next trophic level ? 10 % What happens to the remaining energy ? it is used for life processes or eliminated as heat True or False: Energy flows in one direction in an ecosystem from the sun to autotrophs to heterotrophs. (true) Biogeochemical (Nutrient) Cycles: Study your notes on each of the cycles ____ True or False: Matter such as nutrients cycle within the ecosystem. (true) Community Interactions _E_ predation A. an organism’s way of life and its role in the environment _D_ mutualism B. symbiosis in which one organism benefits and the other _B_ commensalism neither helped nor harmed _C_ parasitism C. symbiosis in which one organism benefits and the other _A_ niche is harmed D. symbiosis in which both species benefit E. interaction in which one organism captures and feeds on another organism Succession …… be able to order diagrams of primary succession correctly ____ Populations ….. True or False: No two species can occupy the same niche in the same place at the same time. What factors can increase population size ? births and immigration Which will reduce competition in a species’ fewer individuals population ? (fewer individuals or fewer resources) Give examples of limiting factors competition, predation, parasitism and disease, drought, human disturbances What effect do limiting factors have on cause them to decrease population growth ? What is carrying capacity ? the largest number of individuals that an environment can support What does carrying capacity look like on a the line curves up and then flattens out graph ? (you can draw and label the point) When does exponential growth occur ? when individuals in a population reproduce at a constant rate What does exponential growth look like on a it looks like a J-shape; continues to go graph ? (you can draw it) straight up What is population density ? the number of individuals per unit area What is global warming ? the increase in the average temperature in the biosphere over the past century What is the greenhouse effect ? heat is retained in the Earth’s atmosphere by carbon, methane, water vapor, and other gases Microscopy and Prokaryotes Part A: Microscope Technology What type of microscope allows light to pass through the specimen and uses 2 lenses ? Why should you begin with the low-power objective rather than high-power objective when viewing a specimen on a prepared slide ? What part of the microscope is used to obtain a clearer image of the specimen when it is out of focus ? Is the field of vision smaller or larger when viewing a specimen under low power compared to high power ? What is the equation for calculating total magnification of an image under a microscope ? What is the correct way to carry a microscope ? * compound light microscope Why should you lower a coverslip at an angle onto a slide when preparing a wet mount ? What are the advantages of using an electron microscope ? Disadvantages ? * to prevent air bubbles Part B: Facts About Prokaryotes ….Make Name an organism that is an example of a prokaryote. Are prokaryotic cells smaller or larger in size than human cells ? What type of bacteria would increase the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere ? What is the scientific name for the following bacteria shapes: (a) rod-shaped (b) sphere-shaped (c) spiral-shaped Does a prokaryotic cell have a nucleus ??? What structure of the bacteria is used for movement ? What structure of the bacteria is used for protection and maintaining shape ? What structure of the bacteria is used to regulate materials entering and leaving it ? What is the function of DNA ? What is the function of the ribosome ? * the field of view is larger so you can see more of the specimen * fine adjustment knob * larger * eyepiece X objective * by the arm and under the base * very high resolution * cannot view live specimens sure to review the picture/diagram !!!! * bacteria * smaller * photosynthetic bacteria (a) bacillus (b) coccus (c) spirillum * NO * flagella * cell wall * cell membrane * genetic information * helps carry out instructions coded by DNA Part C: Water Structure and Properties ….. Bonds and Compounds __A___ hydrogen bond __C___ ionic bond __B,D_ covalent bond (2) __G___ ion __E___ negative ion __F___ positive ion __H___ hydrogen bond A. attraction between the positive end of a polar molecule and the negative part of another polar molecule B. formed as a result of sharing electrons between two atoms C. formed when electrons are transferred between two atoms D. the bonds holding the two hydrogen atoms to an oxygen atom in water E. formed when an atom gains an electron F. formed when an atom loses an electron G. formed when an atom gains or loses an electron H. the bond that holds one water molecule to another water molecule Structure of Water Molecule ….. How many hydrogen atom(s) are found in a water molecule * two ? What is the charge of the hydrogen atom ? * positive How many oxygen atom(s) are found in a water molecule ? * one What is the charge of the oxygen atom ? * negative What type of bond holds one water molecule to another ? * hydrogen bond What molecule is most abundant in the cells of the human body ? water_ Most of water’s unique properties are made possible because water is polar and can form hydrogen bonds_. Matching…. Properties of water _c_ cohesion _f_ adhesion _h_ surface tension _a_ resistance to changes in temperature _d_ capillary action _g_ expands as it freezes _b_ high heat of vaporization _e_ universal solvent a. allows organisms to maintain a constant. body temperature b. allows sweating to cool the body c. the attraction of molecules of the same type d. causes water to travel from the roots to the of a tree to the leaves e. water dissolves many substances f. the attraction between molecules of different types g. causes ice to float on water and breaks rocks into soil h. molecules stick together due to cohesion allowing a water strider to walk on the surface pH _b_ _g_ _a_ _f_ _d_ _c_ _e_ pH of 2 pH of 6 pH of 7 pH of 8 pH of 13 pH below 7 pH above 7 a. b. c. d. e. f. g. neutral strong acid acids strong base bases weak base weak acid A solution with a higher concentration of H+ than pure water is a(n) acid_ . A solution with a lower concentration of H+ than pure water is a(n) _base_ . What will happen if you dilute an acid or base solution with pure water ? _the pH value will move close to 7 but it will not go beyond a pH of 7_ When calculating how many times more hydrogen ions are in a solution with different pH values, the difference is a factor of 10. * Ex. pH of 3 is 10 times as strong as a pH of 4 (there is ONE step between 3 and 4, So it is 10 times stronger). * Ex. pH of 1 is 1000 times as strong as a pH of 4 (there are THREE steps between 1 and 4, so it is 10 x 10 x 10 [1000] times stronger). Part D: Cell Membrane ….. also be able What is the function of the cell membrane ? Why is the cell membrane considered selectively permeable ? Which part helps move large molecules from one side of the membrane to the other ? Which part of the phospholipid molecule is hydrophilic ? Which part of the phospholipid molecule is hydrophobic ? What macromolecule is responsible for the cell membrane’s insolubility in H2O? to identify the parts from a diagram * to regulate what enters and leaves the cell * it allows some materials to pass through while other substances cannot * protein channels or pumps * phosphate head * fatty acid tails * phospholipid Part E: Diffusion, Osmosis, Solutions ….. review notes with diagrams too Matching ……. _B_ 1. diffusion _F_ 2. facilitated diffusion _D_ 3. osmosis _A_ 4. passive transport _C_ 5. plasmolysis _E_ 6. turgor pressure _I_ 7. active transport _G_ 8. concentration gradient _H_ 9. endocytosis A. no energy is required for substances to diffuse through a membrane B. movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration C. created when water diffuses out of a cell causing animal cells to shrink D. diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane E. created when water diffuses into a cell keeping plants rigid and causing animal cells to swell F. materials pass through protein channels in the membrane without the use of energy; move from area of high concentration to area of low concentration G. created whenever there is unequal concentration of substance on either side of the cell membrane H. active transport process that allows larger materials to enter the cell through infolding of the cell membrane I. movement of materials into the cell through proteins using energy Solution Isotonic: Concentration of solutes is the same inside and outside. Hypertonic: Solution has a greater solute concentration than the cell. Hypotonic: Solution has a lower solute concentration than the cell. Effect on Cell there is no change in the cell water leaves the cell causing it to shrink water enters the cell causing it to swell How does the rate of facilitated diffusion compare to the rate of simple diffusion ? Facilitated diffusion starts off at a fast rate and then slows down and levels out. Simple diffusionhappens at a steady rate. Protein Synthesis Unit **** Know the difference between an organic molecule and an inorganic molecule. **** Know the difference in cell structures between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. DNA structure What are the building blocks/monomers ? What are the three components of the nucleotide? What is the name of the sugar? What are the complementary base pairings? What bond holds the two DNA strands together between the nitrogen bases? * nucleotides * phosphate * sugar * nitrogenous base * nitrogen bases * deoxyribose * adenine (A) = thymine (T) * cytosine (C) = guanine (G) RNA structure……. What are the three components of the nucleotide ? * phosphate * sugar * nitrogenous base * ribose * single stranded * adenine (A) = uracil (U) * thymine (T) = adenine (A) * cytosine (C) = guanine (G) * guanine (G) = cytosine (C) * nucleotide What is the name of the sugar ? How many strand(s) is the molecule ? What RNA bases would complement these DNA bases ? What are the building blocks/monomers ? Process of DNA Replication…….. Where does it occur in the cell ? * nucleus Where on the DNA molecule does the “unzipping” * attake the hydrogen place ? bonds between the nitrogen bases How many DNA molecules are made from the process ? * two identical RNA Transcription…….. What is produced from the process? Where in the cell does the process take place ? What determines the sequence of nucleotides in a mRNA molecule? What is the job of the mRNA ? What is the name of the enzyme involved in transcription ? RNA Translation…………. Where in the cell does the process occur ? What is the job of tRNA (transfer) ? What makes up the genetic code (codon) for one amino acid? Where does the anticodon attach ? * RNA molecule * nucleus * base sequence of DNA molecule * carries copies of instruction for assembling amino acids * RNA polymerase * on the ribosomes * transfers each amino acid to mRNA * three (3) nucleotide bases * to the complimentary nucleotide bases on the mRNA What is produced from the process? * proteins What are the building blocks/monomer of protein ? * amino acids How many different kinds are there ? * twenty (20) What is the job/function of the Golgi apparatus ? * modifies and packages for secretion of proteins Genes contain instructions for assembling _ proteins_. Cell Theory What is “spontaneous generation”? The idea that living things can come from non-living things (for example, flies come from rotting meat). How was spontaneous generation disproved? Francisco Redi’s experiment (flies come from fly eggs not rotting meat) What Louis Pasteur’s experiment (bacteria come from other bacteria in the air, not from broth) are the three parts of the cell theory? All living things are composed of cells. Cells are the smallest unit of life. All cells come from pre-existing cells. Organelles……. match the organelle to the correct function. A Mitochondria C Cell Wall E Chloroplast B Golgi Bodies D Nucleus F Lysosome G Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum H Vacuole I Ribosome A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. Converts energy stored in food into compounds easier for use by cells; “powerhouse” Sorts and packages proteins for export from the cell Provides protection and support; found in plants but not in animals Contains DNA; control center of the cell --- controls cell functions Converts energy from the sun into chemical energy; carries out photosynthesis; found in plants only Breaks down food and cellular waste products; clean up crew System of canals that helps transport molecules in cytoplasm and is covered in ribosomes and has a rough appearance. Proteins to be exported from the cell are made here. Stores water, waste, and food for the cell Site of protein synthesis; uses coded instructions that come from the nucleus * What 2 organelles are present in plant cells that are NOT found in animal cells ? chloroplast and cell wall_ * One factor that allows DNA to fit inside the nucleus of a cell is its ability to ( uncoil loosely or coil tightly_) around associated proteins. Macromolecules…….(carbohydrates, lipids, protein, nucleic acid) * Both lipids and carbohydrates are important in cells because they store energy_. * _Lipids are molecules which provide insulation, cushioning, and water-proof coverings. Prokaryotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic Cells ……. 1- _Prokaryotic cells_ do not have a nucleus. 2- Prokaryotic cells do not have membrane-bound organelles. 3- Both prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells contain DNA (genetic material). 4- _Eukaryotic cells_ have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles. 5- Eukaryotic cells have a more advanced cellular organization. ** What cellular structure allows a euglena to move ? flagella_ ** What cellular structure allows a paramecium to move ? cilia_ Purpose Organelle Reactants (raw materials, what’s needed) Products (outcome, yielded) Photosynthesis Process by which plants convert light energy into chemical (food/glucose) energy. Cellular Respiration Process by which the energy stored in glucose is converted into a form more easily used by the cell (ATP). Chloroplast sunlight carbon dioxide water glucose oxygen Mitochondria oxygen glucose Relationshhip of One Process to the Other ATP (energy) carbon dioxide water the products of one are the reactants of the other Enzymes….. 1- In biological systems, enzymes (_slow down , speed up_) most cellular reactions. 2- What part of the enzyme is involved in the catalytic activity ? _active site_ 3- _True or False_ Enzymes only work with specific substrates because each enzyme has a specific active site for substrate attachment. Viruses……. 1- What is the only way viruses can reproduce ? they must infect living cells_ 2- Are viruses “alive” ? _NO_ 3- _True or False_ Viruses contain a nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA). True. Why do cells divide? When cells become too large, there is not enough membrane to transport in all of the food the cells need, or to transport out all of the waste. So, when they grow too large, they can fix the problem by dividing into two smaller cells. Cell division is how organisms grow, and how they replace dead or damaged tissue. Mitosis – What is the purpose? The process in which one cell divides to form two genetically identical cells. This type of cell division is used for asexual reproduction. It is also used for growth of the body, and to replace worn-out cells. What are the stages of the cell cycle? Stage Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis Events Chromosomes replicate in preparation for cell division. Nuclear membrane breaks down; chromosomes become visible Chromosomes move to the middle of the cell. Spindle fibers pull the two sister chromatids away from each other, to opposite ends of the cell. Two new nuclei are formed. The cytoplasm divides Genetics Unit Vocabulary…….. allele heterozygous homozygous genotype phenotype locus * * * * * * * * * various forms of a gene (Ex. T or t) 2 different alleles (letters are different) one capital letter and one lowercase letter (Ex. Tt, Bb, Aa) 2 identical alleles (letters are the same) dominant = both capital (TT) and recessive = both lower case (tt) gene combination or genetic makeup …… uses letters physical appearance/characteristics of the offspring uses descriptive words (tall, yellow, color blind) location of an allele on a chromosome Mendel’s studies……………… What did he conclude about traits from his genetic experiments ? Do his principles apply to plants only or to all organisms ? What did he breed in his experiments ? * they are inherited through the passing of factors from parent to offspring * ALL * pea plants Types of Genetic Problems…………study Punnett square examples from class notes Incomplete dominance * one allele for a gene is NOT completely dominant over another allele for that gene * “blending” of both parents’ traits * ex.: purebred red flower is crossed with purebred white flower = pink flowers Codominance * traits of both parents are “equally” expressed (phenotype) * ex.: white feather chicken is crossed with black feather chicken = speckled feather chicken Sex-linked genes * traits are controlled by genes located on an X chromosome (sex chromosome) * sex chromosomes: XX - female and XY – male * ex. colorblind female XcXc and normal male XCY (remember that cross will show possible traits for 2 girls and 2 boys) Multiple alleles * sometimes a gene can have more than 2 allelles * ex. blood types (see class notes for genotype and phenotype matches) * ex. IAIA is homozygous and IAi is heterozygous * ex. IAIA and IAi are different genotypes but same phenotype (Type A) Karyotype What does it show ? How are chromosomes arranged ? What can be observed ? What are chromosomes pairs 1-22 called ? Which chromosomes determine gender? How many chromosomes are shown in a normal human ? Down syndrome is caused by having 3 copies of what chromosome? How are 2 members of a homologous pair of chromosomes alike/similar ? What determines the sex of the offspring ? * homologous chromosomes, autosomes, sex chromosomes * in order from largest to smallest, sex chromosomes at end * abnormal number of chromosomes * autosomes * sex chromosomes(XX – female and XY – male) * 46 (23 pairs) * chromosome 21 ( you will see 3 copies instead of 2 –trisomy) * they are similar in size, appearance, and kinds of genes * male (sperm cell ) usually determines the sex of the offspring Pedigrees What is it ? What can be observed ? What does a darkened/shaded shape indicate ? What shape represents a female ? What shape represents a male ? * a graphic representation of a individual’s family tree * how a trait is passed from one generation to the next * the individual has/shows a particular trait or disorder * circle * square Meiosis What is the purpose? Meiosis is a cell division process that is used to form sex cells (gametes: eggs and sperm). During meiosis, there are two cell divisions, and four cells are produced. The four cells that are produced become eggs or sperm, and they have only HALF the chromosome number. Meiosis ensures genetic continuity by cutting the chromosome number in gametes in half. Therefore, when the egg and sperm fuse, the new embryo will have the same number of chromosomes as the parent. Meiosis ensures genetic diversity by creating gametes that are not identical to one another. This occurs through: o crossing over o independent assortment of non-homologous chromosomes DNA technology…………… What is genetic modification (engineering) ? What are transgenic organisms ? What has been an advantage of producing transgenic plants ? What has been an advantage of producing transgenic animals ? What is made from using the DNA technology tool, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) ? What is one function of gel electrophoresis ? How is bacteria modified to produce proteins such as insulin ? What will the Human Genome Project impact the most ? Why is it possible to identify someone by using their DNA ? * the process of making changes in the DNA code of a living organism * organisms that contain genes from other organisms * the plants can grow bigger, better, and more nutritional crops * larger chicken/cows and more milk production * many copies of a DNA sample * to cut up and then separate DNA fragments by size * by inserting a gene for protein into bacteria cells ……..the bacteria multiply and produce human insulin * curing genetic disease in humans * every human has a different sequence of DNA nucleotides