Download In this issue: How do we make sense of our world?

A Student Journal of Social Psychology
In this issue:
Volume 3, Number 1
Unit Two: Who Am I?
A Journal of Social Psychology to
support Psychology 20, a course
offering of Saskatchewan Education
In this issue:
How do we make sense of our world?
Volume 3, Number 1
Feature Articles
How do we make sense of our world?
This article describes the three aspects to the way in which we make meaning out of social
situations: social cognition, or the ways in which we form impressions and make judgments about people
and situations; social perception, or the ways in which we try to understand why people do what they do;
and self-understanding, or the influence that the way we feel about ourselves has upon how we interpret
other people's behaviour.
Social Cognition: Answering the "What?" question
This article will discuss the processes which people use to make sense of events, people, oneself
and the world in general, the types of mental schemas which we construct, the ways in which we interpret
those schemas, and the various factors that influence our judgments.
How to get out of bed in the morning
Using the flowchart presented (How to get out of bed in the morning) as a model, create your own
flowchart that describes how to act in certain situations. For example, how to get the dye out of your hair,
how to write a psychology exam, how to make popcorn, how to identify an Oilers (Leafs, Canadiens,
Flames) fan, etc.
Social Perception: Answering the "Why?" question
Social perception is the process by which people come to know and evaluate one another.
Researchers in social perception study how we form impressions of each other, how we explain the causes of
our own and other people's behavior, and how we form stereotypes and prejudices toward social groups. It
helps people feel competent and masterful, maintain a sense of balance, because it helps them predict similar
events in the future.
Self-concept
When you are feeling insecure, the world is a very different place from the world you experience
when you are confident. The way we feel about ourselves strongly influences how we interpret other
people's behaviour. (Adler et al., 2001) This article addresses the issue of self-understanding by looking at
how we develop a self-concept, the importance of a positive self-concept, how we can change or improve
our self-concept, as well as the cultural and gender influences on self-concept.
Page 2
Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
A Journal of Social Psychology to
support Psychology 20, a course
offering of Saskatchewan Education
Making connections…..
….
Beauty: A research study in social psychology
What does it mean to be beautiful? Are there advantages to being beautiful? How does culture, age
and the media, influence our conceptions of beauty? This article suggests many different research
possibilities for an independent, or small group, research project on a key topic or issue in social psychology.
Dear Pat
Interactions gives you, the student, a chance to offer your knowledge, opinions and advice in our
Dear Pat Advice column.
My Anthology
To truly make Interactions your own, use the space provided to keep sayings, pictures, poems,
anecdotes, musical lyrics, or anything that you find intriguing, inspiring, amusing or thought provoking.
The changing role of adolescents in our society: An interview with a senior citizen
Using Interactions as the organizer, students are invited to interview a senior citizen or Elder, to
inquire into how the roles, expectations and demands on adolescents have changed over the past several
decades.
Dialectical Reasoning
There are many different ways to reach a decision. This article describes one of those methods, the
dialectical reasoning model of decision-making. By describing the process, providing examples for each of the
steps involved, and then suggesting several issues for students to explore using the dialectical approach,
Interactions seeks to guide students to a better understanding of the dialectical reasoning model of decisionmaking.
On the cover: Hand with Globe, M.C. Escher, Copyright
Page 3
Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
How do we make sense of our world?
This article describes the three aspects to the way in which we make meaning out of social
situations: social cognition, or the ways in which we form impressions and make judgments
about people and situations; social perception, or the ways in which we try to understand why
people do what they do; and self-understanding, or the influence that the way we feel about
ourselves has upon how we interpret other people's behaviour.
There are three aspects to the question, how do we
make sense of our world? The first aspect deals
with how we make judgements and decisions
inside our heads based on what we are
experiencing. This whole body process, because
all of the senses are involved, is termed social
cognition, or our attempts at answering the "What
are they doing?" question. The second aspect is
closely linked to the first. This process, known as
social perception, involves our attempts at
understanding why people are behaving in such a
manner. In other words, "Why are they doing
that?" In seeking to understand the behaviour of
other people, we attribute certain reasons or
motives that allow us to form impressions. The
third, and final aspect that influences our making
sense of the world is our own self-concept. We
see the world through our own unique set of
lenses, lenses formed through experiences in a
social world. When you are feeling insecure, the
world is a very different place from the world you
experience when you are confident. The way we
feel about ourselves strongly influences how we
interpret other people's behaviour. (Adler et al.,
2001)
Social Cognition
How do we make sense of the behaviour of
other people? The thought process of making
sense of events, people, oneself, and the world in
general through analyzing and interpreting them is
known as social cognition. Making sense of the
behaviour of others affects judgements, choices,
evaluations, and ultimately, behaviour. (Lefton et
al., 2000) Social cognition focuses on the way in
which our thoughts are affected by the immediate
social context, and in turn how our thoughts affect
social behaviour. The approach can be
summarized as follows:
• People have a limited capacity to process
information about the social world and will
take cognitive shortcuts (such as stereotyping)
in order to minimize the load.
• We develop schemata that represent our
knowledge about ourselves, others, and our
roles within the social world. These schemata,
once formed, bias our judgements about
ourselves and others.
• Schemata become more complex and
organized over time, and also harder to
change. (Cardwell, 1998)
Where do these schemata come from? Each of
us uses a particular organizing schema to make
sense of the information about others. We do this
by using perceptual schemata - cognitive
frameworks that allow us to organize the raw data
we have selected. Five types of schema help us to
classify ourselves and others:
• Physical constructs classify people
according to their appearance: male or
female, beautiful or ugly, fat or thin, young
or old, and so on.
• Role constructs use social position:
student, lawyer, wife, and so on.
• Interaction constructs focus on social
behaviour: Friendly, helpful, aloof,
sarcastic.
• Psychological
constructs:
curious,
nervous, insecure and so on.
Page 4
Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
•
Membership constructs help us to
identify others according to the group in
which they belong: teacher, Liberal,
Environmentalist, and so on.
Social perception
Social perception helps people make sense
of the world, organize their thoughts quickly, and
maintain a sense of control over the environment.
It helps people feel competent and masterful,
maintain a sense of balance, because it helps them
predict similar events in the future. (Lefton et al.,
2000) Fritz Heider (1958) is often referred to as
the "Father of Attribution Theory". One of
Heider's most valuable contributions is a simple
dichotomy: When trying to decide why people
behave as they do, we can make either an internal
(dispositional) attribution or an external
(situational) attribution. Another of Heider's
important contributions was his discussion of our
preference for internal attributions over external
ones. While either type of attribution is possible,
Heider noted that we tend to see the causes of a
person's behaviour as residing in that person. We
are perceptually focused on people - they are who
we notice - and the situation, which is often hard
to see and hard to describe, can be overlooked.
(Aronson et al., 1994)
How are social perceptions formed and
changed? Research has shown that people form
impressions of each other in two ways. Sometimes
people make quick and effortless judgments based
on others' physical appearance, facial expressions,
or body language. Studies have shown, for
example, that people who are physically attractive
are perceived to be happy, warm, friendly,
successful, confident, and well-adjusted. At other
times, however, people form impressions based on
a careful observation of a person's behavior.
According to this latter view, people act like
amateur scientists, gathering and analyzing
behavioral evidence before evaluating others. The
explanations for behavior that people come up
with are called attributions, and the theory that
describes the process is called attribution theory.
(Aronson et al., 1994)
Self-concept
The self-concept is extremely subjective, being
almost totally a product of interaction with others.
The self-concept has four components: self-image,
self-esteem (or self-regard), ideal-self and selfefficacy.
• Self-image is the sort of person we think we
are. One way of assessing self-image is to ask
people to answer the question 'Who Am I?' 20
times. This typically produces two main
categories of answers relating to social roles
and personality traits. Self-image also includes
body image.
• While self-image is essentially descriptive,
self-esteem is essentially evaluative. Selfesteem is the extent to which we like or
approve of ourselves, and how worthwhile we
think we are.
• The ideal-self is the kind of person you would
like to be. In general, the greater the gap
between self-image and ideal-self, the lower
the self-esteem. (Gross, pg. 402)
• According to Bandura (1982), self-efficacy, or
one's expectations of success in a given
situation, is an important determinant of
whether one will attempt to make changes in
one's environment. Each day, we make many
decisions based on our perceptions of the
extent to which our actions will produce
reinforcement. Our actions are based on our
evaluations of our competency. Moreover,
self-efficacy not only determines whether we
will engage in a particular behaviour, it also
determines the extent to which we will
maintain that behaviour in the face of
adversity. (Buskist & Carlson, 1998)
When you are feeling insecure, the world is a
very different place from the world you
experience when you are confident. The way we
feel about ourselves strongly influences how we
interpret other people's behaviour. (Adler et al.,
2001)
Page 5
Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
Social Cognition: Answering the "What?"
Question
This article will discuss the processes which people use to make
sense of events, people, oneself and the world in general, the
types of mental schemas which we construct, the ways in which
we interpret those schemas, and the various factors that influence
our judgments.
How do we make sense of the behaviour of other
people? The thought process of making sense of
events, people, oneself, and the world in general
through analyzing and interpreting them is known
as social cognition. Making sense of the behaviour
of others affects judgements, choices, evaluations,
and ultimately, behaviour. (Lefton et al., 2000)
Social cognition focuses on the way in which
our thoughts are affected by the immediate social
context, and in turn how our thoughts affect social
behaviour. The approach can be summarized as
follows:
• People have a limited capacity to process
information about the social world and will
take cognitive shortcuts (such as stereotyping)
in order to minimize the load.
• We develop schemata that represent our
knowledge about ourselves, others, and our
roles within the social world. These schemata,
once formed, bias our judgements about
ourselves and others.
• Schemata become more complex and
organized over time, and also harder to
change. (Cardwell, 1998)
Where do these schemata come from? Each of
us uses a particular organizing schema to make
sense of the information about others. We do this
by using perceptual schemata - cognitive
frameworks that allow us to organize the raw data
we have selected. Five types of schema help us to
classify ourselves and others:
•
•
•
•
•
Physical constructs classify people according
to their appearance: male or female, beautiful
or ugly, fat or thin, young or old, and so on.
Role constructs use social position: student,
lawyer, wife, and so on.
Interaction constructs focus on social
behaviour: Friendly, helpful, aloof, sarcastic.
Psychological constructs: curious, nervous,
insecure and so on.
Membership constructs help us to identify
others according to the group in which they
belong: teacher, Liberal, Environmentalist, and
so on.
In what ways do we interpret our schemas?
Once we have selected and organized our
perceptions, we interpret them in a way that makes
some sort of sense. Interpretation plays a role in
virtually every interpersonal act. Several factors
cause us to interpret an event in one way or
another:
•
•
•
Page 6
Relational satisfaction: The behaviour that
seems positive when you are happy with a
partner might seem completely different when
the relationship is not satisfying.
Degree of involvement with the other
person: We sometimes view people with
whom we have or seek a relationship more
favourably than those whom we observe from
a detached perspective.
Past Experience: What meaning have similar
events held?
Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
•
•
•
•
Assumptions about human behaviour:
"People generally do as little work as possible
to get by", or "in spite of their mistakes, people
are doing the best they can." Beliefs like these
will shape the way we interpret another's
actions.
Expectations :
Anticipation
shapes
interpretations. If you imagine that your boss
is unhappy with your work, you will feel
threatened by a request to "see me in my office
first thing Monday morning."
Knowledge : If you know that a friend has just
been jilted by a lover or laid off from a job,
you will interpret any aloof behaviour
differently than you would if you were
unaware of what had happened.
Self-concept: When you are feeling insecure,
the world is a very different place from the
world you experience when you are confident.
The way we feel about ourselves strongly
influences how we interpret other people's
behaviour. (Adler et al., 2001)
How do we form impressions of people? The
evidence indicates that we follow a weighted
averaging model in combining information about
people. That is, we keep a rough "running
average" of our trait ratings in our heads, as we
discover more characteristics about people. Of
course, we know that every person is unique, and
that no two classes, no two hockey matches are
exactly alike. Yet there are similarities among
certain types of people or events. Thus, we tend to
organize our view of the world in terms of
categories. People are generally categorized in
terms of easily observable characteristics, such as
gender, ethnic group, occupation or age. Similarly,
we construct categories of events, activities,
objects and even ideas. (Alcock et al., 1998)
Cantor and Mischel (1979) suggest that we
often use prototypes, mental images of a typical
example of that category, for example a dog as a
prototype of the category, mammal. The extent to
which a particular object resembles the prototype,
and the extent to which you allow for variations,
will determine how readily you identify the object
with the category.
Once we have selected an organizing
schema to classify people and form impressions
about them, we use that schema to make
generalizations about members of the groups who
fit the schema we use. But when generalizations
lose touch with reality, they lead to stereotyping exaggerated generalizations associated with a
categorizing system. Stereotypes may be based on
a kernel of truth, but they go beyond the facts at
hand and make claims that usually have no valid
basis. (Adler et al., 2001)
In addition to schemas, people use
judgmental heuristics to help us deal with the
large amount of social information with which we
are faced. Heuristics are rules of thumb people
follow in order to make judgments quickly and
efficiently.
Ø The availability heuristic refers to the ease
with which we can think of something, which
has a strong effect on how we view the world.
The quicker something "comes to mind" then
the more likely we are to make judgments on
that basis.
Ø The representative heuristic helps us decide
how similar one thing is to another; we use it
to classify people or situations on the basis of
their similarity to a typical case. When using
this heuristic we have a tendency to ignore
base rate information - that is, the prior
probability that someone or something belongs
in that classification.
Ø People also rely on the anchoring/adjustment
heuristic, wherein an initial piece of
information acts as an anchor, or starting
point, for subsequent thoughts on the subject.
(Aronson et al., 1994)
Ø Another type of judgmental heuristic is known
as illusory correlation, or the process by
which people conclude that A and B belong
together.
Ø The simulation heuristic helps us make
judgments because something is more likely if
you can imagine it.
Page 7
Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
Ø When using the false consensus heuristic,
however, we tend to overestimate the extent to
which others are similar to us. (Alcock et al.,
1998)
constantly create our self-concepts and thus
ourselves. (Adler et al., 2001)
What are some errors in forming
impressions? Researchers have noticed several
interesting biases in how first impressions of
people are formed. First, people tend to form
impressions of others which are positive rather
than negative, a positivity bias. But while we
have this bias towards being positive in our
impressions of others, those impressions will be
influenced more by negative than by positive
information. This is called the negativity effect.
In forming impressions of others, people bring
their own personal way of looking at the world.
We have our own set of implicit personality
theories, a set of unstated assumptions about
certain types of people in general. (Alcock et al.,
1998) The tendency to form an impression of a
person based on the initial information we learn
about him or her is called the primacy effect. The
first impression we receive of a person seems to
be resilient. (Buskist & Carlson, 1998) A selffulfilling prophecy occurs when a person's
expectations of an event make an outcome more
likely to occur than would otherwise have been
true. There are two types of self-fulfilling
prophecies:
Ø Self-imposed prophecies occur when your own
expectations influence your behaviour.
Ø A second category of self-fulfilling prophecies
is that imposed by one person on another, so
that the expectations of one person govern
another's actions. It is not just the observer's
belief that creates the self-fulfilling prophecy
for the person who is the target of the
expectations. The observer must communicate
that belief in order for the prediction to have
any effect.
It is important to recognize the tremendous
influence that self-fulfilling prophecies play in our
lives. To a great extent we are what we believe we
are. In this sense we and those around us
Page 8
Making Connections …..
•
•
•
Using the template supplied, interpret
the image in terms of the 5 different
kinds of constructs as described above.
What do you believe about people? Are
they basically good or bad? Are they
basically lazy or hard working? Are they
basically fair or unfair, greedy and selfcentered or cooperative and altruistic?
Write your own basic set of belief
statements about people.
Describe your schema for one, several or
all of the following:
• Mother
• Father
• Grandparent
• You
• Next door neighbour
• Teachers
• Lawyers
• Construction workers
• Farmers
• Politicians
• Gangs
• Professional athletes
• Striking workers
• Single moms
• Artists
Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
Constructs and Schema Formation
Role
Physical
Psychological
Interaction
Membership
Page 9
Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
How to get out of bed in the morning!
A flowchart is a graphic, decision-making process that
leads the reader through all of the necessary issues and
decision points to arrive at a behaviour. Based on the
sample below, create your own flowchart!
Is your alarm sounding?
No
Yes
Reset the alarm
Are your eyes open?
Is it Saturday?
Yes
No
Yes
No
Do you have an exam today?
No
Do you have a first
period spare?
Yes
That's it,
time to get
up!
Do you have at least
thirty minutes to get
ready?
No
Yes
No
Yes
Page 10
Reset the alarm
Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
Social Perception: Answering the Why?
Question
Social perception is the process by which people come to know and evaluate one another.
Researchers in social perception study how we form impressions of each other, how we explain
the causes of our own and other people's behavior, and how we form stereotypes and prejudices
toward social groups. It helps people feel competent and masterful, maintain a sense of
balance, because it helps them predict similar events in the future.
What is social perception? Social perception
helps people make sense of the world, organize
their thoughts quickly, and maintain a sense of
control over the environment. It helps people feel
competent and masterful, maintain a sense of
balance, because it helps them predict similar
events in the future. (Lefton et al., 2000) Fritz
Heider (1958) is often referred to as the "Father of
Attribution Theory". One of Heider's most
valuable contributions is a simple dichotomy:
When trying to decide why people behave as they
do, we can make either an internal (dispositional)
attribution or an external (situational) attribution.
Another of Heider's important contributions was
his discussion of our preference for internal
attributions over external ones. While either type
of attribution is possible, Heider noted that we
tend to see the causes of a person's behaviour as
residing in that person. We are perceptually
focused on people - they are who we notice - and
the situation, which is often hard to see and hard
to describe, can be overlooked. (Aronson et al.,
1994)
How are social perceptions formed and
changed? Research has shown that people form
impressions of each other in two ways. Sometimes
people make quick and effortless judgments based
on others' physical appearance, facial expressions,
or body language. Studies have shown, for
example, that people who are physically attractive
are perceived to be happy, warm, friendly,
successful, confident, and well-adjusted. At other
times, however, people form impressions based on
a careful observation of a person's behavior.
According to this latter view, people act like
amateur scientists, gathering and analyzing
behavioral evidence before evaluating others. The
explanations for behavior that people come up
with are called attributions, and the theory that
describes the process is called attribution theory.
(Aronson et al., 1994)
How do we select information about others?
Because we are exposed to more input than we
could possibly manage, the first step in perception
is the selection of which data we will attend to.
There are several factors that cause us to notice
some messages and ignore others:
• Stimuli that are intense often attract our
attention.
• Repetitious stimuli also attract our attention.
Just as a quiet but steadily dripping faucet can
come to dominate our awareness, people to
whom we are frequently exposed become
noticeable.
• Attention is also frequently related to contrast
or change in stimulation. Put differently,
unchanging people or things become less
noticeable.
• Motives determine not only what information
we select from our environment but also how
we perceive people. For example, someone
looking for a romantic adventure will be
especially aware of attractive potential
partners. (Adler et al., 2001)
Page 11
Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
What are the physiological influences on our
perceptions?
• The senses: For example, the loudness of your
stereo, whether it is too hot or too cold in the
house, smells and tastes of food.
• Age: Older people often view the world
differently from younger people because they
have a greater scope and number of
experiences. There are also developmental
differences that shape perceptions, for
example, Piaget's stages of cognitive
development.
• Health: recall the last time you came down
with a cold, flu or some other ailment. Do you
remember how different you felt?
• Fatigue : Just as being ill can affect your
relationships, so can being overly tired. Again,
it is important to recognize the fact that you or
someone else may behave differently when
fatigued.
• Hunger: People often get grumpy when they
have not eaten. A number of important
physiological changes occur as we eat and
become hungry again.
• Biological cycles: Each of us is in a daily
cycle in which all sorts of changes constantly
occur, including body temperature, sexual
drive, alertness, tolerance to stress, and mood.
Most of these changes are due to hormonal
cycles. For instance, adrenal hormones, which
affect feelings of stress, are secreted at higher
rates during some hours.
In what ways does culture influence the
accuracy of our perceptions? Every culture has
its own worldview, its own way of looking at the
world. Remembering these cultural differences
can be a good way of learning more about
ourselves and others.
Collectivist societies, which include most
traditional pre-industrial societies and, to a large
extent, the predominantly Catholic countries of
Southern Europe and Latin America, as well as
most Asian and African cultures, are characterized
by an emphasis on family and community-based
relations and values. The members of one's
primary "in-group" - that is, one's kin, one's
immediate neighbourhood community, and in the
case of modern industrial societies, one's work
group - are the primary sources of demands and
rewards, and the primary arbiters of what is
desirable, what is permissible and what is
unthinkable. In short, in collectivist societies it is
in-group norms and role relations that provide
both the motivating force that drives the individual
and the compass from which the person takes
direction.
Individualistic cultures, which, not
coincidentally, predominate in the nations of
Western Europe that gave rise to the Protestant
Reformation, as well as North America, show
opposite orientations. They are characterized by
an emphasis on personal goals, interests, and
preferences. Social relationships are dictated by
commonality of interests and aspirations and are
therefore subject to change as those interests and
aspirations shift over time. In such societies the
individual's choices, whether of dress, diet,
friends, occupation, or spouse, are relatively free
of the dictates of family, neighbours or others to
whom one might be linked in traditional role
relations. (Nisbett & Ross, 1991)
How does gender influence perception? In every
society gender is one of the most important factors
in determining how people perceive one another.
Some theorists have suggested that stereotypical
masculine and feminine behaviours are not
opposite poles of a single continuum, but rather
two separate sets of behaviour. With this view, an
individual can act in a masculine or a feminine
manner, or exhibit both types of characteristics.
The male-female dichotomy, then, is replaced with
four psychological gender types, including
masculine, feminine, androgynous (combining
masculine
and
feminine
traits),
and
undifferentiated (neither masculine nor feminine).
What
social
which
Many
Page 12
influence does self-esteem have on our
perceptions? Self-esteem is the extent to
our self-evaluations are favourable or not.
factors play a role, including early
Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
experiences with family members, with friends,
and at school. One major factor seems to involve
social comparison - a process in which we
compare ourselves with others. Research findings
indicate that self-esteem is extremely important to
our well-being. In fact, self-esteem may actually
be beneficial to our physical as well as our
emotional health. Persons high in self-esteem
appear to be more resistant to disease than persons
low in self-esteem. That is, their immune systems
seem to operate more effectively. Why? Some
recent findings indicate that self-esteem may be
linked to biochemical changes within the body; for
instance, high self-esteem is associated with
increased levels of seratonin in the blood, and this
neurotransmitter may play a role in effective
functioning of the immune system. (Baron, p. 515)
What are some biases in our causal
explanations of the behaviour of others? Biases
can have a profound effect on the the process of
attribution:
• Fundamental attribution bias: the tendency
to exaggerate the importance of dispositional
or personal factors and to underestimate the
influence of other people and other aspects of
the situation.
• Actor/Observer bias : People are more likely
to attribute the actions of others to stable trait
dispositions, but their own behaviour to
situational factors. Why the difference? One
reason is that they have different perspectives
from which to view the same event. Also,
actors and observers have access to different
information. (Alcock et al., 1998)
• Self-serving bias : Protecting our ego and selfesteem as well as presenting a positive image
to others are important to people, thus, people
tend to attribute their own success to internal
factors and their failure to external factors.
These attributions refer to our tendency to take
credit for our successes but to blame others (or
the situation) for our failures. Self-serving
attributions can result from either of two
•
•
•
•
Page 13
processes: (a) the lack of, or difference of,
information available to them, and thus reach
different conclusions about why the behaviour
occurred or (b) the need to bolster self-esteem.
(Aronson et al., 1994)
Defensive attributions : Explanations that
defend us from feelings of vulnerability and
mortality. Some defensive attributions include
unrealistic optimism about the future,
believing that bad things only happen to bad
people or the assumption that people get what
they deserve, and by "blaming the victim" as
being responsible for their own bad fortune.
(Aronson et al., 1994)
The illusion of control: Much of what
happens in life is beyond our control. Perhaps
in response, people cling to an illusion of
control, an exaggerated belief in their own
capacity to determine what happens to them in
life. (Alcock et al. 1998)
Self-blame : Miller and Porter (1983) present
the following, rather unexpected findings: (1)
Victims often exaggerate their own
responsibility for the event and its
consequences; and (2) the degree of self-blame
is often positively related to how successfully
the person will cope. Self-blame may enable
the person to maintain the illusion of control in
life, which can be channelled into constructive
coping strategies. In addition, self-blame is
one way to impose meaning on an otherwise
incomprehensible event. (Alcock et al., 1998)
Cultural bias : Western culture teaches us to
prefer dispositional explanations. People in
Western cultures appear to be more like
personality psychologists, viewing behaviour
in dispositional terms, whereas people in
Eastern cultures seem to be more like social
psychologists, viewing behaviour in situational
terms. (Aronson et al., 1994)
Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
Making Connections ……………….
•
•
•
Self-esteem and social comparison:
• Who do you compare yourself to? Why? What qualities or attributes of other people do you find
admirable? What do you do when you compare yourself to others and want to be 'like them'?
• How important is social comparison in the formation and maintenance of self-esteem? Can social
comparison ever be avoided or minimized? Should it be?
Think-Pair-Share: Cultural influences, social perception and behaviour
• Based on the table provided, reflect on the differences between a collectivist and individualistic
society's perspective and approach towards the following:
• Education
• Health care
• Senior citizens or Elders
• Social supports such as welfare and unemployment assistance
• The role of women in society
• Employment equity
• Marriage
• Sports
• Competition
• Business and commerce
Consider both the dispositional and situational aspects to the following questions:
• Why does road rage happen?
• Why do people gamble?
• Why do people smoke?
• Why do people join gangs?
• Why do people get married?
• Why do people take dares?
• Why do people participate in "extreme" sports?
• Why are some people prejudiced and bigoted?
• Why do people volunteer?
• Why do some people persevere, and others give up?
• Why are people aggressive?
• Why do people laugh?
• Why do some people run marathon races?
• Why do people lie?
• Why do people like to watch sports?
•
•
•
•
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Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
Self-concept
When you are feeling insecure, the world is a very different place from the world you
experience when you are confident. The way we feel about ourselves strongly influences how
we interpret other people's behaviour. (Adler et al., 2001) This article addresses the issue of
self-understanding by looking at how we develop a self-concept, the importance of a positive
self-concept, how we can change or improve our self-concept, as well as the cultural and
gender influences on self-concept.
The self-concept has four components: self-image,
self-esteem (or self-regard), ideal-self and selfefficacy.
Self-image is the sort of person we think
we are. One way of assessing self-image is to ask
people to answer the question 'Who Am I?' 20
times. This typically produces two main categories
of answers relating to social roles and personality
traits. Self-image also includes body image.
While self-image is essentially descriptive,
self-esteem is essentially evaluative. Self-esteem
is the extent to which we like or approve of
ourselves, and how worthwhile we think we are.
The ideal-self is the kind of person you would
like to be. In general, the greater the gap between
self-image and ideal-self, the lower the selfesteem. (Gross, pg. 402)
According to Bandura (1982), self-efficacy, or
one's expectations of success in a given situation,
is an important determinant of whether one will
attempt to make changes in one's environment.
Each day, we make many decisions based on our
perceptions of the extent to which our actions will
produce reinforcement. Our actions are based on
our evaluations of our competency. Moreover,
self-efficacy not only determines whether we will
engage in a particular behaviour, it also
determines the extent to which we will maintain
that behaviour in the face of adversity. (Buskist &
Carlson, p. 459)
How do we develop a self-concept? It is
generally believed that awareness of "the self"
develops from early experience. Indeed, one of the
first stages in the development of thinking in the
child is the capacity to distinguish what is "me"
and what is "not me". (Alcock et al., 1998)
Aspects of the self-concept develop by degrees,
rather than clearly defined stages. Whilst young
children may know their own names and
understand the limits of their own bodies, they
may not yet be able to think about themselves as
coherent entities. Self-awareness or selfconsciousness, develops very gradually. (Gross, p.
404) There exist many different theories that try to
explain the development of a self-concept:
Ø According to Carl Rogers, self-concept or
identity is shaped partly by self-actualizing
tendencies and partly by others' evaluations.
In this way, people come to like what they are
"supposed" to like and to behave as they are
"supposed" to behave.(Bernstein & Nash,
1999)
Ø Reflected appraisal is the process whereby
each of us develops a self-concept that
matches the way we believe others see us. The
self-concept is a product of the positive and
negative messages you received throughout
your life. These same principles in the
formation of the self-concept continue in later
life, especially when messages come from
what sociologists term significant others people whose opinions we especially value.
(Adler et al., 2001)
Ø Cooley (1902) argued that we construct our
self-concepts from how we appear to others,
which is then reflected back to us - what he
called the looking-glass self. There are several
processes by which "reflection" enables us to
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Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
Ø
Ø
Ø
Ø
construct our ideas and impressions of
ourselves:
Social Identity refers to those aspects of a
person's self-image that depend upon the social
categories and groups to which he or she
belongs. Turner (1982, 1985) describes social
identification as a three-part process. First,
there is social categorization: individuals
perceive themselves and others in terms of
membership in distinct categories or groups.
Second, the typical norms, attitudes and
behaviours that distinguish the groups
determine behaviour to a large degree. Third,
individuals conform to the stereotypes
associated with the group. (Alcock et al., p.
329)
Perhaps most central to your social identity is
your gender, male or female. What does
"masculinity" and "femininity" mean? What is
called masculinity has been described as
instrumentality or agency, a concern with
achieving goals and being active in the world,
while
femininity
is
described
as
expressiveness or communion, being othercentered and concerned with interpersonal
relationships.
Self-perception theory suggests that people
become aware of their own attitudes, feelings,
values, dispositions and other internal
characteristics in the same way that they form
impressions of the characteristics of others through observation of their own behaviour.
The notion of self-knowledge through selfperception
implies
that,
rather
than
introspecting about what we really believe in,
and then acting on those beliefs, we first act
and then discover our beliefs and values from
our own actions.
Social comparison is based on three premises:
Ø Humans have a drive to evaluate their own
opinions, feelings and abilities, and want to
feel confident that they are accurate.
Ø In the absence of objective or nonsocial
bases of assessment, individuals will
evaluate themselves in comparison with
others.
People tend to compare themselves with someone
similar to themselves in opinion, background or
ability. In general, people compare themselves to
someone equal when the goal is self-assessment,
to someone better when the goal is selfimprovement, and to someone inferior when the
goal is self-enhancement. (Alcock et al., 1998)
How important is your self-concept? Persons
with high self-esteem are:
Ø likely to think well of others,
Ø expect to be accepted by others,
Ø evaluate their own performance more
favourably than people with low self-esteem,
Ø perform well when being watched,
Ø not afraid of the reaction of others,
Ø work harder for people who demand high
standards of performance,
Ø are inclined to feel comfortable with others
they view as superior in some way,
Ø are able to defend themselves against negative
comments of others.
Persons with low self-esteem are:
Ø likely to disapprove of others,
Ø expect to be rejected by others,
Ø evaluate their own performance less
favourably than people with high self-esteem,
Ø perform poorly when being watched and are
sensitive to possible negative reaction,
Ø work harder for undemanding, less-critical
people,
Ø feel threatened by people they view as superior
in some way,
Ø have difficulty defending themselves against
other people's negative comments,
Ø are more easily influenced. (Hamachek, 1982)
How do we change a self-concept? Self-esteem
can be improved through identifying the causes of
low self-esteem and the domains of competence
important to the self. People have the highest selfesteem when they perform competently in
domains important to the self:
Ø emotional support and social approval,
including both adult and peer approval.
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Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
Ø achievement, which has much in common with
Bandura's cognitive social learning concept of
self-efficacy, which refers to individuals'
beliefs that they can master a situation and
produce positive outcomes, and;
Ø coping with a problem rather than avoiding it.
If coping rather than avoidance prevails,
people often face problems realistically,
honestly and nondefensively. This produces
favourable self-evaluative thoughts, which
lead to the self-generated approval that raises
self-esteem. (Santrock, p. 314)
What are the cultural influences on self-concept?
•
•
•
•
•
Individualistic cultures
Self is separate, unique individual; should be
independent, self-sufficient
Individual should take of themselves and immediate
family
Many flexible group memberships; friends based on
shared interests and activities
Reward for individual achievement and initiative;
individual decisions encouraged; individual credit
and blame assigned
High value on autonomy, change, youth, individual
security, equality
How does gender influence self-concept? In the
1970s, as both males and females became
dissatisfied with the burdens imposed by their
stereotypical roles, alternatives to masculinity and
femininity were proposed. Instead of describing
masculinity and femininity as a continuum in
which more of one means less of the other, it was
proposed that individuals could have both
masculine and feminine traits. This thinking led to
the development of androgyny, which refers to the
presence of desirable masculine and feminine
characteristics in the same person. The
androgynous male might be assertive (masculine)
and nurturant (feminine). The androgynous female
might be powerful (masculine) and sensitive to the
feelings of others (feminine). (Santrock, p. 318)
•
•
•
•
•
Collectivist cultures
People belong to extended families or ingroups; "we" or group orientation
Person should take care of extended family
before Self
Emphasis on belonging to a very few
permanent in-groups which have a strong
influence over the person
Reward for contribution to group goals and
well-being; co-operation with in-group
members; group decisions valued; credit and
blame shared
High value on duty, order, tradition, age,
group security, status and hierarchy
Making Connections …..
•
•
Page 17
Coping and resiliency
• What do you do when things are really
going wrong? What coping skills have you
developed? What about your family’s
coping skills and resiliency? Are there
people you know who seem to be able to
cope well with stress, pressure and
difficult situations? What do they do?
Masculinity and femininity defined:
• What does it mean to be feminine? What
qualities do you admire in females?
• What does it mean to be masculine? What
qualities do you admire in males?
• Do you consider yourself to be more
masculine, feminine or androgynous?
Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
Beauty
What does it mean to be beautiful? Are there advantages to being
beautiful? How does culture, age and the media, influence our
conceptions of beauty? This article suggests many different research
possibilities for an independent, or small-group research project on a
key topic or issue in social psychology.
Is beauty really, as the saying goes, only skin deep? What does it mean to be beautiful? Who are the "beautiful
people" and what makes them so beautiful? How do we define beauty? Are there social, economic, career or
political advantages to being "beautiful"? In this special supplement to Interactions, you have the opportunity to
consider these, as well as many other questions and issues dealing with beauty. The following questions are
provided to stimulate your interest and guide your inquiry into the fascinating world of beauty.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Are we, as a society, biased towards beauty? What evidence can you find to support your position?
What are the cultural differences in what is considered to be beautiful? Find examples from a variety of cultures
to illustrate what various cultures consider to be beautiful. What are the features of attractive/beautiful people
in various cultures?
Gender differences and beauty: What are the characteristics of beautiful males and females? Is there common
consensus as to what it means to be beautiful? Consider a research project where you survey males and females
to determine their interpretations of beauty. Are there age differences as well, in other words, do our definitions
of beauty change as we get older?
What is the relationship between beauty and:
• Leadership
• Self-esteem
• Careers/jobs
• Popularity
• Body image
• Psychological disorders such as eating disorders, social phobias and anxiety disorders?
Research the cultural industry of beauty. What are the economic benefits of beauty products ranging from skin
care to makeup to shampoos? How is the contemporary concept of beauty promoted or communicated in the
various forms of media?
Cosmetic surgery is one of the fastest growing medical services in North America. Research this beauty
industry, and prepare a report on the types of cosmetic surgery, the costs, the technologies and procedures
involved. Survey question: Should cosmetic surgery be paid for by our federally and provincially funded Health
Care system?
Beauty pageants. How have they changed? Why do we have them? Research a Miss Canada, or Miss U.S.A. or
Miss Universe to find out how their lives were changed because of their titles.
Research question: Is there any economic value in being beautiful? Do beautiful people have an advantage in
the workplace, in careers and in industry? Are beautiful people paid more? On the opposite side of the coin, are
"non-beautiful" people discriminated against?
Historical fads and trends in beauty. How has our definition of beautiful changed over the past century?
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Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
Dear Pat
Dear Pat: Why do people constantly
compare themselves to others? Is this a
good thing, or a bad thing?
Confused in Coronach
Dear Pat: I am writing to ask for your advice. A very good friend
of mine is constantly criticizing herself, she has a very poor selfconcept. What can I do to help her?
Supportive in Saskatoon
Dear Pat: My mother is always saying that if you look good
then you’ll feel good, and if you feel good then you’ll do
good. Is this true? Can the way that you feel about yourself
actually make you do better?
Doubtful in Davidson
Dear Pat: How important is making a good first
impression?
Unsure in Unity
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Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
Dear Pat: I recently read somewhere that a person's
expectations of an event make an outcome more
likely to occur. I am starting a new part-time job
Dear Pat: My teacher said that having a positive
soon, what does this mean for me?
self-concept can actually improve your health. Is
Expectant in Estevan
this true?
Positive in Prince Albert
Dear Pat: How, and why does our behaviour change in social situations?
Social in Strasbourg
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Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
Dear Pat: Is watching too much television bad for you?
Helpful in Humboldt
Dear Pat: What can I do to become a better
communicator?
Tongue-tied in Tisdale
Dear Pat: Do we act based on our beliefs and
values, or do we get our beliefs and values based
on how we act?
Acting in Avonlea
Dear Pat: Do males and females really view the
world differently, or is this just a myth?
Viewing in Viscount
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Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
My Anthology
Page 22
Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
The changing role of adolescents in our society: An
interview with a senior citizen
Page 23
Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
Dialectical Reasoning
There are many different ways to reach a decision. This article describes one of those methods,
the dialectical reasoning model of decision-making. By describing the process, providing
examples for each of the steps involved, and then suggesting several issues for students to
explore using the dialectical approach, Interactions seeks to guide students to a better
understanding of the dialectical reasoning model of decision-making.
Dialectical reasoning refers to critical thinking about problems and evaluating conflicting viewpoints.
Dialectical reasoning is best applied in resolving controversial issues and assessing opposing positions.
Often times, there are several possible ways of resolving questions and understanding issues, rather than
one single right answer. We may have situations where information is incomplete, where many
approaches and views may compete, and we have to decide which one is most reasonable based on what
is known, even though there is no clear-cut solution.
Dialectical reasoning consists of moving back and forth between contrary lines of reasoning, using each to
cross-examine the other. This is what juries are supposed to do in arriving at a verdict: consider
arguments and evidence for and against a case, point and counterpoint. It is a process in which opposing
facts and ideas are weighed and compared for the purposes of determining the best solution, resolving
differences, and coming to the most reasonable conclusion based on the evidence and logic.
In a democratic and pluralistic nation such as Canada, there are a number of identified issues that
reasonable people will still disagree about even after a careful analysis of both sides of the issue. On the
other hand, it is important to also realize that there are certain issues that reasonable people do not
disagree about; for example, all reasonable people know that racism is wrong.
Some people have difficulty with dialectical reasoning because their self-esteem depends on their being
right and having their beliefs accepted by others. We all have our convictions, but the inability to
consider alternative views and evidence with an open mind is a major obstacle to critical thinking. Other
obstacles include:
• the tendency to form quick, impulsive opinions instead of fully developed arguments;
• reaching decisions based on what “feels right” at the moment be, and not distinguishing
between knowledge and belief, or between belief and evidence, and not seeing any reason for
justifying a belief;
• thinking that because some things cannot be known with absolute certainty, any judgement
about the evidence is purely subjective, and defending a position with the explanation that
“We all have a right to our own opinions,” as if all opinions are created equal.
When we become capable of critical thinking, we understand that although some things can never be
known with certainty, some judgements are more valid than others because of their coherence, their fit
with the evidence, and their usefulness. When reasoning dialectically, we are willing to consider evidence
from a variety of sources, to justify our conclusions as representing the most complete, plausible or
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Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
compelling understanding of an issue, based on currently available evidence -- this means abandoning
“ignorant certainty” in favour of “intelligent confusion.”
The first step in approaching an issue is to look at "both sides" of the issue. We have termed this step
'from both perspectives'. For instance, if the basic issue we are considering is "Why are human beings
violent?", we would begin by looking at both sides of the issue without forming any firm conclusions or
arriving at a position. The table below represents this step.
From both perspectives: Human beings are basically peaceful and cooperative.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Reasons why I agree …..
Even small children throw temper tantrums.
Human beings have hunted animals in order
to survive
Human beings will show aggression in order
to protect themselves and others
Human beings have unfortunately displayed
aggression towards others for personal profit
and national glory.
History of humans is basically one of wars
and conflicts.
The only way to get what you want is to take
it by force.
Violence is a basic human instinct.
Power is one of the primary motivators for
behaviour.
"Movies for guys who like movies" are
always violent. Males are basically violent
and aggressive.
•
Reasons why I disagree ….
Violence is learned, we can parent our children
not be violent.
Not everyone is violent, there are many people
who are peaceful and cooperative.
The mass media, especially television,
influences young children to be violent, if
there was not so much violence on television
then children would not learn to be violent.
Humans are not born aggressive, I have seen
very young children play together.
People become violent only when they want
something, like power or material goods. If
they have everything they need, they become
lazy.
Some societies cooperate, they do not fight.
•
•
•
•
•
To think dialectically, we must evaluate evidence and question assumptions, consider alternative
interpretations, and stand ready to reassess our conclusions in the face of new evidence. This process
works in a cycle that involves 3 basic steps:
• a thesis, which is a statement of an idea, viewpoint or position;
• an antithesis, which is the statement of an alternative and possibly contrary (conflicting) idea;
• a synthesis, which is the reconciliation of the two prior ideas in a way that integrates the best
aspects of those ideas.
Ultimately, the synthesis serves as a new thesis and the cycle repeats. The synthesis typically shows that
ideas that seem to conflict or to be contradictory are not necessarily so – there is unity in the diverse
aspects of the issue. The reconciliation of the ideas, however, may require discarding weaker or flawed
aspects of the ideas. Thus, other aspects of the ideas can be integrated in a way that builds on their
strengths and more reasonable qualities. As an example:
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Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
Question: Why are human beings violent?
Thesis Statement and Arguments : I believe that violent behaviour develops in people as they
experience and learn from the world around them.
• Behavioural psychologists believe that people are the products of their environment and that violent
behaviour is learned.
• Behavioural psychologists John B. Watson and Ivan Pavlov advanced the theory that "certain basic
laws of learning" can explain the actions of both humans and animals.
• A child is not born knowing how to act, what is good and bad, right or wrong.
• People learn these things during childhood and continue to learn throughout their lives.
• When a child grows up experiencing family violence in the form of physical abuse or battering, he or
she learns that violence is a normal and acceptable way of acting, even with loved ones.
• Violence is learned through images of violence on television, in movies, and other places.
• The mass media plays an important role in influencing behaviour, we learn to be violent through
watching it.
• B.F. Skinner, stated that "the consequences of an act affects the probability of it occurring again."
• Unless children are rewarded for good behaviour, and punished for violent behaviour, they will not
learn to control themselves.
• The combination of positive and negative reinforcements will largely determine how a person behaves
later in life.
Antithesis Statement and Arguments : Aggression and violence are not learned, they are basic human
instincts.
• Sigmund Freud, psychoanalytic theory, described aggression as a basic human instinct.
• Violent behaviour is determined by aggressive and destructive forces originating in the unconscious
mind.
• From an early age, society teaches us to repress these instincts and to channel our energies into more
socially acceptable and creative pursuits.
• When our basic instincts overpower our judgement, violence results.
• The formative experiences of early childhood are most important in determining a person's capacity
for controlling these aggressive impulses.
Synthesis: Violent behaviour is learned, and experiences in early childhood are very important in
determining behaviour in later life.
Writing a Dialectical Essay
Here are some steps to guide dialectical reasoning in writing an essay.
Step One -- Introduction
Write an introduction providing the purpose and context for the essay. Discuss why the subject of the
essay is meaningful, interesting and worthwhile. Define or explain key ideas, terms, situations,
controversies, complexities, etc. [First paragraph]
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Unit Three: How do we make sense of our world?
Step Two -- Thesis
Clearly state the thesis and describe it. Then present arguments for the thesis. Describe and evaluate the
reasons and supporting evidence for the thesis. [Second and third paragraphs]
Step Three – Antithesis
Acknowledge and present the antithesis. Describe how it is contrary to the thesis. Describe and evaluate
the supporting arguments and evidence, with a degree of rigor and passion equal to the original thesis. Be
fair and do it justice. [Fourth and fifth paragraphs]
Step Four -- Conclusion
Conclude the essay with one of three options:
• Affirm the original thesis and reject the antithesis;
• Adopt and advance the antithesis, giving up the thesis; or
• Provide a synthesis combining the best aspects of the thesis and antithesis, reconciling the two
views. [Sixth paragraph]
The conclusion needs to carefully summarize the consideration given the thesis and antithesis. Weigh and
compare the ideas. Point out the significant strengths/weaknesses, advantages/disadvantages of the two
positions. Explain the how and why of reaching the conclusion.
On the following page is an example of a dialectical essay based on the arguments as presented above.
Following are some sample topics and issues that can be used in dialectical reasoning:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Trade with countries that commit human rights violations
Immigration quotas
Progressive taxation
Social Assistance
Employment equity
Public Education
Medicare
Young Offender's Act
Censorship
Freedom of Speech
Euthanasia
Abortion
Mandatory donation of organs for transplant
Legalization of hallucinogenic drugs
Use of animals in research
Firearms registration
Rights of the individual versus the rights of society
Unemployment insurance
Parole
Saskatchewan Education acknowledges the contributions of Donald McLeod, a teacher with the Saskatoon Public
School Division, and Rick Ast with the Regina Public School Division, for their work with dialectical models and
suggestions for dialectics.
Page 27
Dialectical Reasoning
Strategy
Why are human beings so violent?
Introduction:
• Provide context for essay
• Explain the subject and
purpose of essay, why topic is
meaningful, worthwhile,
interesting
• Define key ideas, terms,
controversies, complexities
Throughout time, people have been victims or perpetrators of violence. Violence is
defined as any action intended to harm, injure, violate or dominate people, other
organisms and property. It is well worth our while to study violent behaviour so that
we can better understand why it happens and how we might avoid or prevent it. The
social science of psychology has contributed much to our knowledge of human
aggression and violence. The purpose of this essay is to explain two psychological
theories about the origins of violence. Behavioural psychologists believe that people
are the products of their environment and that violent behaviour is learned. Other
psychologists of the psychoanalytic perspective assert that violence results from an
inborn instinct people possess.
I believe that violent behaviour develops in people as they experience and learn
from the world around them. Behavioural psychologists John B. Watson and Ivan
Pavlov advanced the theory that "certain basic laws of learning" can explain the
actions of both humans and animals. A child is not born knowing how to act, what
is good and bad, right or wrong. People learn these things during childhood and
continue to learn throughout their lives. When a child grows up experiencing family
violence in the form of physical abuse or battering, he or she learns that violence is
a normal and acceptable way of acting, even with loved ones. If this aggression is
reinforced by images of violence on television, in movies, and other places, it
becomes an even more powerful influence on a person.
Another behaviourist, B.F. Skinner, demonstrated that "the consequences of an act
affects the probability of it occurring again." A child growing up surrounded by
violence is unacceptable and wrong only when there are negative consequences for
such behaviour. Positive rewards for appropriate behaviour can reinforce this
learning. The combination of positive and negative reinforcements will largely
determine how a person behaves later in life.
An opposing theory about the cause of human violence was advanced by Sigmund
Freud who viewed aggression as a basic human instinct. Violent behaviour is
determined by aggressive and destructive forces originating in the unconscious
mind. From an early age, society teaches us to repress these instincts and to channel
our energies into more socially acceptable and creative pursuits. When our basic
instincts overpower our judgement, however, violence results. The formative
experiences of early childhood are most important in determining a person's
capacity for controlling these aggressive impulses.
Having examined both the behaviourist and psychoanalytics theories, I agree with
the behaviourists. Humankind has a vast capacity and potential for learning. We are
governed more by our experience than by instinct. This is what separates us from all
other animal life. Violent behaviour is acquired through learning, it is not caused by
instinct or mysterious forces in the subconscious mind. I find that Freud's idea about
the importance of early childhood experience actually complements the
behaviourist position because this is the period of life in which the most powerful
learning occurs. The greater our learning, the more control we exercise over our
environment. If violence is learned, it can be unlearned.
Thesis:
• Clearly state the position you
are taking
• Present supporting arguments
and evidence
Antithesis:
• Present counter-position,
arguments and supporting
evidence
• Explain how it conflicts with
thesis
Conclusion:
• Acknowledge both positions
• Affirm original thesis, adopt
the antithesis or combine best
parts of each position to form
synthesis
• Explain why and how you
reached this conclusion