Download EOC Review Guide 2013-2014

Bio.1.1 - Understand the relationship between the structures and functions of cells and their organelles.
Structure
nucleus
plasma membrane
cell wall
mitochondria
vacuoles
Function
Controls cell, has DNA
Controls what enters and leaves cells
Helps support cell
Does respiration – converts food to energy usable by cell
Holds water
Chloroplasts
ribosomes
Does photosynthesis
Where proteins are made
Plant cell
Plant, Animal, or both?
Both
Both
Plant
Both
Small in animal, 1 large in
plant
Plant
both
Animal Cell
 Folding of membrane in mitochondria gives more surface area.
 Microscopes – multiple the powers to get total magnification (eg. 4X and 10X = 40X)
 prokaryotic cells are less complex than eukaryotic cells.
o Presence of membrane bound organelles – mitochondria, nucleus, vacuole, and chloroplasts are not
present in prokaryotes.
o Ribosomes are found in both.
o DNA and RNA are present in both, but are not enclosed by a membrane in prokaryotes.
o Contrasts in chromosome structure – circular DNA strands called plasmids are characteristic of
prokaryotes.
o Contrasts in size – prokaryotic cells are smaller.
 Explain that multicellular organisms begin as undifferentiated masses of cells and that variation in DNA
expression and gene activity determines the differentiation of cells and ultimately their specialization.
o During the process of differentiation, only specific parts of the DNA are activated; the parts of
the DNA that are activated determine the function and specialized structure of a cell.
o Because all cells contain the same DNA, all cells initially have the potential to become any type
of cell; however, once a cell differentiates, the process cannot be reversed.
o Nearly all of the cells of a multicellular organism have exactly the same chromosomes and DNA.
o Different parts of the genetic instructions are used in different types of cells, influenced by the
cell's environment and past history.
 Recall that chemical signals may be released by one cell to influence the development and activity of another
cell.
 Identify stem cells as unspecialized cells that continually reproduce themselves and have, under appropriate
conditions, the ability to differentiate into one or more types of specialized cells.
o Embryonic cells which have not yet differentiated into various cell types are called embryonic
stem cells.
o Stem cells found in organisms, for instance in bone marrow, are called adult stem cells.
o Scientists have recently demonstrated that stem cells, both embryonic and adult, with the right
laboratory culture conditions, differentiate into specialized cells.
Bio.1.2 - Analyze the cell as a living system.
 cells use buffers to regulate cell pH and how cells can respond to maintain temperature, glucose levels, and
water balance in organisms (homeostasis)
 active vs. passive transport (diffusion and osmosis).
o Active requires energy and passive does not
o Diffusion is “Go with the flow from high to low.”
o Osmosis is the diffusion of water
o Active transport is going from low concentration to high concentration, which doesn’t want to
happen.
 plasma membrane
o phospholipid bilayer that has protein channels in it
 Explain changes in osmotic pressure that occurs when cells are placed in solutions of differing
concentrations.

The small, open circles have moved to the right because there was a higher concentration of the small
circles on the left than there was on the right. They went with the flow from high (concentration) to low
(concentration).
 cell cycle – Growth1, Synthesis, Growth2, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis.
o Growth 1 (G1) – cell grows
o Synthesis (S) – DNA replicates
o Growth 2 (G2) – cell grows some more
o Mitosis – the nucleus divides - PMAT
o Cytokinesis – the cytoplasm divides and 1 cell becomes 2
 mitosis is a part of asexual reproduction
o makes 2 daughter cells
o identical to parent cell
o clones
 Organize diagrams of mitotic phases and describe what is occurring throughout the process.
 structures of unicellular organisms help that organism survive.
o contractile vacuoles – squeeze water out to make organize move – like jet propulsion
o cilia – little hairs that help them move
o flagella – tails that help move
o pseudopods – foot like extensions that can help move or grab food
o eyespots – like an eye that help them respond to light
 adaptive behaviors – examples include chemotaxis and phototaxis
o chemotaxis – reponse to chemicals
o phototaxis – response to light
Bio.2.1 - Analyze the interdependence of living organisms within their environments.
 carbon cycle as it relates to photosynthesis, cellular respiration, decomposition and climate change.
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Carbon stored in plants
Photosynthesis takes in carbon as carbon dioxide
Respiration puts carbon back out as carbon dioxide
Oceans and dead things also store carbon
Humans adding carbon to atmosphere by burning fossil
fuels and cutting down tree.
Burning releases carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide traps heat, so we are heating up the
environment
Decomposition is the breakdown of dead organisms,
which puts carbon into the soil
 the nitrogen cycle (including the role of nitrogen fixing bacteria) and its importance to synthesis of proteins
and DNA.
o Nitrogen fixing
bacteria change
nitrogen from the
air into a form
that plants can
use
o Nitrogen gets
into animals
when they eat the
plants
o Bacteria also
change the
nitrogen in the
soil back into a
form that can
enter the air
 factors that influence climate:
o greenhouse effect (relate to carbon cycle and human impact on atmospheric CO 2) – CO2 traps heat and
humans are adding more of it to the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels and cutting down trees which
help get CO2 out of the atmosphere
o natural environmental processes like volcanic eruption and geologic
processes also change climate
o volcanoes can cool the earth b/c ash creates cloud cover
 matter is recycled within ecosystems and the ecosystems tend toward a
more disorganized state.
 energy pyramids for direction and efficiency of energy transfer.
o living systems require a continuous input of energy to maintain
organization. The input of radiant energy which is converted to
chemical energy allows organisms to carry out life processes.
o Within ecosystems energy flows from the radiant energy of the sun
through producers and consumers as chemical energy that is
ultimately transformed into heat energy. Continual refueling of
radiant energy is required by ecosystems.
 Various organisms accomplish the following life functions through
adaptations within particular environments (example: water or land) and that these adaptations have evolved
to ensure survival and reproductive success.
o Transport and Excretion – how different organisms get what they need to cells; how they move waste
from cells to organs of excretion. Focus is on maintaining balance in pH, salt, and water. Include plants vascular and nonvascular.
o Respiration – how different organisms take in and release gases (carbon dioxide or oxygen, water
vapor); cellular respiration
o Nutrition – feeding adaptations and how organisms get nutrition (autotrophic and heterotrophic) and
how they break down and absorb foods.
o Reproduction, Growth and Development – sexual versus asexual, eggs, seeds, spores, placental, types
of fertilization.
 Behavioral adaptations that help accomplish basic life functions such as
o innate behavior (e.g. suckling)
o taxes/taxis – responses to things like touch or light
o migration – moving based on seasons
o estivation – staying dormant during certain conditions
o hibernation – staying dormant during the winter
o habituation – eventually stop responding to a stimulus
o imprinting – learning to follow an object that is seen early in life
o classical conditioning (e.g. Pavlov’s dog–stimulus association)
o trial and error learning or operant conditioning
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ways organisms interact with each other
o predation – one things hunts and eats another
o competition – two things fight for resources
o parasitism – one organism benefits and the other is hurt – the parasite usually lives in or on the host so it
won’t kill the host
o mutualism - both organisms benefit
o commensalism – one organism is benefited and the other isn’t hurt or benefited.
forms of communication and territorial defense
o including communication within social structure using pheromones (Examples: bees, ants, termites)
o courtship dances
o territorial defense (Example: fighting fish).
 patterns in predator /prey and competition relationships
o if predator numbers go up, prey numbers go down
because they are being hunted/eaten a lot.
o As prey numbers go down, the predator numbers will
start to drop because they are running out of food.
o Less predators will then make prey numbers start to
increase.
o Then more food for predators means they will go back
up.
o The respond to each other and keep each other in check.
These patterns help maintain stability within an
ecosystem
 Although some populations have the capacity for exponential growth, there are limited resources that
create specific carrying capacities and population sizes are in a dynamic equilibrium with these factors.
(e.g. food availability, climate, water, territory).
 Interpret various types of population graphs – human population growth graphs indicating historical and
potential changes, factors influencing birth rates and death rates, and effects of population size, density
and resource use on the environment.
Exponential Growth
Logistic Growth
 disease can disrupt ecosystem balance. (Examples: AIDS, influenza, tuberculosis, Dutch Elm Disease,
Pfiesteria, etc.) \
o all of the diseases above have can cause a lot of death if they affect a population
Bio.2.2 - Understand the impact of human activities on the environment (one generation affects the next).
 human activities impact the environment.
o including population growth – more people pollute, make trash, use resources
o pollution
o global warming – causes temperatures to rise
o burning of fossil fuels – adds CO2 to atmosphere and influences global warming, also pollutes
o habitat destruction – cut down trees and hurt ecosystems in order to build or make farmland
o introduction of nonnative species – bring organisms to new places and they take over (Cane Toads)
 humans modify ecosystems through population growth, technology, consumption of resources and
production of waste.
 factors that impact North Carolina ecosystems.
o acid rain effects in mountain
o beach erosion
o urban development in the Piedmont leading to habitat destruction and water runoff
o waste lagoons on hog farms
o Kudzu as an invasive plant
 impact of humans on natural resources
o resource depletion - using up resources
o deforestation – cutting down trees
o pesticide use
o bioaccumulation – chemicals in environment add up as they move up the food chain
 conservation methods and stewardship
o protect areas and don’t cut down trees
o use less resources
o sustainability – making resources last for future generations
Bio.3.1 - Explain how traits are determined by the structure and function of DNA.
 DNA
o The structure of DNA is a double helix or “twisted ladder”
structure. The sides are composed of alternating phosphatesugar groups and “rungs of the DNA ladder” are composed of
complementary nitrogenous base pairs (always adenine, A, to
thymine, T, and cytosine, C, to guanine, G) joined by weak
hydrogen bonds.
o The sequence of nucleotides in DNA codes for proteins,
which is central key to cell function and life.
o Replication occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle and
allows daughter cells to have an exact copy of parental DNA.
o Cells respond to their environments by producing different
types and amounts of protein.
o With few exceptions, all cells of an organism have the same
DNA but differ based on the expression of genes.
 the process of protein synthesis:
o Transcription - produces an RNA from DNA, which is further modified into the three types of RNA
 mRNA – messenger RNA – is the message for what amino acids to get
 tRNA – transfer RNA – carries amino acids to the rRNA
 rRNA – ribosomal RNA – is the ribosome
o mRNA traveling to the ribosome (rRNA)
o Translation – RNA gets turned into a string of amino acids
o Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds to form polypeptides. Polypeptide chains form protein
molecules. Proteins can be structural (forming a part of the cell materials) or functional (hormones,
enzymes, or chemicals involved in cell chemistry).
 Codon charts determine the amino acid sequence produced by a particular sequence of bases.
 Mutations are changes in DNA coding and can be deletions, additions, or substitutions. Mutations can be
random and spontaneous or caused by radiation and/or chemical exposure.
 Only mutations in sex cells (egg and sperm) or in the gamete produced from the primary sex cells can result
in heritable changes.
Bio.3.2 - Understand how the environment, and/or the interaction of alleles, influences the expression of
genetic traits.
 The process of meiosis and processes occurring in
diagrams of stages.
o Meiosis makes 4 daughter cells that are
genetically different from the parent
o Crossing over helps make variety
o Homologous chromosomes pair up in
prophase I
o Tetrad – a pair of homologous chromosomes
o Independent assortment – idea that each
chromosome separates independently during
meiosis. This creates greater genetic variety
kind of like shuffling the chromosomes to
get more options (see below).
 sources of genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms include
o crossing over – when the homologous chromosomes overlap and swap some info
o random assortment of chromosomes – the picture above
o gene mutation – changes in nitrogen bases of DNA
o nondisjunction – failure of chromosomes to separate
o fertilization – sperm and egg meet to create new genetic combos
 meiosis versus mitosis
Mitosis
Meiosis
asexual
sexual
type of reproduction
Same number
Half as many
changes in chromosome
number
1
2
number of cell divisions
2
4
number of cells produced
Identical
different
Similarity to parent cell
o
o
 Punnett squares
o determine genotypic and phenotypic ratios
 genotype – letter combo or which alleles are had (Tt, tt, TT for the square below)
 phenotype – the physical appearance or way it looks
o Understand that dominant alleles mask recessive alleles – requires two recessive alleles to have
that trait.
 karyotypes (gender, and chromosomal
abnormalities).
o XX – female
o XY – male (the Y is smaller than the X)
o Should have 2 of each chromosome to be
normal
o Down’s syndrome is 3 of number 21
 patterns of inheritance
o simple dominance – one copy of the dominant gene overshadows the recessive
o codominance – both genes mix – red and white make pink
o incomplete dominance – see both traits – red and white at the same time – no blending
 some traits are controlled by more than one pair of genes and that this pattern of inheritance is identified
by the presence of a wide range of phenotypes (skin, hair, and eye color).
 sickle cell anemia
o recessive disorder that makes red bloods cells be shaped like a sickle
o helps keep people from getting malaria if they are heterozygous (incomplete dominance)
including the relationship to malaria
o cystic fibrosis (recessive heredity) – lungs and digestive system make excess, thick mucous
o Huntington’s disease (dominant heredity) – sets in later in life and hurts nervous system
 blood types
o Blood Types: A, B, AB and O and
o Alleles: IA, IB, and I (A and B are codominant and O is recessive)
o be able to determine if parentage is possible based on blood types.
 sex-linked traits
o color-blindness and hemophilia
o males are more likely to express a sex-linked trait because they only have 1 X chromosome and
the Y cannot make up for mistakes.
o G
 Pedigrees
o Recessive traits usually skip a generation – a child with the trait doesn’t have to have any parents
with the trait – it can suddenly appear
o Sex-linked traits are usually had by males only and females are carriers of the disease
o Dominant traits usually in each generation – a child with the trait must have a parent with the
trait
 cause-and-effect relationship between environmental factors and expression of a particular genetic trait.
Examples include the following:
o lung/mouth cancer – tobacco use
o skin cancer – vitamin D, folic acid and sun exposure
o diabetes – diet/exercise and genetic interaction
o PKU – diet
o heart disease – diet/exercise and genetic interaction
Bio.3.3 - Understand the application of DNA technology.
 process of gel electrophoresis (DNA fingerprinting) used to separate molecules based on size.
o general steps of gel
electrophoresis – using
restrictions enzymes to
cut DNA into different
sized fragments and
running those
fragments on gels with
longer fragments
moving slower than
faster ones.
 Interpret or “read” a gel –
the more similar the band
pattern the more related the
organism
 Children will have half of
their bands from each
parent
 applications of DNA
fingerprinting - identifying
individuals; identifying and
cataloging endangered species.
 applications of transgenic organisms (plants, animals, & bacteria)
o agriculture (Bt corn and round up resistant soy beans)
o making human insulin
 steps in bacterial transformation (see picture below)
o insertion of a gene into a bacterial plasmid
o getting bacteria to take in the plasmid
o selecting the transformed bacteria
o producing the product
 ethical issues surrounding the use of DNA technology
o cloning – makes an exact copy of an organism but must grow from birth, causes organisms to age rapidly
and have health issues
o genetically modified organisms (GMOs) – can be useful or harmful
o stem cell research – ethical issue is use of cells from embryos, can also be done from adult stem cells
which isn’t very controversial
o Human Genome Project – mapping of human genes, can be used to help cure diseases but could also be
used against people by insurance companies or could cause people too much worry.
 the Human Genome Project.
o the project is useful in determining whether individuals may carry genes for genetic conditions and in
developing gene therapy.
 gene therapy
o could be used to help replace missing or bad genes for diseases like Cystic fibrosis
Bio.3.4 - Explain the theory of evolution by natural selection as a mechanism for how species change over
time.
 hypothesized early atmosphere – hot, rocky, volcanic, no oxygen in the air
 experiments that suggest how the first “cells” may have evolved – people simulated early earth and have
been able to create amino acids by using a battery to simulate lightning (which would have provided
energy for the creation of amino acids)
 early conditions affected the type of organism that developed (first anaerobic and prokaryotic, then
photosynthetic, then eukaryotic, then multicellular).
 fossil evidence informs our understanding of the evolution of species
o shows similarity of species
o helps to show pattern of change
o transitional fossils show missing links between one species and another
 biochemical (molecular) similarities tell us about evolution
o the more similar the DNA, the more closely related the organisms
 shared anatomical structures (homologies) tell us about evolution.
o Body parts that perform the same function or job are homologous structures
o Suggested common ancestry
 natural selection:
o Species have the potential to increase in numbers exponentially.
o Populations are genetically variable due to mutations and genetic recombination.
o There is a finite supply of resources required for life.
o Changing environments select for specific genetic phenotypes.
o Those organisms with favorable adaptations survive, reproduce and pass on their alleles.
o The accumulation and change in favored alleles leads to changes in species over time.
 geographic isolation causes organisms to be far enough apart that they cannot mate anymore. That allows
changes to happen in their gene pool and over time can lead to a new speices.
 disease agents in natural selection
o bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics
o plants and insects can become resistant to pesticides
Bio 3.5 - Analyze how classification systems are developed based upon speciation.
 classification – putting organisms into groups
o changes based on new knowledge generated
by research on evolutionary relationships and
the history of classification system
o KPCOFGS (kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus, species)
 phylogenetic tree in terms of relatedness and time of
appearance in geologic history.
o The closer the branches on the tree, the more
closely related the organism. On the pic to
the right, the from and salamander are more
closely related that the frog and a lungfish
because the frog and salamander split off the
same branch.
 Dichotomous keys
Organism A: has eight legs, so it is
Arachnida.

A
B
Dichotomous Key:
1. a. The animal has eight legs …Arachnida
b. The animal has six legs … go to 2
2. a. The animal has spots … Coleoptera
b. The animal has stripes … Lepisiota
C
Organism B: has six legs so go to #2, it
has spots so it is Coleoptera
Organism C: has six legs to go to #2, it
has stripes so it is Lepisiota
Bio.4.1 - Understand how biological molecules are essential to the survival of living organisms
 Compare the structure and function of each of the listed organic molecules in organisms:
o Carbohydrates (glucose, cellulose, starch, glycogen) – quick energy, made up of CHO
o Proteins (insulin, enzymes, hemoglobin) – make enzymes, made up of amino acids
o Lipids (phospholipids, steroids) – insulate, waterproof, store excess energy, made up of CHO
o Nucleic Acids (DNA, RNA) – store genetic info, made up of nucleotides (a sugar, a phosphate, and a
nitrogen base)
 the sequence of nucleotides in DNA codes for specific amino acids which link to form proteins.
o the five nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, G and U) found in nucleic acids are the same for all organisms.
o the process of protein synthesis
 the DNA is transcribed into RNA
 mRNA goes to the ribosomes (rRNA)
 tRNA brings the amino acids to the ribosome where they get bonded/linked together into a chain
 when the stop codon is reached the chain is released
products
 enzymes are proteins that speed up
substrate
chemical reactions (catalysts) by
lowering the activation energy, are
active site
re-usable and specific,
o are affected by such factors as
pH and temperature – will
make them not work.
o The active site and substrate
are like a lock and key. The
shapes have to match up in
order for the enzyme to work.
enzyme
Bio 4.2 - Analyze the relationships between biochemical processes and energy use in the cell.
 photosynthesis
o done by plants, some protists, and some bacteria
o done by chloroplasts in the cell (which are in all cells except prokaryotes)
 cellular respiration
o done by all living organisms
o done by the mitochondria in cells (which are in all cells except for prokaryotes)
o can be aerobic (using oxygen) or anaerobic (not using oxygen)
o anaerobic respiration
 lactic acid fermentation
C6H12O6 → CO2 + lactic acid
 alcoholic fermentation
C6H12O6 → CO2 + alcohol
 anaerobic respiration does not make anywhere near as much ATP as aerobic respiration
 energy production by organisms is vital for maintaining homeostasis and that maintenance of homeostasis is
necessary for life. Examples: Active transport of needed molecules or to rid the cell of toxins; movement to
avoid danger or to find food, water, and or mates; synthesizing needed molecules