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LECTURE 3 SOCIAL & SELF-PERCEPTIONS Chapters 4 and 5 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Administration Perceptions of Others Break Perceptions of Ourselves Next Class Questions? First Exam Do not be late Bring photo ID and Student ID Bring a pencil and eraser This exam will consist of approximately 70 multiple choice and 3 short answer questions Check out textbook website (my psychlab) for multiple choice practice questions 2.5 hours Contact Regis Caprara with any questions Email: [email protected] Example Multiple Choice Question 1) Which of the following people have fallen prey to the fundamental attribution error? a. Tim, who points to a person who fell down and says, "What a clumsy oaf!“ b. Sophie, who explains her poor exam performance by pointing out how hard the questions were. c. Don, who attributes his loss in a chess game to bad luck. d. Alex, who explains his girlfriend's tears by saying, "She didn't get enough sleep last night.“ e. Beatriz, who points to an erratic driver and says, "Look at that! The roads are slick tonight." Example Short Answer Question 2) Define the term self-fulfilling prophecy and provide one example of how this process might work with regard to teenage drinking. How is this process related to schemas? (5 marks) a) define • • • We have expectations about other people. These expectations can influence how we act toward these people. These actions can cause these people to act in ways that are consistent with our expectations. b) Teenage drinking example c) How related to schemas *** note that there are 3 sections to this question Perceptions of Others Question: How do we come to know and understand our social world? Answer: We perceive others? We watch their actions, gestures, facial expressions, and we listen to them. We try to understand them and why they act and feel and think the way they do. Attribution Theory Is the study of how we infer the causes of other people’s behavior. Heider (1958) – Internal attribution (disposition) – a person’s behavior was caused by something internal, such as his/her attitudes, character, or personality – External attribution (situation) – a person’s behavior was caused by something external, such as the situation; assume that most other people in that same situation would behave similarly Attribution Theory How do people decide if another person’s behavior (B) was primarily caused by the situation (S) or his/her disposition (D)? Lewinian Equation: B=S+D A person’s behavior is a joint function of the situation the person is in and the person’s unique predispositions to act. D=B–S To know whether a person has a disposition to behave in a certain way we need to observe the behavior and “subtract out” the effect of the situation. Discounting Principle D=B–S We should not assume that D has an effect when B = S. When we try to estimate a person’s disposition, the behavior should be discounted or ignored when it is precisely the type of behavior that the situation demands. The behavior is nondiagnostic – it tells us nothing about the person’s unique disposition and enduring tendencies to behave in a certain way. e.g., Car with fan Fundamental Attribution Error (also know as the Correspondence Bias) i.e., We are not very good at following the discounting principle. We overestimate the extent to which other people’s behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors and we underestimate the role of situational factors Behavior, we often believe, corresponds to disposition. Fundamental Attribution Error • Jones and Harris (1967) – – Participants watch debaters argue pro-Castro or anti-Castro issues. They are told that the debaters was either given a choice on which side to debate or no choice. (2 independent variables) What is the debater’s real attitude? How Pro-Castro is the debater? (dependent variable) 70 60 50 40 Pro-Castro Anti-Castro 30 20 10 0 Chosen Assigned Causes of Correspondence Bias 1) We want dispositions (estimate of D) • It gives us a sense of control 2) We misunderstand situations (estimate of S) • We don’t realize the constraints of the situation. We underestimate the capacity of the situation to alter behaviour • Role of perceptual salience 3) We misperceive behavior (estimate of B) • It is sometimes difficult to estimate B 4) We fail to use information • The situation is the first automatic attribution and then only after disposition. Three Stage Model of Attribution ATTRIBUTION Identification When can we/can’t we do the 3rd phase? Automatic dispositional inference Effortful situational correction Three Stage Model of Attribution Gilbert, Pelham, & Krull (1988) ideal vacation, fashion trends hidden secrets, their sex lives Watched the videos while cognitively busy or not busy Three Stage Model of Attribution Gilbert, Pelham, & Krull (1988) Bland Topics Anxious Topics Dispositional Anxiety 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 Not Cognitively Busy Cognitively Busy Three Stage Model of Attribution ATTRIBUTION Identification Automatic dispositional inference Effortful situational correction Actor/Observer Differences Observer Attributions (perceptions of other’s behavior) We tend to attribute other people’s behavior to internal reasons and assume their behavior is caused by their disposition. Actor Attributions (perceptions of own behavior) We tend to attribute our own behavior to external reasons and assume that our behavior is caused by the situation. Why are Actor Attributions Different? 1) We want to see ourselves as flexible – and that we can change according to the demands of the situation (estimate of D) • We also use our estimate of D in a self-serving way.* 2) We understand situations better (estimate of S) • We realize that situations can constrain behavior. We know our behavior differs in different situations and not due only to our disposition. • Role of perceptual salience 3) We fail to use information • The situation is the first automatic attribution and then only after disposition. Self-Attributions ATTRIBUTION Identification Automatic situational inference Effortful dispositional correction Knowledge about Others How accurate are we at understanding others? We are often not accurate because of the following biases: The fundamental attribution error The actor/observer difference The defensive (self-serving) attributions Questions? Perceptions of Ourselves 1) Self-Concept – Who am I? 2) Self-Knowledge – Do I know myself? 3) Liking vs. Knowing the Self 4) Social Self – Interacting with others 5) Cultural Self – How culture impacts the self Self-Concept: Who am I? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I am _________________________ I am _________________________ I am _________________________ I am _________________________ I am __________________________ Who am I? Self-Concept: the content of the self; our knowledge about who we are Self-Schema: beliefs about the self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information, they are elements of the self-concept Self-Awareness: the act of thinking about ourselves Self-Knowledge: Do We Know Ourselves? Intuitions/introspection about the self Predicting our feelings –- affective forecasting Predicting our own behaviors Introspection Do we know ourselves any better than other people know us? The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives. The reasons that we often provide for thoughts and feelings may be wrong and based on common naive theories related to these experiences. Predicting Our Own Feelings Affective Forecasting How would you feel if: you failed this course? you won the lottery? you lost your arm? you became a mother/father for the first time? Imagine ….. (forecasters) vs. Actually Happens …. (experiencers) Predicting Our Own Feelings (and behaviors) Affective Forecasting People often mispredict how they will be emotionally influenced by events. Problems with intensity Problems with duration Explanations - focus - psychological immune system TED Talk: Dan Gilbert (2004) http://www.ted.com/talks/dan_gilbert_asks_why_are_we_happy.html Social Comparison Theory We learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people. We compare ourselves with others who are similar on important attributes or dimensions We compare ourselves to others when there is no objective standard. Downward Social Comparisons can make us feel better Upward Social Comparisons can make us feel worse or they inspire us (sometimes…) Social Identities Social identities are the part of our answer to “Who am I” that comes from our group memberships.” Race, Age, Sex, Job, SES, Height, Weight, Attractiveness, Nationality, Intelligence These are just some of the social categories that we belong to and for which we have relevant social identities. Which is more important our personal or our social identity? The Cultural Self Culture The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. The self is determined in part by the culture that we live in. Who am I? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I am _________________________ I am _________________________ I am _________________________ I am _________________________ I am __________________________ Who am I? A North American would likely answer: I am tall I am good at sports I am outgoing An Asian would likely answer: I am a Kawakami I am a Buddhist I am my father’s daughter North American vs. Japanese Culture – Individualistic – Independence – Context Independent – Analytic Reasoning – Internal Attributions Collectivistic Interdependence Context Dependent Holistic Reasoning External Attributions North American/Western Cultures Individualism Promote the concept of giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications. – Individual traits and goals – Personal achievement and rights – Reject Conformity For example, I am a good student, I am smart, I am good at basketball. A great example is the novel The Giver. North American/Western Cultures mother Independent Selves Self-schema in which others are Self not represented as part of the self Context Independent friend Attend to focal object and not gestalt Analytic Reasoning Emphasis is on the proper use of rules and that contradictory statements cannot be true Internal Attributions Assume behavior of others correspond to their traits father sibling Cultural Attributions • He is the leader. He is a strong swimmer. • The other fish are chasing him. Eastern Cultures Collectivism Promote the concept of giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly. (Not only Asian cultures but also African and South American cultures) Connections with others Group goals and solidarity Reject Egotism For example, I am a sister, I am Jill’s friend Eastern Cultures Interdependent Selves Self-schema in which others are father mother represented as part of the self. Self Context Dependent friend sibling Attend to surroundings and gestalt Holistic Reasoning Emphasis is on considering all possible influences and balancing competing forces External Attributions Assume behavior of others correspond to the situation more than people from a Western culture Cultural Attributions • The other fish are swimming too fast. The other fish don’t like him. • He is slow. He is guarding the rest. Questions? Next Class Class 4: First In-Class Exam Class 5: Attitudes Reading material: Chapter 6: Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts, Feelings, and Behavior, pp. 152-189. Do Web demonstrations of the IAT – https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/ Web demonstrations of the IAT The Implicit Association Test • • • • • • Do this task before you come to class. Go to the website. Under “Or continue as a guest …” select Canada Select “Go to the Demonstration Tests” Follow instructions Do at least 2 tests and make sure one of them is the Race IAT • Write down which test you did and your results for each test