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Spartan Women
Spartan women enjoyed considerably more rights and equality to men than elsewhere in the
classical world. Women from Spartiate families were raised to embrace the same ideals of
service to the state as Spartan men were. They did not serve in the army, although they took a
lively interest in it and its achievements. Spartan women had limited rights. They could own
land and inherit property but they could not vote or hold public office. Their aspirations were
to be physically strong companions for
their military husbands and to breed
strong, healthy boys and raise them to be
brave soldiers and heroes.
Spartan women were unusual in the
amount of freedom they were allowed.
They trained exclusively in athletics and
gymnastics. Unlike elsewhere in Greece,
spinning and weaving were regarded as
activities only fit for slaves. Perfumes,
jewellery and cosmetics were forbidden,
as were fine clothes and elaborate
hairstyles. Spartan women exercised and
danced naked. Their physical exercise
gave them a reputation throughout
Greece for graceful, natural beauty.
A bronze statue of a Spartan woman (sixth century BC)
Spartan Men
Since Spartan men were full-time soldiers, they were not available to carry out manual
labour, instead, Helots (Spartan slaves) were forced to complete all laborious activities, such
as farming. Spartan citizens were refused by law from trade or manufacture, which
consequently rested in the hands of the Perioeci. The Perioeci were the businesspeople and
artisans of ancient Sparta. The Perioeci monopoly on trade and manufacturing in one of the
richest territories of Greece explains in large part the loyalty of the perioikoi to the Spartan
state. Spartiates, on the other hand, were forbidden (in theory) from engaging in menial
labour or trade, although there is evidence of Spartan sculptors, and Spartans were certainly
poets, magistrates, ambassadors, and governors as well as soldiers. The Spartan men
participated in matters relating to the Spartan government.
Spartan Girls
Spartan girls lived at home, not in army barracks. Like boys they were organised into groups
and at times they exercised with them. They participated in most sports, including running,
wrestling, throwing the javelin and discus, and ball games. Boys and girls competed in choral
and dancing competitions.
Spartan Boys
A Spartan boy’s education was directed towards making him a good soldier. At the age of
seven, boys left home and went to live in army barracks. When male Spartans began military
training at age seven, they would enter the Agoge system. The Agoge was designed to
encourage discipline and physical toughness and to emphasise the importance of the Spartan
state. Plutarch wrote that the education of Spartan boys was directed towards three outcomes:
1. To develop the ability to endure hardship and pain
2. To encourage prompt obedience to authority
3. To foster courage and ensure victory in battle
Ritual flogging of Spartan boys was part of their culture. It was a test of endurance and part
of an initiation ceremony into manhood. Spartan boys were flogged if they were caught
stealing, not because it was morally wrong, but because they got caught. The Spartan ethic
was so strong that one boy who was suspected of stealing a fox kept it inside his cloak rather
than admit to stealing it. Legend says he died having his insides torn out by the fox.
Athenian Men
Men of Athens were often involved in many civic duties and spent
a great deal of their time away from home. When not involved in
politics, the men spent time in the fields, overseeing or working the
crops, sailing, hunting, in manufacturing or in trade. When they
were at home, they were treated with great respect.
For fun, in addition to drinking parties, the men enjoyed wrestling,
horseback riding, and the famous Olympic Games. When the men
entertained their male friends, at the popular drinking parties, their
wives and daughters were not allowed to attend.
Men of Athens were prepared for peace and war; every man ages
20 to 50 or more could be “called up” for military service”.
Athenian Girls
Girls stayed at home until they were married. Like their mother,
they could attend certain festivals, funerals, and visit neighbours
for brief periods of time. Their job was to help their mother, and to
help in the fields, if necessary. Girls were trained to be efficient
housewives, a position held in the greatest esteem in Athens.
Athenian Boys
Boys were taught at home by their mothers until they were 6 or 7 years old. In Athens, the
education was left up to the father. Private school masters taught the boys of Athens. A
trusted slave took the Athenian boys from wealthy families to school. The students learned to
write on wax-covered tablets with a stylus. Books were very expensive, so they were rare. At
school, the boys in Athens learned mathematics, how to play musical instruments (the lyre)
and studied the words of Homer (an ancient Greek epic poet). Boys were trained in sports and
the wealthy boys learned to ride horseback. Other sports included wrestling, using a bow and
a sling and swimming. At age 14 boys attended a higher school for four more years. At age
18 boys went to military school. They graduated at age 20.
Athenian Women
Women in most city-states of ancient Greece had very few rights. This includes the women of
Athens. They were under the control and protection of their father, husband, or a male
relative for their entire lives. Athenian women were not citizens and so were not permitted to
take a direct and active role in Athenian political life. Some women, no doubt, could
influence their husbands or male companions but, generally speaking, Athenian women had
no political or legal rights. By law they were considered to be the property of their fathers and
then of their husbands. Generally speaking, an Athenian woman’s world was in the home.
The most important duty of Athenian women was to make life comfortable for men. Inside
the home an Athenian woman cooked, spun, wove cloth, reared children, managed the family
budget, supervised servants and made clothes. Athenian women had little formal education
and only a few women could read.
If Athenian women had their husband's permission, they could attend weddings, funerals,
some religious festivals, and visit female neighbours for brief periods of time. But without
their husband's permission, they could do none of these things. They could not leave the
house, not even go to a temple to honour their gods, without their husband's permission.
Marriage was very important to Athenian women. Usually their families chose their
husbands. Often the bridegroom and bride did not see each other until after the wedding. At
the engagement ceremony a contract was made between the bride’s father and the
bridegroom and a dowry, usually a gift of money, was agreed upon. Most girls were married
at around 12 to 15 years of age to older husbands of around 30 years of age.
Democracy in Athens
Athens was a city-state in which citizens had the most involvement in the government. The
Athenians called their system of government democracy from the two Greek words demos,
meaning people and kratia meaning rule. It is important to realise that involvement in
political life was restricted to citizens; that is, to adult males born in Athens of free parents.
Women, foreign born inhabitants (metics) and slaves were excluded. This meant that, in a
population of about 150,000 people, only about 30,000 could be considered citizens.
Athenian took turns in running the government. A committee organised meetings of the
Assembly, or Ecclesia. Each year the members were chosen by drawing lots. This gave each
citizen the change to assist for a short time, but prevented anyone from becoming too
powerful in the government.
Ostracism was another method use to prevent ambitious men from seizing power. Ostracism
meant that any politician could be sent into exile for 10 years by a vote in the Assembly if he
became a threatening influence.
Committees of citizens chose men to administer or run certain aspects of the government for
short periods of time. They organised matters such as building new city walls or arranging
food and weapons for the army. The Assembly met every nine days. At these meetings,
citizens could speak in debates and vote on whether to pass a decision. A council of 500 dealt
with the day-to-day business of the city-state. These men were elected each year by the
Assembly. Fifty members came from each of the 10 tribes into which the Athenian citizens
were divided. Meetings were held in the Bouleuterion in the Agora.
The Assembly also chose 10 war leaders, or generals to run the army and navy. (In Greek, the
world ‘general’ means admiral.) Generals were allowed to serve for several years to avoid the
disasters that could be created by changing generals too often in the middle of a war. Pericles
served as a war general for 26 years. His oratory, or public speaking skills, helped him to
persuade the Assembly to elect him as general 14 times.
The People’s Courts
Jury courts were formed from the citizens. Citizens drew lots to decide who would be juror.
There were no judges and no professional lawyers. The accused was delivered a summons
(an order to appear at court) to give his own defence. His defence speech might have been
prepared by a professional speech writer.
The development of Athenian democracy was a long and gradual process, basically
beginning with the agrarian reforms of Solon. It reached its peak during the time of Pericles
and the Golden age of Greece.
During Pericles’ term of office, Athens had the following features of democratic government:
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Three leader, archons, with mainly ceremonial function, were elected annually
A constitution which set down the rules of government
All male citizens could propose, debate and vote on legislation
All male citizens could propose, debate and vote on legislation
All male citizens could stand of office
All male citizens could vote for generals or chief magistrates
Public office was held for one year only
All public officials were carefully supervised
The people’s courts had total jurisdiction
Jurors and official were paid
Governing Sparta
Spartan government was a unique combination of monarchy, oligarchy and democracy. It
consisted of:
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Two kinds
The Ephorate (board of give chief public officials or administrators)
The Council of Elders
Assembly of Spartiates (or Assembly of Citizens).
Sparta was the only Greek city-state to have an Ephorate and to be ruled by kings for most of
its history. The Spartans were admired by other Greeks for the clear structure of their
constitution.
After a struggle between the kings and the people, the kings gave up their civil jurisdiction.
By the end of the seventh century BC, the Ephorate had won greate political power. Any
Spartiate could become an ephor. Ephors could:
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Administer civil justice, including arresting and fining a king
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Issue orders to mobilise armies
Control army generals
Command the secret police
Preside over the Council and Assembly
Ephors were elected for only one year. When they became private citizens again, they could
be called to account for any of their actions as ephors.
The Council of Elders also limited the kings’ power. The kings, however, were members of
the Council of Elders. The kings, however, were members of the Council of Elders. The other
28 members had to be over 60 years of age. Their positions were chosen by clapping by the
Assembly of Spartiates. Positions in the Council of Elders were a reward for merit, for
councillors had to be honourable and capable men. Their function was to:
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Offer advice on political decisions
Prepare and deliberate on bills to be presented to the Assembly of Spartiates for
voting
Act as a court of justice for cases of treason
The Spartiate Assembly had the appearance of democracy only for those who were
Spartiates. The Assembly met every month, but members were not allowed to debate. They
generally shouted ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to the Council of Elders’ proposals. There was no counting of
votes – only the mood of the citizens on issues was apparent. The real political power lay in
the hands of the Council of Elders because they determined the issues presented to the
Assembly.
Sparta: A Military State
The Spartans were the descendants of the Dorians – the groups of fierce warriors who had
invaded the Greek mainland c. 1200-1000 BC. The group of Dorians who became known as
the Spartans settles in the rich Eurotas River Valleu in Laconia. Originally they lived in five
villages which united to form the city of Sparta. Sparted annexed its surrounding villages and
eventually the whole of Laconia. Around 740-30 BC, the Spartans, in the search for more
land to feed their increasing population, conquered the neighbouring state of Messenia. They
treated these conquered peoples as helots or slaves.
Once the Spartans took over messenia they face a huge problem. The indigenous tribes in
Lacedaemonia outnumbered the Spartans. The Spartans had three choices:
1. To exterminate the indigenous tribes
2. To intermarry with the indigenous population
3. To create institutions which would allow them to assert their authority over the
conquered tribes
The Spartans decided to adopt the third option. The non-Dorian, indigenous people were
forced to become slaves, or helots. The other Dorian tribes who had settled in the area were
given the status of perioeci, or ‘fringe dwellers’.
Their outlook on life changed about 650 BC, when the helots of Messenia revolted. This
revolt deeply disturbed the Spartans who feared for
their survival. The rebellion was eventually crushed, but the Spartans were determined not to
allowed it to happen again. They restructure their social and political organisation. Sparta
developed in a military camp. Its aim was to produce brave and tough soldiers who could
devote their whole lives to safeguarding the Spartan state, which was under constant threat
from the helots. Sparta developed a reputation of having the finest army in Greece. Spartans
were admired for their courage, tought discipline and obedience to the state. The strength of
Sparta's hoplite forces let the city become the dominant state in Greece.
By the end of the fifth century BC, the Spartans had developed a reputation of austerity
(sterness) and stoicism (the endurance of pain or hardship without a display of feelings and
without complaint). This development was gradual. In early Sparta, Spartans were not much
different in outlook and social organisation from other Greek-speaking people at the time.
They were nethusiastic about poetry and art, enjoyed dancing at religious festivals and
produced a distinctive style of pottery.
Spartiates
To be a full Spartan citizen, or a Spartiate, residents in Laconia had to prove their Spartiate
ancestry, be male, be 30 years old, submit to Spartan education and discipline and be a
member of a military mess. A Spartiate’s duties were to:
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Defend the state against the helots
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Defend the city-state of Sparta
A Spartiate’s life belonged to the state. He lived in a military club, not at home with his
family.
A Code of Honour
Spartiates lived by a high code of honour – courage, loyalty, endurance and obedience to the
state. A Spartiate could lose his citizenship if he breached this code of honour – especially if
he were guilty of cowardice.
The Athenians and the Golden Age of Greece
Unlike Sparta, Athens did not have an established army. All athenian male adults were
expected to be prepared to go to war at any time. The type of contribution an Athenian citizen
made to a war depended on his means. Athenian soldiers, like their Spartan counterpart, were
hopelites. Thei helmets were decorated with horse hair, their breastplates had strips of linen
reinforced with metal discs and their shields were made of a wood covered with bronze. They
carried swords and spears.
The Rise of Athens
The ancient city-state of athens was possibly the most important of the Greek city-states. By
the fifth century BC Athens had emerges as the centre of power in the area known as Attica.
The Athenians developed a rich and powerful way of life which influenced the whole of
Western civilisation. A Greek city-state usually consisted of:
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An acropolis
An agora (marketplace) and people’s homes, below the acorpoli
The countryside around the city
The Acropolis, in Athens, is a steep, rocky hill about 150 metres high and 1.6 kilmetres from
the sea (and the port of Piraeus). This natual fortress helped to protect Athens from pirates
and invaders. By the sixth century BC th Acropolis, with its many beautiful temples, had
become the religious centre of Athens.
The Parthenon was the most important building on the Acropolis. It was dedicated to the
goddess Athena. Other buildings included the Erechtheum (which housed the statues of
Poseidon, Athena and the king Erechtheus) and the Sanctuary of Zeus.
The city of Athens remained small even though the number of people in the city-state was
greater than in most other Greek city-states. Most people lived in the countryside – either on
the coast, in the hills or on the plains – and worked as farmers. Farming was the basis of
Athenian wealth. However, the climate in Attica was dry and the mountainous landform did
not allowe the Athenians to grow enough food for everyone. In particularly, grain had to be
importated. Trade became an essential element in sustaining the Athenians and a significant
factor in contributing towards the Athenians’ material wealth. Before the Perisan Wars,
strong leaders, such as Solon, Peisistratus and Cleisthenes, transformed Athens from a small
agrarian state into a thriving commercial and industrial city.
The Agora
The Agora was an open, tree-lined square in the centre of the city of Athens, below the
Acropolis. The word agora mean ‘gathering place’. The Agora was the focus of Athenian
political, social and commerical life. It was only a day’s walk from the most distant village in
Athens.
All the buildings needed to run the Athenian democracy were located in the Agora. These
included:
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The Bouleuterion, where the Council of 500 met
The Strategeion, or military headquarters
The Tholos, or administrative centre
The law courts
The mint
Produce from the surrounding farms was sold in the Agora’s stoas, or open-side markets.
Olives, graped and figs were the most important crops in ancient Athens. Today, olives are
still an important export industry. In ancient Athens, slaves harvested olives on the wealthier
estates. On the poorer farms the harvest was a family affair. Women and children knocked
the olives to the ground with long sticked while the older boys climbed to reach the fruits
from the high branches. The olives were hten packed into baskets and crushed in a nearby
olive press. To do this, the arm of the press was weighted with stones and swung on. The
crushed oil rain into a big bottling jar and the baskets stopped the pits and skin from going
into the jar and spoling the oil. Wine presses were also very simple. Wokers trod on the
grapes in their bare feets to squeeze out the juice.
The Acropolis in Athens. The Parthenon is the most prominent building on the
Acropolis.