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Levels of Organization:
See figs. 1.3 & 1.4
COHN – 99.5%
99.9% =
Organs and Body System

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Muscular system
Cardiovascular system
Endocrine system
Respiratory system
Skeletal system
Digestive system
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Urinary system
Nervous system
Reproductive system
Immune system
Integumentary system
Lymphatic system
Disciplines of Anatomy

Gross Anatomy: structures studied with
the naked eye.
– Systematic anatomy: organized by systems,
e.g., digestive, nervous, endocrine, etc.
– Regional anatomy: study of all structures in
an area of the body, e.g., upper extremity
bones, muscles, blood vessels, etc.
Disciplines of Anatomy
Gross Anatomy
 Microscopic anatomy (histology)
 Developmental anatomy (embryology)

Pathological anatomy
 Radiologic anatomy (x-ray, CT, MRI)
 Other areas? (surgery)

The Anatomical
Position
‫وضعيت تشريحي‬
 The standard
reference position:

1.3
Sectional Anatomy
3 sectional planes:

transverse ( or cross) section

frontal (or coronal) section

sagittal section (mid- and
para-)
Planes of the Body
Frontal (coronal) (antpost)
 Transverse (horizontal)
(sup-infer)
 Midsagittal (R-L)
 Parasagittal (unequal
R-L)

Body planes and sections
- cut into sections along a flat surface called a plane
(also called coronal)
(also called XS – cross section)
Gross Anatomy Terms

Superior ≠ Inferior

(cranial ≠ caudal)

Anterior ≠ Posterior

(ventral ≠ dorsal)
Medial ≠ lateral
 Proximal ≠ distal
 Superficial ≠ deep

Superior and Inferior


Superior means uppermost,
above or toward the head.
For example, the lungs are
located superior to (above)
the diaphragm.
Inferior means lowermost,
below or toward the feet. For
example, the stomach is
located inferior to (below)
the diaphragm.
Gross Anatomy Terms

Anterior ≠ Posterior

(ventral ≠ dorsal)
Lateral and Medial

Lateral means toward the
side or away from the
midline of the body or
structure.

Medial means pertaining to
the middle or toward the
midline.
Proximal and Distal

Proximal means
near the midline or
the beginning of a
body structure.
 Distal means away
from the midline or
the beginning of a
body structure.
back
Directional Terms
Angular Movement
Figure 8.5b
Angular Movement
Figure 8.5c, d
Angular Movement
Figure 8.5e, f
The turning of aRotation
bone around its own
long axis
 Examples

– Between first two
vertebrae
– Hip and shoulder
joints
Figure 8.5g
Special Movements
Figure 8.6a
Special Movements
Figure 8.6b
Special Movements
Figure 8.6c
Special Movements
Figure 8.6d
Special Movements
Figure 8.6e
Reference Lines (Anterior)
Slide 18-36
Reference Lines (Posterior)
Slide 18-38
aponeurosis

Biceps—anterior compartment, flexion (M-C n.)
 Triceps—posterior compartment, extension (radial n.)
Frolich, Human
Anatomy,UpprLimb
Anterior Compartment Forearm--flexors
Medial Epicondyle
Brachioradialis
Pronator Teres
Flexor Carpi Radialis
Flexor Carpi Ulnaris
Flexor Retinaculum
Anterior View
Flexor Digitorum Superficialis is deep
to other flexors
Frolich, Human
Anatomy,UpprLimb
Posterior Compartment of Forearm--extensors
Lateral Epicondyle
Brachioradialis
Extensor digitorum
Ext Carpi Radialis Longus
Extensor carpi ulnaris
Posterior View
Frolich, Human
Anatomy,UpprLimb
Cartilage



Hyaline Cartilage Translucent- has
collagen fibers that are
not visible with light
microscope. Nose, ends
of bones
Elastic Cartilage Visible elastic fibers,
very flexible. Ear pinna
or auricle
Fibrous Cartilage Bundles of collagen
fibers, very obvious.
Intervertebral disks
Muscular System

Over 600 muscles in
your body
 Control movement
 Voluntary muscles:
you choose to move
them
 Involuntary muscles:
move without you
telling them to
move, ie. heart
Muscles

3 types

Skeletal: attached to
bones to help you
move
 Cardiac: heart
 Smooth: intestines,
bladder, blood
vessels, internal
organs
Classification of Bones
Axial skeleton – bones of the skull,
vertebral column, and rib cage
Appendicular skeleton – bones of the
upper and lower limbs, shoulder, and
hip
Classification of Bones: By Shape
Long bones
– longer
than they
are wide
(e.g.,
humerus)
Figure 6.2a
Classification of Bones: By Shape
Short bones
Cube-shaped
bones of the
wrist and
ankle
Bones that
form within
tendons
(e.g.,
patella)
Figure 6.2b
Classification of Bones: By Shape
Flat bones –
thin,
flattened,
and a bit
curved (e.g.,
sternum,
and most
skull bones)
Figure 6.2c
Classification of Bones: By Shape
Irregular
bones –
bones with
complicated
shapes
(e.g.,
vertebrae
and hip
bones)
Figure 6.2d
Function of Bones
Support – form the framework that supports
the body and cradles soft organs
Protection – provide a protective case for the
brain, spinal cord, and vital organs
Movement – provide levers for muscles
Mineral storage – reservoir for minerals,
especially calcium and phosphorus
Blood cell formation – hematopoiesis occurs
within the marrow cavities of bones
Bone Markings
Bulges, depressions, and holes that
serve as:
Sites of attachment for muscles, ligaments,
and tendons
Joint surfaces
Conduits for blood vessels and nerves
Bone Markings: Projections –
Sites of Muscle and Ligament
Attachment
Tuberosity – rounded projection
Crest – narrow, prominent ridge of
bone
Trochanter – large, blunt, irregular
surface
Line – narrow ridge of bone
Bone Markings: Projections –
Sites of Muscle and Ligament Attachment
Tubercle – small rounded projection
Epicondyle – raised area above a
condyle
Spine – sharp, slender projection
Process – any bony prominence
Bone Markings: Projections –
Projections That Help to Form Joints
Head – bony expansion carried on a
narrow neck
Facet – smooth, nearly flat articular
surface
Condyle – rounded articular projection
Ramus – armlike bar of bone
Bone Markings: Depressions and
Openings
Meatus – canal-like passageway
Sinus – cavity within a bone
Fossa – shallow, basinlike depression
Groove – furrow
Fissure – narrow, slitlike opening
Foramen – round or oval opening
through a bone
Gross Anatomy of Bones: Bone
Textures
Compact bone – dense outer layer
Spongy bone – honeycomb of
trabeculae filled with yellow bone
marrow
Structure of Long Bone
Long bones consist of a diaphysis and
an epiphysis
Diaphysis
Tubular shaft that forms the axis of long
bones
Composed of compact bone that surrounds
the medullary cavity
Yellow bone marrow (fat) is contained in
the medullary cavity
Structure of Long Bone
Epiphyses
Expanded ends of long bones
Exterior is compact bone, and the interior
is spongy bone
Joint surface is covered with articular
(hyaline) cartilage
Epiphyseal line separates the diaphysis
from the epiphyses
Structure of Long Bone
Figure 6.3
Bone Membranes
Periosteum – double-layered protective membrane
Outer fibrous layer is dense regular connective tissue
Inner osteogenic layer is composed of osteoblasts and
osteoclasts
Richly supplied with nerve fibers, blood, and lymphatic
vessels, which enter the bone via nutrient foramina
Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers
Endosteum – delicate membrane covering internal
surfaces of bone
Structure of Short, Irregular,
and Flat Bones
Thin plates of periosteum-covered
compact bone on the outside with
endosteum-covered spongy bone
(diploë) on the inside
Have no diaphysis or epiphyses
Contain bone marrow between the
trabeculae
Structure of a Flat Bone
Figure 6.4
Location of Hematopoietic Tissue
(Red Marrow)
In infants
Found in the medullary cavity and all areas
of spongy bone
In adults
Found in the diploë of flat bones, and the
head of the femur and humerus
Microscopic Structure of Bone:
Compact Bone
Haversian system, or osteon – the structural
unit of compact bone
Lamella – weight-bearing, column-like matrix
tubes composed mainly of collagen
Haversian, or central canal – central channel
containing blood vessels and nerves
Volkmann’s canals – channels lying at right angles
to the central canal, connecting blood and nerve
supply of the periosteum to that of the Haversian
canal
Microscopic Structure of Bone:
Compact Bone
Osteocytes – mature bone cells
Lacunae – small cavities in bone that
contain osteocytes
Canaliculi – hairlike canals that connect
lacunae to each other and the central
canal
Microscopic Structure of Bone:
Compact Bone
Figure 6.6a, b
Chemical Composition of Bone:
Organic
Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells
Osteocytes – mature bone cells
Osteoclasts – large cells that resorb or
break down bone matrix
Osteoid – unmineralized bone matrix
composed of proteoglycans,
glycoproteins, and collagen
Chemical Composition of Bone:
Inorganic
Hydroxyapatites, or mineral salts
Sixty-five percent of bone by mass
Mainly calcium phosphates
Responsible for bone hardness and its
resistance to compression
Bone Development
Osteogenesis and ossification – the
process of bone tissue formation, which
leads to:
The formation of the bony skeleton in
embryos
Bone growth until early adulthood
Bone thickness, remodeling, and repair
Formation of the Bony Skeleton
Begins at week 8 of embryo
development
Intramembranous ossification – bone
develops from a fibrous membrane
Endochondral ossification – bone forms
by replacing hyaline cartilage
Intramembranous Ossification
Formation of most of the flat bones of
the skull and the clavicles
Fibrous connective tissue membranes
are formed by mesenchymal cells