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Transcript
! The!cell!does!3!main!kinds!of!work:! • Mechanical!work:!e.g.!the!flow!of!cytoplasm!within!cells,!movement!of! chromosomes,!brushing!action!of!cilia,!and!contraction!of!muscle!cells! • Transport!work:!e.g.!pumping!of!substance!across!membranes! • Chemical!work:!e.g.!synthesis!of!protein! ! Anatomy*of*the*cell* Cells!are!organised!into!3!main!regions:! • Plasma!membrane! • Nucleus! • Cytoplasm! ! The!Nucleus7!Control!center!of!the!cell!contains!genetic!material!(DNA)! There!are!3!sections!of!the!nucleus:! • Nuclear!membrane! − Barrier!of!the!nucleus! − Consists!of!a!double!phospholipid!membrane! − Contains!nuclear!pores!that!allow!for!exchange!of!material!with!the! rest!of!the!cell! • Nucleolus!! − Nucleus!contains!one!or!more!nucleoli! − Sites!of!ribosome!production:!copies!codes!from!the!nucleus!and! transports!them! − Ribosomes!then!migrate!to!the!cytoplasm!through!nuclear!pores! • Chromatin! − Composed!of!DNA!and!protein! − Scattered!throughout!the!nucleus! − Chromatin!condenses!to!form!chromosomes!when!the!cell!divides! ! Plasma!Membrane! • Double!phospholipid!layer! − Hydrophilic!heads! − Hydrophobic!tails! • Other!materials!in!plasma!membrane:! − Proteins!(Include!receptors!and!pores!responsible!for!controlling!the! entry!and!exit!of!ions! − Cholesterol! − Glycoproteins! • Plasma!membrane!specialisationsL!not!found!in!all!cells! − CiliaL!enable!movement!of!materials!over!cell!surfaces! − MicrovilliL!finger!like!projections!that!increase!surface!area!for! absorption!e.g.!digestion!tract! − FlagellumL!Propels!the!cell!e.g.!sperm! ! ! ! Cytoplasm! Material!outside!the!nucleus!and!inside!the!plasma!membrane! • CytosolL!fluid!that!suspends!other!elements!e.g.!dissolved!nutrients,!ions!and! proteins.! • OrganellesL!metabolic!machinery!of!the!cell! ! Cytoplasmic!Organelles! Ribosomes! • Made!of!protein!and!RNA! • Sites!of!protein!synthesis! • Found!at!2!locations! − Free!in!the!cytoplasm! − Attached!to!rough!endoplasmic!reticulum!! • Ribosomes!=!RNA!+!Proteins! ! Endoplasmic!reticulum!(ER)! • FluidLfilled!tubes!for!carrying!substances! • Involved!in!synthesis!of!secretory!products!(lipids!and!proteins)! • Two!types!of!ER! − Rough!endoplasmic!reticulumL!studded!with!ribosomes!and!site! where!building!materials!of!cellular!membrane!are!formed.! o Packages!and!stores.! − Smooth!endoplasmic!reticulumL!Functions!in!cholesterol!synthesis! and!breakdown,!fat,!metabolism,!and!detoxification!of!drugs! o Modifies!and!makes!new!proteins! ! Golgi!apparatus! • Stores,!modifies!and!packages!proteins!! • Produces!different!types!of!packages! − Secretory!vesicles! − Cell!membrane!components! ! Lysosomes! • Predominately!found!in!white!blood!cells!that!kill!bacteria! • The!enzyme!surrounds!bacteria!and!then!destroys!it.! • Uncontrolled!release!into!the!cytoplasm!may!result!in!cell!death! ! Peroxisomes! • Membranous!sacs!of!oxidase!enzymes! • Detoxify!harmful!substances! • Protecting!cells!from!its!own!hydrogen!peroxide! • White!blood!cells!produce!hydrogen!peroxide!to!kill!bacteria,!peroxisomes! then!break!it!down!into!oxygen!and!water! ! ! Mitochondria! • The!powerhouse!of!the!cell! • Carry!out!reactions!where!oxygen!is!used!to!break!down!foods! • Provides!ATP!for!cellular!energy! ! Cytoskeleton! • Network!of!protein!structures!that!extend!throughout!the!cytoplasm! • Provides!the!cell!with!an!internal!framework! • Also!plays!a!role!in!cell!movement!and!muscle!contraction! • Three!different!types! − Microfilaments! − Intermediate!filaments! − Microtubules! ! Centrioles! • RodLshaped!bodies!made!of!microtubules! • Direct!formation!of!mitotic!spindle!during!cell!division! • Two!make!up!a!centrosome! ! ! Cellular*metabolic*activity* Some!metabolic!pathways!release!energy!by!breaking!down!(catabolism)!complex! molecules!to!simpler!compounds.!E.g.!converting!the!chemical!energy!stored!in! glucose!molecules!into!ATP!for!use!in!cellular!processes!and!activities.! Other!pathways!consume!energy!to!build!complex!molecules!from!simpler!ones! (anabolism).!E.g.!synthesis!of!a!protein!from!amino!acids.! ! Examples!of!a!cell’s!metabolic!activity!include:! • Production!of!hormones! • Production!of!antibodies! • Transmission!of!nerve!impulses! • Cell!division! • Transport!of!substances!e.g.!ions!and!molecules! ! Tissues* Groups!of!cells!with!similar!structure!and!function! Four!primary!types:! • Epithelial!tissues! • Connective!tissues! • Nervous!tissues! • Muscle!tissue! ! Epithelial!Tissues! • Found!in!different!areas! − Body!coverings! − Body!linings! • • − Glandular!tissues! Functions! − Protection! − Absorption! − Filtration! − Secretion! Characteristics! − Cells!fit!closely!together! − Tissue!layer!always!has!one!free!surface! − The!lower!surface!is!bound!by!basement!membrane! − Avascular!(no!blood!supply)! − Regenerate!easily!if!well!nourished! ! Connective!Tissues! • Includes!the!most!abundant!and!widely!distributed!tissues! • Locations:! − Blood!cells! − Fibrosis!tissues! − Adipose!tissues!(fat)! − Cartilage!tissue! − Bone!tissue! • Functions! − Binds!body!tissues!together! − Supports!the!body! − Provides!protection! • Characteristics! − Variations!in!blood!supply! o Some!tissues!are!well!vascularized! o Some!have!poor!blood!supply!or!are!avascular! − Extracellular!matrix,!non!living!material!that!surrounds!living!cells!and! have!two!main!elements! o Ground!substanceL!Mostly!water!along!with!adhesion!proteins! and!polysaccharide!molecules! o Fibers!produced!by!the!cells! ! Collagen!fibers! ! Elastic!fibers! ! Reticular!fibers! ! Muscle!tissue! Three!types:! • Skeletal!muscle! − Can!be!controlled!voluntarily! − Cells!are!striated! − Cells!attach!to!connective!tissue!and!bone! − Cells!have!more!than!one!nucleus! • Cardiac!muscle! • − Found!only!in!the!heart! − Function!to!involuntary!pump!blood! − Cells!attach!to!other!cardiac!muscle!cells!at!intercalated!disks! − Cells!are!striated! − One!nucleus!per!cell! Smooth!muscle! − Involuntary! − Surrounds!hollow!organs!(contracting!out!e.g.!uterus,!digestion)! − Attached!to!other!smooth!muscle!cells! − No!visible!striations! − One!nucleus!per!cell! ! Nervous!Tissue! • Locations:! − Neurons!and!nerve!support! − Brain! − Spinal!cord! − Peripheral!nerves! • Functions:! − Conductivity! − Send!and!receive!impulses! ! Epithelial!tissues!(in!depth)! Consist!of!cells!that!line!all!body!surfaces,!cavities!and!tubes,!al!epithelial!tissues! therefore!have!one!surface!exposed,!and!the!other!surface!attached!to!a!nonL cellular!layer!(basement!membrane).!This!membrane!attaches!the!epithelium!to! underlying!tissues.! Epithelia!are!classified!according!to!two!characteristics:! • The!number!of!cell!layers:!one!layer!=!simple!epithelium.!More!than!one!layer! =!stratified!epithelium! • The!shape!of!the!surface!cells:!Squamous!(flat)!cuboidal!or!columnar!! ! Simple!squamous!epithelium! • Flat,!thin,!irregular!cells!that!form!a!continuous!surface!with!small!pores! between!cells! • Allows!rapid!transport!of!matter!across!epithelium! • Found:!lung!lining,!heart!lining,!kidney!lining,!found!here!because!thinness! allows!absorption!and!excretion! • Nuclei!in!centre,!with!nucleus!inside! ! Simple!cuboidal!epithelium! • Square!and!line!ducts!and!tubules!! • Nucleus!in!centre! ! Simple!columnar!epithelium! • Rectangular,!line!digestive!tract! • • • • Specialised!columnar!cells!=!goblet!cells! Goblet!cells!secrete!mucus!in!the!trachea,!bronchi!and!upper!respiratory!tract! Simple!columnar!ciliated!epithelium! − With!cilia,!found!in!respiratory!system,!nasal!cavity!and!uterus! − Cilia!moves!eggs!along!the!fallopian!tube!in!the!uterus! Ciliated!pseudostratefied!columnar!epithelium! − Actually!a!simple!epithelium!but!because!the!nuclei!are!disposed!at! different!levels!it!looks!stratified! − Usually!ciliated! − Respiratory!tract! ! Connective!tissue!(in!depth)! Basic!tissue!type!that!protects!and!provides!structural!support,!found!in!all!parts!of! the!body.! All!connective!tissues!have!two!main!constituents:!cells!and!extracellular!material! (matrix).!Extracellular!material!determines!physical!properties!! ! Loose!connective!(areolar)! • Acts!to!support!other!tissues!or!as!packing!in!organs! • Diagram:!cross!over!lines! ! Dense!regular!connective!tissue! • Diagram:!wavy!lines! ! Transport!across!cell!membrane! • Simple!diffusion:!water,!oxygen!and!other!molecules!move!from!areas!of!high! concentration!to!areas!of!low!concentration! • Facilitation!diffusion:!Diffusion!that!is!assisted!by!proteins! • Osmosis:!Diffusion!of!water! • Active!transport:!Involves!moving!molecules!“uphill”!against!the! concentration!gradient,!requiring!energy! • Endocytosis:!Taking!substances!into!the!cells! • Exocytosis:!pushing!substances!out!of!the!cell,!such!as!the!removal!of!waste! ! Things!that!can!pass!through!a!membrane:! • Lipid!soluble! • Small!matter! • Things!assisted!by!protein!carriers! ! ! Anatomy*and*Physiology* Anatomy! • Structures!of!the!body! • What!they!are!made!of! • Where!they!are!located! • Associated!structures! Respiratory! Gastrointestinal/! digestive! Renal/!urinary! • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Nasal!cavities! Pharynx! Sinuses! Larynx! Trachea! Bronchi! Lungs! Alveoli! Teeth! Tongue! Pharynx! Oesophagus! Stomach! Intestines! Liver! Gall!bladder! Pancreas! Kidneys! Ureters! Bladder! Urethra! • • distributing!heat! Gas!exchange! Delivers!oxygen!to!the!blood! and!removes!carbon!dioxide! Smell! Vocalisation! • • • • Processes!and!digests!food! Absorbs!nutrients! Absorbs!and!conserves!water! Stores!energy!reserves! • Excretes!waste!products!from! blood! Controls!water!balance! Stores!urine!prior!to!voluntary! elimination! Regulates!blood!ion! concentrations!and!pH! Protects!and!supports!other! tissues! Provides!movements! Generating!heat!to!maintain! body!temp! Bones:!Store!calcium,!site!of! blood!cells!formation! Response!to!stimuli! Transmits,!interprets!sensory! information!from!the! environment! Coordinates!other!body! systems!activities! Defense!against!infection!and! disease! Returns!extracellular!fluids!to! the!bloodstream! • • • • • Musculoskeletal! Nervous! • • • • • • • • • • • Skeletal!muscles! Tendons! Ligaments! Bones! Cartilages! Bone!marrow! Joints! Brain! Peripheral!Nerves! Spinal!cord! Sense!organs! • • • • • • • Immune/! lymphatic! Endocrine! • • • • • • • Lymph!nodes! Spleen! White!blood!cells! Thymus! Lymph!vessels! Tonsils! Hypothalamus! • • • Coordinates!long!term!
