* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Language Analysis_Unger_SS 2010
Sanskrit grammar wikipedia , lookup
Arabic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Georgian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Japanese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Antisymmetry wikipedia , lookup
Lithuanian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Macedonian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Kannada grammar wikipedia , lookup
Preposition and postposition wikipedia , lookup
Modern Hebrew grammar wikipedia , lookup
Scottish Gaelic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Junction Grammar wikipedia , lookup
Swedish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Old English grammar wikipedia , lookup
Lexical semantics wikipedia , lookup
Ancient Greek grammar wikipedia , lookup
Chinese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Italian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Portuguese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Turkish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Malay grammar wikipedia , lookup
Serbo-Croatian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Romanian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Russian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Icelandic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Yiddish grammar wikipedia , lookup
French grammar wikipedia , lookup
Esperanto grammar wikipedia , lookup
Polish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Latin syntax wikipedia , lookup
English clause syntax wikipedia , lookup
Spanish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Unit 1 - About Grammar! Language Analysis Unit 1 - About Grammar Grammar • set of rules that makes one able to communicate and make sense of a string of words • system by which the words an morphemes of a language are organized into large units, particularly into sentences Syntax! ! Morphology!! the study of sentence structure the analysis of word structure derivational morphology!! inflectional morphology! ! study of word formation study of the variation in for of single lexical items for ! grammatical purposes ! ! Phonology! ! Lexicon! ! ! ! deals with the sound system (sounds, stress, intonation) deals with individual items of the vocabulary (words, idioms) The place of grammar in the description of language Phonology! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Grammar! ! - Syntax - Morphology Lexicon morpheme! ! smallest meaning distinguishing elements of language collocation! ! colligation! ! tendency of certain words to occur together, "word partnership" tendency of words to occur in a special grammatical context Form vs. meaning Will you be ok?! ! ! ! Will you be quiet!! ! ! ! Will you have another sandwich?!! question request offer Prescriptive vs. descriptive grammar prescriptive!! ! ! ! prescribes how language should be used, gives certain rules and talks about grammar/language being correct or incorrect descriptive! ! ! ! ! describes how language is used, talks about grammar/language being appropriate or inappropriate, variations are accepted and included SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 1 Unit 1 - About Grammar! Language Analysis Grammar books prescriptive grammar! manual that gives rules how language should be used descriptive grammar! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! approach that describes the grammatical constructions that are used in a language, without making any evaluative judgments about their standing in society traditional grammar! ! ! ! ! range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science pedagogical grammar! book specifically designed for teaching a foreign language theoretical grammar! ! ! ! ! approach that goes beyond the study of individual language, study of linguistic universals reference grammar! ! ! ! ! grammatical description that tries to be as comprehensive as possible, reference book (like a dictionary) for those interested ! in grammatical facts ! ! ! How to find rules for grammar introspection! elicitation! ! corpora! ! examine your own thoughts and ideas get information from someone else analyze a collection of (spoken and written) texts SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 2 Unit 2 - Constituents & Word Categories! Language Analysis Unit 2 - Constituents & Word Categories Ambiguous sentences They chased two dogs in their pyjamas. THey talked about the disaster on the train. Cat carrying basket urgently required. Wanted: modern house with three bedrooms and garage for schoolmaster. Constituents!! • building blocks of syntax • single word or a string of words which are syntactical components in a larger structure constituent structure! internal structure of a sentence, starts at sentence level, ends ! ! ! ! at word level immediate constituent! constituent that immediately make up a construction (phrase, ! ! ! ! clause) Constituency tests substitution!! ! ! ! movement! ! ! ! ! replace a group of words with a single word (e.g. pronoun) Our vicar likes fast cars. - Our vicar likes them. move element to another position within the sentence ! ! ! ! sentence fragment ! ! ! ! ! Our vicar likes fast cars. - It is our vicar who likes fast cars. ask a question about sentence element Who likes fast cars? - Our vicar. Representing constituent structure brackets! ! tree diagrams! [Our vicar] [likes [fast cars]] Classes and functions syntactic class (syntactic category, part of speech) • • • • what are they? categories of words and phrases grammatical properties a constituent shares with other forms noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 3 Unit 2 - Constituents & Word Categories! Language Analysis syntactic function • what do they do? • relation between constiutents • syntactic function role a constituent plays in a construction • subject, object, predicate, adjunct, head, modifier, specifier parsing! examine and describe the grammar of a sentence or a particular word in a ! sentence ! Open vs. closed class words open class • words can be easily added • nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs closed class • new words appear only over a long period of time • prepositions, subordinators, coordinators, determiners Criteria for classification of parts of speech semantic! ! morphological! syntactic! ! meaning, traditional way of classifying words form, how words look position in sentence, how is a word used Nouns Properties semantic! ! • describe objects (physical and abstractions), • people, places, things morphological! • typical suffixes: -ment, -er, -ness, -ation,... • inflectional forms for number (plural/singular) • possessive case (genitive 's) syntactic • used with "the" • function as subjects, objects and heads of noun phrases SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 4 Unit 2 - Constituents & Word Categories! Language Analysis Proper nouns London, Austria, John, Charing Cross Pronouns • are used instead of nouns personal • nominative (subject) case! I, you, he, she, it, we, they • accusative (object) case!! me, you, him, her, it, us, them possessive! ! mine, ours, yours, his, hers, theirs reflexive! herself, himself, themselves, yourself, yourselves ! reciprocal! ! each other, one another demonstrative! this, that (this/that is what causes the problem), these, those interrogative! who, whom, whose, what, which, why (who is it?) relative! ! who, whom, whose, which, that (the man who is over there) indefinite! ! some, any each, one, either, neither, none, all, both, many, much, few, ! ! everyone, everybody, nobody ! Common nouns • inflect genitive! a bird's call • form plural!! regular: hat - hats, house - houses irregular: goose - geese, curriculum - curricula exceptions invariably singular ! only occur in singular (information), look like plural but are not ! ! ! ! invariably plural ! ! zero plural! ! ! (news) only occur in plural (clothes) look as if they are singular but are not (people, police) count vs. mass John would like another beer vs. John likes beer collective nouns • singular noun occurs with plural verb The team has won again (AmE) - The team have won again (BrE) SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 5 Unit 3 - Word Categories! Language Analysis Unit 3 - Word Categories Adjectives Properties semantic • give more information about a noun • refer to qualities or states (shape, taste, size, judgements) morphological • are gradable and inflect for degree in a three-term system ! ! one syll.! absolute! low! ! ! ! two syll.! early! ! ! ! ! wicked! ! three+ syll.! disrespectful!! comparative!! lower! ! ! ! ! earlier!! ! ! more wicked!! ! more disrespectful! ! superlative lowest earliest most wicked most disrespectful • form adverbs with -ly (beautiful → beautifully) • adjectives derived from nouns: -ful, -less, -ly, -y, -ish, -al, -ic, -ese • adjectives derived from verbs: -able, -ible syntactic • as head of an adjective phrase they can be modified (very careful, absolutely fabulous) adjective precedes the noun ! ! the green door • attributive ! adjective used with a linking verb ! the door is green • predicative ! • post-positive! often used in job titles! ! ! the president elected Verbs Properties sematic • denote to actions, processes, states or events • doing words: eat, run, talk • cognitive actions: know, understand • sensory perception: see, smell SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 6 Unit 3 - Word Categories! Language Analysis morphological • suffixes: -ise, -fy • inflection tensed! ! ! ! ! non-tensed! ! ! ! ! locate event or state in time present (3rd person singular, other)! ! hugs/hug past! ! ! ! ! ! ! hugged! accompany tensed verbs, follow a tensed auxiliary ! ! ! ! ! ! infinitive! ! ! ! present participle (-ing form)! past participle (-ed form)! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! hug hugging hugged syntactic • main lexical verbs! • function as head of a verb phrase auxiliary verbs! • are used before the main verb • function as dependents of main verbs • can't occur alone in a verb phrase primary! modal!! be, have, do (aspectual aux., passive aux., dummy aux. do) will/would, can/could, may/might, must, shall/should properties of auxiliaries negation! don't inversion! invert with subject (I will - will I?) code! ! used as a shortcut, (John never sings, but Mary does.) emphasis! I do like grammar used to, need, dare!! sometimes act like auxiliary verbs present participle vs. gerund verb - present participle The have been surfing all day adjective - present participle The surfing gear is packed noun - gerund Surfing is good exercise SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 7 Unit 3 - Word Categories! Language Analysis Adverbs Properties semantic • express a wide range of meaning • manner (fast, how sth is done) • place (here) • time (then) • direction (away) morphological • often formed with -ly syntactic • used to modify verbs and adjectives • adjuncts (circumstantial), modify verb phrase He was driving carelessly. • modifiers (degree), modify adverbs and adjectives pretty meanly (adj), more often (adv) • peripheral dependents (sentence), modify whole sentence/clause Amazingly, no one was hurt. Prepositions Properties semantic • express relationships between things and events morphological • simple: at, behind, by, for, in, like, of, on, through, with, from • complex: by means of, in front of, in spite of syntactic • used before noun phrases • express relationship between two things preposition vs. adverb He came across prep the bridge ! vs.! SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! He came across adv 8 Unit 3 - Word Categories! Language Analysis preposition vs. particle (of phrasal verbs) He turned off prep the main road! vs.! He turned off part the light preposition vs. subordinator They left before prep the speech! vs.! They left before subord the speech began Determiners Properties • tell us what a noun refers to central determiners articles! ! demonstratives! possessives! interrogatives! quantifiers! ! genitive phrases! the book, a/an book this/that book, these/those books her, our, my, John's book which/what book any, some, no, enough, each, neither, much, more, most book(s) the captain's predeterminers all the men, both these books, half his money postdeterminers one, two, three, first, may, several, few, little, a dozen Coordinators Properties • link units of the same category (NP + NP) and, but, or,... Peter went to Paris but his family stayed at home Mary was wearing a new bracelet and a diamond ring Should we come before or after lunch? SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 9 Unit 3 - Word Categories! Language Analysis Properties • link clause to some other element (subordinate) until, as, if, because, although, whereas,... She left the course [because she didn't like it] My teachers are very strict [although they are also very supportive] I wonder [if it will ever change] Preposition vs. Subordinator You have to register before prep May! It's all happened since prep Easter!! SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! vs. ! vs.! You have to register before subord they print it It's all happened since subord Mary was born 10 Unit 4 - Phrases 1! Language Analysis Unit 4 - Phrases 1 Noun phrase • single noun or pronoun • group of words containing a noun or pronoun • functions as subject or object determiner! adjective! noun! ! prep phrase! prep phrase! ! clause specifier! modifier! head! ! complement ! modifier! peripheral dep. The ! ! diligent! students! of Physics! ! with long hair!,! who are revising. head • • • • can have dependents preceding and/or following it decides the agreement on the verb when NP is subject to find head ask: what are we talking about? can't be left out complement vs. modifier complement! ! ! ! modifier! ! ! ! ! close link to the head, often obligatory, depends on noun students (but not children or people) of physics can be left out more easily, does not depend on noun students (children/people) with long hair complex noun phrases! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! offer the possibility to pack a lot of information in them, pre- and postmodified, often used in academic writing The uncertainty of the outcome of the doctor's visit has led to much speculation. Adjective phrase happy quite happy! ! so very happy! happy enough! happy about it! happy to see you! ! ! ! ! ! pre-modifier 2 pre-modifiers post-modifier 2 post-modifiers complement happy that he is here! SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 11 Unit 4 - Phrases 1! Language Analysis Adverb phrase very quickly most reluctantly cleverly for a young child faster than we'd believed they could Prepositional phrase in [China], at [home], over [the wooden bridge] up [above], (they left us) for [dead], from [over the road] a boy [beside his mother [on the sofa [at the back [of the room]]]] Verb phrase verb phrase!! extended VP! verb + dependents verb + dependents + object modal aux! perfect aux! progressive aux! passive aux! main verb may! ! have! ! being! ! been! ! ! interviewed Grammatical categories tense!! aspect! voice!! modality! grammatical category, contrast between present and past how an event is seen by the speaker, inside or outside category of active and passive clauses indicates attitude of the speaker towards the subject he/she is talking about Modality epistemic! likeliness! ! ! possibility! He may be crazy.! ! necessity! He must be crazy.! ! ! ! ! probability ! They should be here soon.! prediction! The weather will be fine.! ! hedging! ! ! deontic! ! permission! ! obligation! ! requirement You may leave. You must leave. weak obligation! willingness! ! You should think of me. Will you help me? reducing the strength of claims to avoid overstating a case, express politeness SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 12 Unit 5 - Phrases 2! Language Analysis Unit 5 - Phrases 2 tense!! time! ! grammatical category, realized in verb inflection semantic category Aspect perfect aspect! ! ! ! ! ! progressive aspect! viewed from the outside, in retrospect, relative to some other situation viewed from the inside, in progress, ongoing at the moment Perfect aspect present perfect ! ! ! ! past perfect!! ! ! ! point of reference is now I have lived in Vienna. point of reference is in the past I had lived in Vienna. Progressive aspect • indicates and/or emphasizes duration • indicates limited duration • indicates that action is not necessarily complete dynamic/event verbs! ! ! ! ! ! ! ←run→! ! ! ! ! stative/state verbs!! durative! punctual! eat, run, swim, change, learn, grow,... nod, kick, blink, stop, drop, knock, arrive,... stretched by progressive Beckham is running on towards an open goal. deserve, owe, possess, prefer, dislike,... ! →work←! ! shortened by progressive ! ! ! He is working for IBM. ! momentary verbs • use with progressive indicates repetition He was nodding. SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 13 Unit 5 - Phrases 2! Language Analysis state verbs of having and being be, belong to, contain, consist of, depend on, have, resemble,... • normally not used with progressive *He is being tall. • used with progressive for temporal actions He is being a fool. verbs of inert cognition believe, forget, hope, imagine, know, suppose, understand,... • normally not used with progressive *I am thinking that they are coming. • used with progressive for temporary assumptions, to express politeness or uncertainty I'm thinking about what you said. verbs of inert perception feel, hear, see, smell, taste,... • normally not used with progressive *I was smelling onions cooking. • used with progressive when referring to work or activity I'm tasting the porridge, to see if it contains enough salt. SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 14 Unit 6 - Phrases 3! Language Analysis Unit 6 - Phrases 3 Past tense • • • • distance yourself from the event refers to past without connection to present finished events in mind of speaker adverbs: in the last century, three months ago, at Easter, on Monday, yesterday distancing effect! temporal! ! social!! ! ! ! ! hypothetical!! Yesterday I worked. politeness, attitude of speaker I wondered if you could help me? If I was famous. historic present! telling jokes ! ! ! This guy comes in, right? Present perfect • refers to past but link to the present (current relevance) • used in newspapers for hot news (Pacific Food Services has filed for bankruptcy) • adverbs: up to now, since 1990, within the last three months state/habit up to the present with state verbs! ! ! ! ! ! with event verbs! ! We have lived in Vienna since last September. (still live there) We lived in Vienna (for 10 years). (no longer live there) I've always walked to work. (repeated events) indefinite past He is a man who has experienced suffering. (in general) He is a man who experienced suffering (in 1988, in his youth). resultative past Peter has injured his ankle. (still injured) Peter injured his ankle. (okay now) SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 15 Unit 6 - Phrases 3! Language Analysis Present perfect vs. past simple It was a great summer. (summer has already passed) It has been a great summer. (summer still going on) Present perfect simple vs. progressive I have spoken to Kevin. (short) I have been speaking to Kevin. (long, difficult) Future reference • no future time in English • use of other means to express future will + infinitive (future simple) internal factors! ! ! ! external factors! spontaneous decision, willingness Could I borrow that video? - Sure I will bring it tomorrow. prediction ! You will feel better after this medicine. ! ! will + progressive (future progressive) This time next week we will be lying on the beach. (ongoing activity/state in future) We will be discussing "syntactic functions" next week. (matter of course) When will you be paying the €200 you owe me? (politeness) be going to + infinitive internal factors! ! ! ! external factors! intention I am going to get a new job. prediction based on present evidence ! She is going to have a baby. ! ! present progressive I am getting a new job. (arrangement) present simple Our flight is at 19.15 local time. (time tables) SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 16 Unit 6 - Phrases 3! Language Analysis other ways of referring to the future The new play is to be staged at the Dominion Theatre next week. (formal written language) I am about to hypnotize you. (result of plan) By the age of 20 you will have watched 700k TV commercials. (past in the future) Last time we met, your wife was going to learn Japanese. (future in the past) So what are you going to do when you get back? (future reference in subordinate clauses) Reporting direct speech! ! use of quoting verbs (quotatives) ! ! ! indirect speech! ! ! Mary (says): "Why do they always have to pick on me?" use of reporting verb and change of time/tense (backshift) ! ! present → past → past perfect ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! free indirect speech! SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! if utterance still true at the time of reporting, no backshift Agnes asked why they always had to pick on her. Why did they always have to pick on her? 17 Unit 7 - Syntactic functions! Language Analysis Unit 7 - Syntactic functions Subject • • • • the doer of an action what or who is the sentence about usually the first element in a declarative sentence typically a noun phrase • subject moves to the second position in a question • determines the form of the verb (plural, singular) light subject constraint! English prefers short subjects Inside the predicate • predicate tells us what the subject does, aways a verb phrase predicate ! verb + object predicator! just the verb, small verb phrase complementation object!! ! ! ! ! complement! ! ! ! sth happens to the object Mary contacted a police officer.! denotes characteristic, can't become subject Mary was a police officer. Object direct object (Od)! ! patient, goal, directly affected ! ! ! ! indirect object (Oi)!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! My sister found this book. recipient, beneficiary, receives sth can't occur without a following direct object I gave Mary a cheesecake. Complement subject complement! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! object complement! ! ! ! ! SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! tells sth about the subject Mary is pretty. ! ! (attributive) Mrs Jones is the culprit. ! (identifying, can be reversed) tells sth about the object He considered John a fool. (Who is a fool?) 18 Unit 7 - Syntactic functions! copulative verb! ! ! ! ! ! Language Analysis link subjects to subject complements forms of to be, feel, seem patterns of complementation Structural pattern! Example! S - V! ! ! S - V - Od! ! S - V - Oi - Od! S - V - Sc! ! S - V - Oi - Oc! ! ! ! Transitivity type! Valecy type Mary stumbled! ! ! Mary sipped a martini! ! Mary gave her guests a martini! Mary seems drunk! ! ! intransitive! ! mono transitive! ditransitive! ! copulative! ! monovalent divalent trivalent divalent Mary made them drunk! complex transitive! trivalent ! Adjuncts • • • • moveable, not necessary give information about why, where, when, how typically adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, noun phrases or clauses David gave blood last week. Clause types (mood) declarative! ! ! ! ! indicative, unmarked, statement He is serious. interrogative! ! ! ! ! ! ! indicative, marked by auxiliary verb Is he serious? ! ! ! closed (yes/no) Where do you come from? ! open (wh-questions) imperative! ! ! ! ! lack a subject, orders Be serious! exclamative!! ! ! ! ! ! ! indicative, exclamation How serious he is! What great big teeth you have! SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 19 Unit 8 - Clauses 1! Language Analysis Unit 8 - Clauses 1 Clause vs. sentence • sentence as expression of complete thought (traditional understanding) I shut the door as it was cold. (two thoughts) EXIT (complete thought but no sentence) • sentence begins with capital letter and ends with a full stop what about spoken language? • therefore we work with clauses instead of sentences Clause! ! • built around a lexical verb • if more than one lexical verb therefore more than one clause • can stand on its own as a full sentence • can be part of a sentence one clause! Jill seems quite friendly. two clauses! I think, Jill seems quite friendly. two clauses! Jill seems quite friendly, but her husband is extremely shy. Subordination vs. coordination main clauses! ! ! ! ! ! subordinate clauses! ! ! ! ! coordinate clause!! can stand on their own John lives in Vienna. (simple sentence) are embedded and dependent on other clauses I know (that) John lives in Vienna. (complex sentence) two main clauses linked together, independent ! John lives in Vienna but he is from Mali. (compound sentence) ! ! ! sentence types simple! complex! one main clause more than one clause, main clause + dependents compound! more than one clause, main clause + main clause matrix clause! subordinate!! superordinate! main clause in a complex or compound sentence embedded in other clause, tend to contain less important info containing a sentence relative clause! is subordinate but not necessarily embedded SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 20 Unit 8 - Clauses 1! Language Analysis Types of subordinate clauses finite! ! carry tense ! ! non-finite! ! ! ! ! ! ! John thought that she believed the story. don't carry tense infinitive! David loves to play the piano. ! ! We made David play the piano. -ed clause! Written in 1864, the book soon became a classic. ! ! -ing clause! Leaving home can be very traumatic. ! ! catenative verbs! only take non-finite complement, verbs are chained together ! ! ! She seems to want to stop trying avoid meeting him. only taking -ing clauses! ! ! ! ! ! ! only taking to-infinitive! ! ! ! ! ! ! allowing both! ! enjoy, dislike, avoid, admit,... He enjoyed watching her all the time. afford, attempt, decide, hope, manage, want,... I want to break free. ! ! ! ! ! little/no meaning difference! begin, start, love, prefer,... ! ! ! ! ! Mary began dancing/to dance. meaning difference!! forget, remember, stop, regret, go on,... ! ! ! ! I won't forget meeting you. (already happened) ! ! ! ! I won't forget to meet you. (not yet happened) ! ! ! ! ! ! factual vs. theoretical meaning factual! ! ! theoretical! ! ! ! ! ! ! expressed with -ing It's nice being young. expressed with to + infinitive It's nice to be young. SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 21 Unit 9 - Clauses 2! Language Analysis Unit 9 - Clauses 2 Finite subordinate clauses • • • • noun clause (subject, object, complement) adverbial clause (adjunct) relative clause (modifier) comparative clause (degree modifier) Noun clause • introduced by "that" or a wh-word • "that" can be omitted in casual language that-clause I noticed (that) he spoke English with an Australian accent. (object) That he had done it was obvious. (subject) My assumption is that interest rates will soon fall. (complement) We are angry that the swimmer has tested positive. (complement in adjective phrase) Our belief that John is involved has been confirmed. (complement in noun phrase) wh-clause I can't imagine what they want with your address. (object) How the book will sell depends on the reviewers. (subject) The problem is who will water my plants when I'm away. (subject) declarative that-clause I believe that John is back from London. interrogative wh-clause I'd like to know why my friends are involved.! (open) I asked whether she was unwell.! ! ! (closed) exclamative wh-clause I know what a genius she is. subjunctive He demands that you be there. SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 22 Unit 9 - Clauses 2! Language Analysis Adverbial clause time! ! ! reason! ! concession! ! place!! ! We left after the speeches ended. She has a hangover because she got drunk last night. Although John studied hard, he still failed the exam. He travels wherever he wants. purpose! condition! result Go to bed early so that you'll be fresh for your interview tomorrow. If you don't like grammar, I'll be very upset ! ! Conditionals factual conditionals ! ! ! ! ! present + present! ! generally true, relationship between two events, generalization, academic writing If I wash the dishes, he dries them. past + past! ! If it rained, we went by bus. ! predictive conditionals ! likely, used in informal conversation present + present modal! If I see Mary, I will tell her. hypothetical conditionals ! ! ! ! ! ! past + past modal! ! ! unlikely, yet possible, used to present wishes, imaginary events If I got the job, I would move to London. counterfactual conditionals ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! past perfect + past perfect modal!! impossible, regret, imaginary event that never happened If I had called John earlier, he would have helped. Use of if-clauses • to fulfill the end-weight-principle • interpersonal function • inversion • politeness Relative clause • subordinate clause post modifying the noun • introduced by relative pronoun SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 23 Unit 9 - Clauses 2! Language Analysis which/who(m) That child who is standing over there seems to have lost her mummy. Any child which is left alone will soon feel bored and lonely. that Where is the girl that/who sells the tickets? The craziest thing that has ever happened to me was when I was in London. This is Loma, who/that sells the tickets. (non-defining relative clause) zero ("that" omitted) This is the man I met. This is the man I gave a book to. whose (possessive relative) Have you ever lived in a house whose roof was leaking? Have you ever lived in a house the roof of which was leaking? whom/who The woman who/whom I marry will have a good sense of humor. ("whom" is formal) Where is the person to whom you talked? (formal) Where is the person who you talked to? (common in today's English) Restrictive (defining) vs. Non-restrictive (non-defining) relative clause defining! ! non-defining! My sister who lives in London is a musician. (defines person) My sister, who lives in London, is a musician. (gives extra info) Reduced relative clause The man who is writing the report is my friend. The man writing the report is my friend. Sentential relative clause She is very shy, which I think is a great pity. (refers to whole sentence) Nominal relative clause I know who is replacing you. (...the person who is replacing you) SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 24 Unit 9 - Clauses 2! Language Analysis Comparative Clause • subclause of adverbial or adjective clause He performed worse than you did. (modifies adverb "worse") She is as tall as we had anticipated. (modifies adjective "tall") SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 25 Unit 10 - Beyond the Clause 1! Language Analysis Unit 10 - Beyond the Clause 1 unmarked/canonical word order SVOCA (subject - verb - object - complement - adjunct) Information Packaging end-focus/given-before-new principle • important info comes at the end of a sentence • old information preceding new information helps to understand the new one end-weight principle • long constituents tend to occur at the end of a sentence • new info needs to be explained, therefore longer units topic-comment principle (theme-rheme) • topic: what a sentence is about, given info, occurs at the beginning of a sentence • comment: what is said about the topic, occurs at the end of a sentence thematic system • a set of variants (word order variation) with the same meaning cohesion • formal link between sentences Passive Voice • expressed by verb phrases • changes the word order • distribute info in a coherent way • move constituent into topic position use • given before new • topic comment • omission of agent • avoidance of first-person pronouns (academic writing) • allocation of different semantic roles SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 26 Unit 10 - Beyond the Clause 1! Language Analysis omission of agent • agent is obvious (Joe has been taken to hospital.) • agent not known (Diving gear stolen) • agent not important (The book was published in 1933) • agent given in previous clause adjectival passive The vase was already broken. verbal passive The vase was broken by Tim. get-passive He got married. mediopassive This book reads well. SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 27 Unit 11 - Beyond the Clause 2! Language Analysis Unit 11 - Beyond the Clause 2 existential „there“ • • • • • „there“ as dummy pronoun doesnʻt have a meaning moves the information to the end prepares listener for the information coming isnʻt stressed use • • • • to introduce new information with indefinite subject („a“ dog) at the beginning of stories academic writing example A dog is in the garden. There is a dog in the garden. indirect object shift • also called dative movement • indirect object shifts to the right example John gave Mary the key. John gave the key to Mary. it-extraposition • anticipatory/dummy „it“ inserted in subject position • very common in English (light subject constraint. end-focus principle) use • in that-clauses, wh-clauses, ing-clauses • to form impersonal constructions SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 28 Unit 11 - Beyond the Clause 2! Language Analysis example That John went to Paris is surprising. It is surprising that John went to Paris. It is claimed that security measures are not tight enough. raising (of subject) • variation of it-extraposition • way of moving sth in subject position • more personal than it-extraposition use • with expressions of difficulty/ease example It is a pleasure to teach her. She is a pleasure to teach. extraposition from noun phrase/discontinuous noun phrase • move part of the noun phrase to the end • head of noun phrase stays at the beginning, complement moves to end example The time to decorate the house for Christmas had come. The time had come to decorate the house for Christmas. inversion • subject-verb inversion • subject and verb swap places • puts important info at the end • formal, poetic style use • in literature for stylistic purposes • in reporting clauses (...said the child) • with fronted adjuncts SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 29 Unit 11 - Beyond the Clause 2! Language Analysis example Especially remarkable was her oval face. On the horizon is a field overgrown with nettles. subject-auxiliary inversion • puts emphasis on first part of sentence use • with restrictive/negative adjuncts • only used in written language example Never before has a government shown such incompetence. Rarely do we see so much neglect of young children. subject-complement switch • used with identified subjects • depending on the focus of the sentence example Monet is the best known of the French Impressionists. The best known of the French Impressionists is Monet. cleft constructions • used to apply focus strategies • add extra emphasis to new info • info of one clause is split up into two clauses it-cleft • info in subordinate clause given or less important • used to highlight particular element It was a broken window that caused the trouble. SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 30 Unit 11 - Beyond the Clause 2! Language Analysis wh-cleft • starts with a wh-word • not very informative • mostly given information • used in spoken language What caused the trouble was a broken window. reversed wh-cleft • subject-complement switch • focused element often from preceding text • used as a cohesive link A broken window was what caused the trouble Fronting • puts element at the beginning of a sentence in pre-subject position • makes fronted element the topic use • in formal literary style • in certain dialects • often with subject-verb inversion example Naughty children he canʻt stand. Selfish he is not. Left/right dislocation • „it“ goes in normal position of original element Left dislocation • used to announce topic • give spontaneous reaction Racial prejudice, I donʻt like it. My sister, she is going to Taiwan. SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 31 Unit 11 - Beyond the Clause 2! Language Analysis Right dislocation • used to clarify referent of pronoun • in informal speech • I donʻt like it, racial prejudice. • Sheʻs going to Taiwan, my sister. SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 32 Unit 12 - Grammar and Text! Language Analysis Unit 12 - Grammar and Text text level → sentence level → clause level → phrase level → word level What is a text? • piece of language in actual use • written or spoken • produced for communicative purpose Cohesion • links texts together • gives texts texture • internal property • objective Information packaging • given-before-new principle • end-weight principle • topic-comment principle Thematic progression • topic is introduced, focus of one sentence becomes topic of next sentence • two topics introduced at a time • one topic after the other Pronoun reference anaphoric reference (pointing back) Look at the sun. Itʻs going down quickly. cataphoric reference (pointing forward) Itʻs going down quickly, the sun. Substitution • by use of pro-forms, that refers to a similar but different entity I offered him a seat. He said he didnʻt want one. [a seat] Did Mary take that letter? She might have done. [taken that letter] Do you need a lift? If so, wait for me. [you need a lift] SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 33 Unit 12 - Grammar and Text! Language Analysis She chose the roast duck; I chose the same [the roast duck] Ellipsis • all mention of the original item is omitted the second time A: Would you like to come to Paris with me? B: Iʻd love to! [come to Paris with you] Logical connectors • link together separate sentences additive: and, besides, furthermore, in addition,... adversative: but, however, nevertheless, despite,... causal: for, consequently, as a result,... temporal: while, previously, subsequently, after that,.... Lexical cohesion • repetition of the same words - pineapple ... pineapple • use of (near) synonyms - pineapple ... the luscious fruit • use of antonyms - day ... night Semantic field • use of field specific vocabulary apples, pips, fireproof dish, tablespoon, preheated oven,... Coherence • text has to make sense • underlying functional connectedness of a text • how clauses relate to each other Situational coherence • take into account the context of a text, texts are always embedded Context • who is talking • where does it take place • what is it about SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 34 Unit 12 - Grammar and Text! Language Analysis Register • variety of language defined according to the characteristics of the situation in which it is used Field • what is it about • topic or subject-matter of the text • field specific vocabulary used Mode • medium in which language is transmitted and received • effects on linguistic choices • spoken vs. written language spoken: incomplete utterances, little subordination, simple syntax, hesitation, fillers, discourse markers written: complete/complex sentences, large sets of connectors, complex phrases, heavily modified NP Tenor • relationship between the participants • social roles of participants • degree of formality formal: explicitness, complete/complex sentences, polysyllabic lexis informal: reduction, compounds, simple sentences, shorter phrases, colloquial monosyllabic lexis SS 2010 - Dr. Johann Unger! 35