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Earth Science Notes
Chapter 1- Introduction to Earth Science
I. What is Earth Science
A. Branches of Earth Science- 4 different divisions
B. Geology- study origins, history, structure of Earth, and processes that shape the surface
C. Astronomy- study radiations from space, and celestial objects
D. Meteorology- study Earth’s atmosphere
E. Oceanography- study oceans and all associated areas
II. Origin of the Earth
A. Solar System- the sun and the planets, moons, and other objects orbiting it
B. Scientific Method- used to solve problems in science
1. hypothesis- educated or informed guess on why something occurs
C. Protoplanet Hypothesis’s Evidence
1. history- proposed by the German Von Weizsacher; not accepted right away; modified by
Kuiper
2. all planets orbit the sun in the same direction (clockwise)
3. the Sun and planets spin on their axis in the same direction
4. all planets are on the same level (plane of the ecliptic) except Pluto
5. most have moons
6. all orbits are nearly circular except Pluto
D. Protoplanet or Nebular Hypothesis- idea that attempts to explain the creation of the solar
system
1. big bang- 15 billion years ago; formed cloud- 80% hydrogen, 15% helium, 5% other
2. cloud contracted + as it got smaller, it began to spin faster; flattened out into a disk
3. mass gathered to the center eventually becomes the sun; gathers more and more material
4. smaller masses gather more dust and material and become the planets and moons
E. Origin of Oceans- outgassing
1. gas from w/i the Earth comes out through cracks in the surface; condense, form oceans
F. Origin of the Atmosphere- gases slowly form the atmosphere
1. 78% Nitrogen; 21% Oxygen; 1% other gases (Argon, Carbon Dioxide, Helium, etc.)
G. Solid Earth= 12,,740 km in diameter
H. Continents- after oceans come, the higher lands on Earth become the continents
Chapter 2- Earth’s Shape, Dimensions, & Internal Heat
I. Earth’s Shape & Size
A. Spherical
B. not a perfect sphere; called an oblate spheroid; flattens at the poles + bulges at the equator
1. weight proves the theory- small variations on different points on the Earth’s surface
2. Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation= m1m2/r2
C. Measuring Earth’s Circumference
1. same method in use today as Eratosthenes used
2. Eratosthenes used a well and an obelisk, and measured their shadow’s angles
D. Dimensions of the Earth
II. Earth’s Temperature and Density
A. Density- definition
1. equation: D=m/v
2. measured in g/cm3
3. uses the mass of an object, not the weight
B. Earth’s Average Density= 5.5 g/cm3
1. crustal rocks: D= 2.8 g/cm3
2. interior very dense (Nickel + Iron); D= 8 g/cm3
C. Temperature Below the Surface
1. critical depth= 20 m
D. What makes the Crust Hot?
1. radioactive materials; internal heat; the sun’s rays being absorbed
Chapter 7- Using Maps
I. Map Projections, Location, Scales
A. Map Projections
1. Mercator Projection- straight lines of latitude + longitude; distorted
2. Gnomic- correctly shows the shortest distance b/w 2 points
3. Polycanic- most accurate; used in topographic maps
B. Latitude + Longitude
1. latitude- east-west; parallels equator; 360; each degree divided into 60 minutes; 1 minute=
1.85 km; 1.15 statute miles; 1.0 nautical miles
2. longitude- north-south; Prime Meridian- 0; not straight or equally spaced; lines meet at
poles
C. Great Circles- lines that divide Earth exactly in half
1. Equator- only line of latitude that is a great circle
2. Prime Meridian + 180 Meridian and all other lines of longitude and their counterparts
make great circles
D. Scale
1. scale- the ratio of distance on the map to distance on Earth
II. Parts of a Topographic Map
A. contours- show how steep land is
1. contour line- connect points of the same elevation above sea level
2. contour interval- height between contour lines
a. mountains- interval, 50, 100, 200 feet
b. Long Island- 5, 10 feet
c. standard- 20 feet
d. every 5th line is darkened, known as index contour
B. depression contours- where land goes down inside a normal contour line; denoted by
lines extending from inside the contour
C. Bench Marks, Spot Elevations
1. Bench Mark (BM)- point where exact elevation is known and is so noted by a brass or
silver plate permanently set into the ground
2. Spot Elevation- point of interest
3. survey points- point whose exact elevation we know
D. USGS (United States Geological Survey)- produce topographic maps of US; produced in:
1. quadrangles- group of four regions divided by parallels + Meridians
III. Reading a Topographic Map
A. Directions given by lat. + long. on compass symbol
1. Magnetic Declination- angle b/w true north and magnetic north
B. Landforms
1. closed circles- top of hill; contour lines bend upstream w/ rivers
C. Average Slope (gradient)
1. gradient- how much a hill drops over a certain distance; expressed in ??????
Chapter 3- Atoms to Minerals
I. Atomic Structure of Matter
A. What is Matter?
1. Democratus- proposed all matter was made of atoms
2. Dalton proposed the same theory years later (1766-1814)
3. matter- anything that has mass and volume
a. weight can change, mass cannot
B. Elements and Atoms
1. element- made of atoms
2. protons (p+); neutrons, heaviest; electrons (e-), lightest: 1/1836 mass of a proton
C. Model of an Atom
1. compound- two or more elements chemically combine w/ a fixed ratio
2. nucleus, electron cloud revolving around it
3. homogenous substance- elements distributed evenly
4. heterogeneous- elements distributed unevenly
D. Examples of Atomic Structure
1. hydrogen- simplest= 1 proton, 0 neutrons, 1 electron
2. helium- 2 protons, 2 neutrons, 2 electrons
3. lithium- 3 protons, 7 neutrons, 3 electrons
4. electron energy levels (orbitals- s,p,d,f)
E. Atomic Number & Mass Number
1. atomic number- number of protons
2. mass number- number of protons + neutrons
3. elements listed on the periodic table
F. Isotopes
1. isotope- atoms of the same element w/ different mass numbers
2. examples- hydrogen, hydrogen w/ mass # of 2= deuterium + hydrogen w/ mass # of 3=
tritium; carbon (Carbon w/ mass number of 12= normal; w/ mass # 14= used in carbon dating
G. Compounds
1. compounds- a substance that is made up of two or more elements that are chemically
combined; combined in a fixed ratio of elements (H2O)
2. molecules- smallest particle of the compound w/ same characteristics as the compound
3. properties not necessarily the same as the original elements that make it up
II. Chemical Composition of Minerals
A. What Is a Mineral?
1. has to be naturally occuring
2. has to be solid
3. has to have a definite composition- any sample must be composed of the same materials
4. has to have atoms arranged in orderly patterns- follow definite patterns
5. has to be inorganic- since carbon comes from plants, minerals can’t have carbon in them
B. Minerals May be Elements or Compounds
1. 8 different elements make up 98% of the mass of Earth’s crust
2. native minerals- minerals composed of single elements (ex: gold, silver, copper, sulfur)
a. most minerals are compounds
3. silicon & oxygen:
Element
Percent by Mass
Percent by Volume
a. Silicon (Si)
28%
less than 1%
b. Oxygen (O)
47%
94%
C. Ionic Bonds in Minerals
1. ion- positive or negatively charged atom
a. cation- positively charged ion
b. anion- negatively charged ion
2. ionic bond- the force of attraction b/w the oppositely charged ions that hold them together
a. ex: Na- & Cl+ (Sodium & Chlorine)
3. Metals and Nonmetals
a. metals- elements that lose electrons easily and form positive ions
b. nonmetals- elements that gain electrons easily and form negative ions
D. Covalent Bonds
1. covalent bond- the kind of attachment where electrons are shared by atoms
2. most occur b/w metals or b/w nonmetals, unlike ionic bonds in which there is one metal and
one nonmetal bonding
3. example: water= two atoms of hydrogen + one of oxygen; share electrons
4. noble gases- elements that do not readily lose, gain, or share electrons, and form a limited
number of compounds
a. this is b/c they exist naturally in the stable state; have enough electrons to fill their outer
energy levels
E. Formation of Minerals
1. some form from molten rock (magma or lava)
2. others form when water containing dissolved ions evaporate; also from metamorphosis and
chemical action
III. Crystalline Structure
A. Minerals Have Crystalline Structure
1. Crystalline - a substance that has its atoms in a regular orderly arrangement
2. crystal- regular geometric solid w/ smooth surfaces called crystal faces
B. Silica Tetrahedron
1. silica tetrahedron- oxygen + silicon= silicates; SiO4; this pattern is found in many minerals
C. Crystals and Physical Properties
1. a mineral’s state of matter is always solid b/c of the close packing of its ions and atoms
2. hardness- depends on the arrangement of its ions or atoms and the strength of the electric
forces among them
3. cleavage- its tendency to split or separate along flat surfaces
4. density= mass over volume
a. ex: graphite (loosely packed)= 2.3 g/cm3; diamond (densely packed)= 3.5 g/cm3
Chapter 4- How to Know Minerals
I. Identifying Minerals
A. Rock-forming Minerals
1. rock-forming mineral- the common minerals that make up most of the rocks in earth’s crust
a. ex: quartz, feldspar, mica
2. some rare minerals include Au (gold), Ag (silver), and diamond
3. mineralogy- the study of minerals and their properties
B. Identification by Inspection
1. color- worst way to identify mineral b/c there are different minerals w/ the same color &
some minerals can be different colors
2. luster- how a mineral looks w/ light shining on it (bright, dull; metallic, nonmetallic)
3. crystal shape- can see what pattern the ions are in to identify mineral
C. Identification by Simple Tests
1. streak- streak a mineral across white tile, and see what color it leaves on the tile
a. certain minerals leave certain, noticeable streaks on the tile
2. cleavage- you can see where cleavage plains meet; tell what mineral it is by the cleavage
plains; certain minerals have distinct cleavage plains
3. hardness- how resistant a mineral is to being scratched; you can use Moh’s scale of hardness
a. Moh’s scale of hardness- 1 to 10 w/ 10 being the hardest
D. Specific Gravity
1. specific gravity- the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of an equal volume of
water (how dense a mineral is)
a. nearly all minerals are denser than water; which means their specific gravity is more than 1
2. specific gravity is found by dividing the weight of the sample in air by the loss of weight in
water
3. ex: if a specimen weighs 50 newtons in air and 30 newtons in water, you divide 50 by 20 and
get 2.5, or 2.5 times as heavy as an equal volume of water
E. The Acid Test
1. some minerals, such as calcite react to minerals; hydrochloric acid is used
F. Special Properties of Minerals
1. taste- the mineral halite (rock salt) can be identified by taste
2. fluorescence- the state of glowing while under ultraviolet light
3. phosphorescence- some minerals glow after light is turned off
4. double refraction-when rays of light are bent, so two images can be seen
II. Description of Rock-forming Minerals
A. Silicates- from Silica Tetrahedrons
1. quartz (SiO2)- 2nd most common family of minerals; no cleavage or fracture
2. feldspar- most common family- 60% of Earth’s crust; 2 main types, orthoclase + plagioclase
a. two directions of cleavage; 90%
3. mica- 1 perfect cleavage; 2 types- black (biotite) and brown (muscovite)
4. amphiboles- family of complex silicates; oblique cleavage; most common type- hornblende,
which is a ferromagnesian silicate (have silicon, but also iron + magnesium)
5. pyroxenes- augite, most common
6. olivine- green color
7. garnets- very hard, various colors
8. kaolinite or kaolin- principal mineral in clay and shale
B. Carbonate Minerals: Calcite & Dolomite
1. carbonates have a polyatomic ion (-CO32-)
2. calcite- three perfect cleavages; the cleavages break them into rhombs
a. Iceland Spar- colorless transparent calcite
3. dolomite- usually occurs as fine grains in limestones + marbles
C. Iron Oxides & Sulfides
1. oxides and sulfides- iron combines w/ oxygen and sulfur respectively to form these
2. hermatite- most common iron oxide; most is red
3. magnetite- magnetic iron oxide; lodestone- highly magnetic variety of magnetite
4. pyrite- iron sulfide; called fool’s gold b/c of it’s golden-yellow color
Chapter 5- How Earth’s Rock Were Formed
I. Igneous Rocks
A. Uniformity of Process
1. James Hutton- proposed the theory of uniformitarianism
2. under this theory, the processes that affect Earth’s surface now were occuring in the past
3. all of these processes are gradual
4. before this theory, most geologists thought that all of the physical features of Earth were
formed by sudden spectacular events, or catastrophes
B. The Three Groups of Rocks
1. rock- a groups of minerals bound together in some way
2. igneous rock- rocks that are formed by the cooling of molten rock w/in the Earth (magma)
3. sedimentary rock- rocks that form by the hardening or cementing of layers of sediments
4. metamorphic rock- rocks that are changed by heat and pressure
C. Igneous Rocks
1. 2 types: intrusive (plutonic)- cooled below the surface and extrusive (volcanic)- cooled above
2. magma: 2 types- felsic and mafic
a. felsic magma- light in color; very high silica content; doesn’t flow easily
b. mafic magma- dark in color, make up dark minerals; low silica content; flows easily
3. textures- depends on size, shape, and arrangement of mineral crystals
a. size depends on rate of cooling; faster it cools, the smaller the crystals
b. porphyritic- rock that has both large and small crystals; b/c it has some high coolingtemperature minerals in it & some low cooling-temperature minerals
D. Families of Igneous Rocks
1. granite family- felsic; rocks are made of feldspar & quartz
2. gabbro family- mafic; rocks are made of feldspar, mica, hornblende
3. diorite family- composition and color in b/w gabbro and granite
E. Common Igneous Rocks
1. granite family:
a. granite- most common continental igneous rock; plutonic
b. rhyolite- a felsic, fine-grained rock; light gray to pink rock
c. obsidian- a volcanic glass of the granite family; has conchoidal, or shell-like, rock
d. pumice- formed from felsic lava that hardened while steam were still bubbling on it
2. gabbro family:
a. gabbro- about the same composition as basalt; coarse-grained
b. diabase- extremely similar to gabbro; texture is finer than gabbro, but coarser then basalt
c. scoria- like pumice, full of holes; made of denser minerals
II. Sedimentary Rocks
A. Kinds of Sediments
1. clastic sedimentary rocks- rocks that are formed from fragments of other rocks
a. ex: shale, sandstone, conglomerate
2. chemical sedimentary rocks- rocks that are formed from mineral grains that fall out of a
solution (precipitate) by evaporation or by chemical action
a. ex: rock salt, some limestones
3. organic sedimentary rocks- rocks that are formed from the remains of plants and animals
a. ex: coal, limestones made of shells
B. Clastic Rocks
1. loose sediments become cemented together; ex: graels, sands, + pebbles cemented together
2. conglomerate is a common clastic rock; contains rounded pebbles cemented together
3. sandstone + shale are also clastic rocks
C. Chemical Rocks
1. takes chemical reaction to produce them; evaporation or precipitation can form them
2. ex: limestone, halite, gypsum
D. Organic Rocks
1. have plant and animal remains in them
2. ex: calcite shells
E. Stratification
1. stratification- layering of sediments
2. cross-bedding- develops when beds are deposited by the wind in leaning poisons on sand
dunes, or deposited by rivers on deltas and sandbars
F. Fossils
1. fossil- the remains, impressions, or any other evidence of plants and animals preserved in
rock; makes it easier to see different layers, certain fossils are only in certain layers
G. Ripple Marks and Mud Cracks
1. ripple marks- occur on sandstones; formed by winds, streams, waves, or currents on sand
2. mud cracks- occur when deposits of wet clay dry and contract, forming cracks
III. Metamorphic Rocks
A. Regional Metamorphism
1. occurs when large areas are affected
2. if the rocks have bands it is metamorphic
3. marble changes to  limestone; quartzite  sandstone; shale  slate; gneiss  granite
4. these rocks are metamorphed b/c of extreme temperature or pressure
B. The Metamorphism of Shale
1. foliation- splits along layers
2. shale  slate; phyllite  schist
3. gneiss is thick layers of foliation that come from shale, granite, conglomerate, etc.
C. Contact Metamorphism
1. process occurs when hot magma intrudes upon rock and extremely heats it, metamorphs it
2. hornfels is a rock formed from shale by contact metamorphism
D. The Rock Cycle- cycle of rocks that trace its progress as it changes form and type
1. ex: igneous  metamorphic
Chapter 6- Resources and Our Environment
I. Renewable Resources
A. Renewable vs. Nonrenewable Resources
1. renewable resources- resources that can be replaced in nature at a rate close to its rate of
use; ex: air
2. nonrenewable resources- a resource that exists in a fixed amount or is used up faster that it
can be replaced by nature; ex: coal, oil, natural gas
B. Air
1. air is a renewable resource
2. composition: 78% N, 21%, 1% trace gases (CO2= .035)
3. respiration and photosynthesis- release and storage of energy
a. keep air cycled, so it can be replaced in nature at the same rate it is used up (renewable)
II. Nonrenewable: Metals and Nonmetals
A. all metallic and most nonmetallic elements can be obtained from minerals
1. usually combined w/ another substance; ex: hematite- main ore of iron
B. Minerals and Ores
1. ores- rock w/ enough of an element to make it profitable
2. gangue- rest of the rock; the part not mined or used
C. Mineral Availability
1. resource- estimate of total remaining amount
2. reserves- amount of known deposits of mineral that are worth mining at the present time
III. Nonrenewable Energy Sources
A. Coal
1. plant and animal remains in swamp water under sand/clay eventually form coal if under
enough pressure for enough time
a. slowly lose hydrogen and hydrogen
b. carbon is concentrated, and made denser until it becomes coal
2. stages of coal
a. peat- compressed plants; some plants remains are still visible; small percentage of carbon
b. lignite- soft coal; brown color; 40% carbon
c. bituminous- soft coal; up to 85% carbon
d. anthracite- regional metamorphosis forms this stage; 90-95% carbon
e. the more carbon in the coal, the more energy it releases
B. Uranium
1. 1 gram or uranium (U) releases as much energy as 3 tons of coal 14 barrels of oil
a. 1 lb. coal- will power a light bulb for 9 hours
b. 1 lb. uranium- powers a light bulb for 3000 years
2. nuclear fission (splitting) of the uranium atoms can produce energy
3. isotope- 235 U
4. ores- uraninite and carnotite, both of which are oxides of uranium
Chapter 8- Weathering, Soils, and Mass Movement
I. Weathering
A. Weathering and Erosion
1. weathering- the break-up of rock due to exposure to the atmosphere
2. due to the changes in pressure and temperature b/w conditions at depth + conditions at
Earth’s surface
3. erosion- removal and transport at Earth’s materials by natural agents (i.e. rain, wind, stream
[most powerful], glaciers, and waves)
a. natural agents- process of erosion
B. Types of Weathering
1. mechanical- also called disintegration (always physical processes)
a. no change in composition
2. chemical- also called decomposition (dissolved)
a. results in different substances (change in composition)
3. usually a combination of both types; the 2 rarely occur alone
C. Types of Mechanical Weathering
1. frost action (ice wedging + heaving)- ice takes up more space than liquid water (10% more)
a. ice wedging- water freezes in a crack and widens the crack
b. ice heaving- water pops up cement in a crack and forms potholes; water freezes in crack,
heaves up the crack
2. wetting and drying- these agents especially affect clay
3. plants- plants’ roots can grow in cracks, get larger, and widen crack; lichens and moss do this
4. granite- formed deep w/i Earth- plutonic rock
a. loss of pressure causes granite to expand; expansion leads to long curved breaks or joints
D. Chemical Weathering
1. result of rain water, oxygen, and acids
a. hydrolysis- reaction of water and other materials
b. these materials slowly unite w/ the water and form clay
2. oxidation- reaction of oxygen w/ other substances
a. results in oxides- kind of rust; FeO- (iron & oxygen)
3. carbon dioxide- dissolved in water= carbonic acid
a. carbonic acid- H2CO3
b. attacks many minerals; result= clay minerals
4. acids also formed by decay of plants and animals
a. acid attacks corners first (most vulnerable)  causes spheroidal weathering
E. Which Minerals and Rocks Resist Most?
1. quartz- almost unchanged by chemical weathering; resists mechanical well
2. feldspar, mica, hornblende, mica- mechanical breaks into fragments; chemical  clay
3. igneous and metamorphic- weather faster in wet climates
a. these rocks often have cracks/ fractures + susceptible minerals that speed up mechanical
b. results- pebbles, boulders, sand, some clays
4. sedimentary- these rocks are only as strong as the cement which holds them
a. silica- durable; calcite- weak; shale- weakest
5. marble/limestone- very durable in dry climates
F. Rate of Weathering
1. depends on the rock
2. the more surface area exposed, the faster the weathering
3. climate: warm and wet favor chemical weathering; cold and dry  mechanical
4. in general  weathering is a very slow process
II. Soils and Mass Movements
A. Soil- loose weathered rock and organic material
1. parent material- the material that the soil is formed from
2. residual soil- soil with bedrock as its parent material
3. transported soils- deposits left by winds, rivers, and glaciers that have covered the bedrock
B. Mature Soil- 3 distinct horizons
1. soil profile- cross section of earth exposed by digging
2. A-horizon- topsoil
3. B-horizon- subsoil; lots of clay
4. C-horizon- slightly weathered bedrock
5. mature soil- old, highly weathered soil
C. Soil Types & Climate
1. climate affects soil the most
2. tropical soil- forms in areas w/ constant high temperatures and rainfall
3. grassland soil- form in areas that receive enough rainfall for heavy grass, but for trees
4. forest soil- form in humid regions that have cool seasons and forests; well developed horizons
5. desert soil- form in dry climates; profile usually only a few cm deep
6. arctic soil- form at high elevations and high latitudes; bottom layers are constantly frozen
D. Mass Movements
1. mass movements- movements of earth material down a slope
2. creep- slow, imperceptible, things lean
3. talus- a pile of rock fragments at the base of a cliff; result of mass movement
4. landslide- sudden movement of rock
5. slumps- small blocks of land that tilt and lean downhill
6. mudflow- rapid movement of saturated earth
7. role of water- contributes to mass movement; very heavy + reduces friction
Chapter 9- Water Moving Underground
I. Fresh Water and Water Budgets
A. 97%- salt water; 3%- fresh (2% frozen, 1% fresh ground + surface water)
II. Water in the Ground
A. Can Rocks Hold and Transmit Water?
1. porosity- the percentage of a material’s volume that is pore space
2. porosity affected by shape of particles, sorting, and the presence of cement in the rock
3. permeability- the rate at which water or other liquids pass through the material
4. impermeable- a material that water cannot pass through
a. impermeable can be porous- if it has no connected holes
b. non-porous could be permeable- if it cracks
5. capillary water- water w/ particles clinged to it
B. The Water Table
1. zone of saturation- the part of the ground where all pore spaces are filled
2. water table- the surface of the zone of saturation
3. zone of aeration- the section b/w the water table and the surface, where air may enter
4. capillary fringe- fingers of water along top of water table that extend above the zone of
saturation
5. the location of the water table depends on the rain, type of land it’s under, the season, the
slope of the ground surface, the thickness of the soil, the climate
6. at lakes and rivers, the water table is at the surface
C. Ordinary Wells and Springs
1. ordinary well- contains water from its bottom up to the level of the water table
2. if the well reaches below the lowest level of the water table in the dry season, then it will
provide water all year
3. hillside spring- a place on a hillside where the water table meets the surface, and
groundwater flows out; more common in mountainous regions
D. Artesian Wells and Formations
1. aquifer- permeable materials that contain and carry groundwater
a. the best aquifers are uncemented sands and gravels, followed by porous sandstones
2. artesian formation- forms when an aquifer is sandwiched by two impermeable layers
a. the upper impermeable layer of rock is called the cap rock
3. artesian well- a well in which water comes from an aquifer that lies beneath an
impermeable layer
III. Groundwater Characteristics
A. Groundwater is Usually Cool
B. Hot Springs, Geysers, and Fumaroles
1. hot spring- some wells and artesian formations that are deep or near volcanic activity can
be much warmer than other wells; come through fissures to the surface
2. geyser- hot spring that periodically erupts
a. has a narrow tube; a spring has a wide tube
3. fumaroles- fissures through which gas/steam escape
C. Minerals in Ground Water
1. water dissolves minerals as it moves through rock
2. hard water- water w/ high mineral content (Ca, Mg, Fe)
3. Artesian water is harder than ordinary groundwater
D. Mineral Springs
1. mineral spring- a spring which contains so much dissolved matter that it cannot be used
for cleaning or drinking
2. reasons- soluble rock, lots of gases, and very hot
IV. Caverns and Mineral Deposits
A. Cavern Formation
1. limestone dissolves easily; lots of cracks (vertical) and fissures (horizontal)
2. water always contains some carbonic acid- dissolves rock
3. the cracks form tunnels, called caverns or caves
a. sinkholes form when parts of a cave roof collapse, forming a hole or a depression in
Earth’s surface
B. Karst Topography (name comes from Karst Plateau of Yugoslavia)
1. regions characterized by sinks, sinkhole ponds, lost rivers, and underground drainage are
said to have karst topography
2. rainwater enters ground in sinkholes and fissures
3. few surface fissures
C. Mineral Deposits by Groundwater
1. dripstone- rock formed by dripping water that leaves calcite deposits
a. stalactites- example of dripstone that hangs from the ceiling
b. stalagmites- examples of dripstone that form on the floor, and stick upward
2. travertine- calcite deposits from hot springs
3. petrified wood- wood that becomes stone
4. natural cement (in sedimentary rocks)- binds sand grain and pebbles
Chapter 10- Running Water
I. Stream Erosion and Transportation
A. Running Water and its Energy
1. running water- most effective agent of weathering
2. energy derived from the sun (evaporation)
B. Running Water Attacks Bedrock
1. breaks up bedrock; removes weathered/eroded rock and soil material
2. abrasion- grinding action; tool is sand and pebbles; mechanical process
3. clear water- fast flow picks bedrock; lifting effect
4. dissolves soluble minerals w/ chemical processes
C. Carrying Power and Load
1. carrying power- indicated by total sediment load and particle size
a. depends on stream velocity and discharge
2. speed- depends on gradient (steepness)
II. River Valleys
A. Young Rivers- V-shaped; high speed flow
1. scours bottom; sides eroded by weathering
2. canyons in dry areas
B. Time Frame- depends on climate, rock, water, and sediment
C. Base Level
1. base level- level of the body of water into which the stream flows
2. approaches base level- slope and speed decrease; wider valley
D. Lengthening the Valley
1. headwater erosion- wearing away of the head (top)
2. stream cuts below water table- permanent
3. Badlands- badly eroded region in the Dakotas and Nebraska
E. Divides and Drainage Basins
1. divide- land that separates one gully from the next
2. drainage basin or watershed- total land drained by a river system
F. Stream Piracy
1. stream pirracy- result at headwater erosion; also called stream capture
a. a larger river will erode through a divide and capture the headwaters of another river
G. Water/Wind Gaps
1. narrow cut in a resistant layer of rock
III. Waterfalls and River Deposits
A. Potholes
1. caused by sand and pebbles swirling in whirlpools
2. large potholes are called plunge pools
B. Waterfalls
1. occur when a river flows over a cliff
2. retreats by undermining (ex: Niagara Falls)
C. Meanders and Oxbows
1. flood plain- part of river valley that floods
2. meander and oxbow lakes: river slows; valley is widened by winding; the winding is
called a meander; eventually as the curve grows, the river simply cuts across it, the curve
becomes isolated, called an oxbow lake
3. in the curve of a river- the outside is faster, cuts a bigger curve
4. cut off- loop that broke through
D. Sediment Deposition
1. decrease in speed or discharge
E. Deltas and Alluvial Fans
1. delta- level, fan shaped deposit at a river’s mouth
2. alluvial fan- where stream meets sloping ground, not flat
IV. The Flood Plain and Floods
A. The Sediment on the Flood Plain
1. flood- water overflows; sediment is deposited on the bank; forms a levee
2. behind the natural levee, finer sediment and back swamps
B. Causes of River Floods
1. prolonged heavy rain; rapid snow melt
2. flash floods (quick fast overflowing of water) occur in narrow river valleys
3. dams; also natural dams such as ice jams (ice blocking water), lava, and landslides
Chapter 11- Glaciers
I. Types of Glaciers
A. Problem of Polished Rock Outcrops and Scratched Surfaces
1. problem of strange rocks- they weren’t local (brought by glaciers)
2. the theory of glaciers proposed by Louis Agassiz
B. What is a Glacier?
1. glacier- a moving snow; covered mass of ice
2. valley glacier- wedge-shaped, slow moving
3. continental glacier- large, spreads out in all directions
C. Snow Line
1. lowest level that permanent snow reaches in summer
2. glaciers are born in areas w/ permanent snow
D. Birth of a Glacier
1. snow compacts; becomes firn
2. firn- a crystalized, rough, granular ice material
3. the firn is then further compressed into a glacier
E. Where Glaciers Occur
1. valley glacier- also called alpine glaciers; occur in all parts of the world where mountains
extend above the snow line
2. continental glacier- also called ice sheets; occur in Greenland and Antarctica
a. ice caps- small ice sheets (ex: Iceland and Baffin Islands)
II. Glacier Movement
A. Weight and Gravity Play a Large Role; melt/freeze at base
1. glaciers move rapidly at surface and center b/c of lack of friction
2. crevasses- cracks in upper 40 m of a glacier
B. End of a Glacier- ice front; ice melts as fast as it moves
1. icebergs- produced by calving; snow line at sea level
2. ice sheet over water- called an ice shelf
C. Transport of Loose Rock
1. carry lots of rocks, gravel, sand
2. deposited material- forms a moraine
a. ground moraine- material carried in the bottom of the glacier before it is deposited
b. lateral moraine- the side moraines; two of them on each valley side
c. medial moraine- a middle moraine
d. end moraine- marks the end of the glaicers progress; last moraine; also called terminal
D. Marks of a Glacier
1. striations- long parallel scratches (occur in the Bronx)
2. roches moutonnes- outcrop of rock formed by glaicer; look like resting sheep
3. potholes and plunge pools also form from glaciers
4. cirque, arete, horn or matterhorn
a. cirque- a semicircular basin formed at the head of the glacial valley
b. arete- a divide between two cirques that becomes narrow and sharp
c. horn or matterhorn- a peak formed when three or more cirques cut into the same peak
E. Recognizing Glacial Valleys
1. glacial troughs- U-shaped; formed by tributary glaciers moving toward the main one
2. tributary glaciers aren’t as thick as valley glaciers, erode less
3. hanging troughs- the tributary U-shaped valley
a. hanging trough waterfall- rivers that form in hanging troughs, and plunge over the cliffs
F. The Work of Continental Glaciers
1. they grind down mountain peaks + polishes them
III. Deposits by Glacier
A. all deposits are called drift
1. till- unsorted deposits
2. outwash- sorted + stratified
B. Moraines- rock left behind by a glacier
1. the types are described in [ 11-II-C-2-a,b,c,d ]
2. erratic- large glacial boulders transported to an area
C. Drumlins- long, smooth canoe-shaped hills of till
1. point in direction of glacial movement; group of them called swarms
D. Outwash Plains and Eskers
1. glacial streams carry lots of gravel, silt, clay, rock flour
2. flow under the glacier- called subglacial
3. when glacier melts, long, winding ridges of sediment remain; these are called eskers
4. the streams form broad flat areas called outwash plains when they overlap
E. Kames, Kettles, Deltas
1. kame- small, cone-shaped hills of stratified sand + gravel
2. kettle- circular hollows found on terminal moraines or outwash plains
3. deltas form in glacial lakes
F. Lakes Made by Glaciers
1. fills new basins and low points
2. tarns- cirque lake
3. kettle lakes form in kettle holes
4. moraine-dammed lakes- formed when river valleys are blocked by moraines; often very long
IV. The Ice Age
A. four main centers of accumulation in North America; the Greenland Ice Sheet, the Cordilleran
center, the Keewatin Center, and the Labrador center
B. Four times, the ice sheets advanced and receded
C. Ice Age Evidence- Long Island is a terminal moraine of a glacier during an ice age
Chapter 12- Winds, Waves, and Currents
I. Wind as an Agent of Change
A. dust storm- large amounts of silt and clay lifted from the soil
B. sand grains- velocity 18 km/hr are needed to move them; short hops and bounces; usually
they move less than 1 meter off the ground
II. Abrasion by Windblown Sediments
A. Ventifact- boulders and rocks shaped by wind and sand (the smooth side is called a facet)
B. Deflation- describes the removal of large particles by wind
1. desert pavement- when all sand is blown away
2. blowout- hollows formed by deflation
C. Loess- wind-deposited sediment; unlayered yellow particles
1. occur in China, North Central US, and Northern Europe
D. Sand Dunes- hills of sand deposited by the wind
1. composition- quartz (most); in White Sands, New Mexico there are gypsum sands
2. leeward (slip face) and windward sides; sand ripples
3. shape- depends on wind steadiness and strength, supply of sand, and vegetation present
a. barchan, parabolic, transverse, longitudinal
4. sand dunes move or migrate
III. Waves in the Sea
A. Main cause is wind; also earthquakes, etc.
1. wind waves- height depends on duration or fetch, the length or open water the wind blows
2. choppy seas- white caps (also called white horses) form
3. swells- waves caused by storms far out to sea
B. Features of Water Waves
1. wave height (amplitude), wave length, period
a. wave height- the difference b/t its high point, or crest, and its low point, or trough
b. wavelength- distance from one crest to another
c. period- the time it takes one wavelength to pass a given point
2. wavelength, period, and speed are all related
a. speed= wavelength over period
3. tsunami- long waves
4. waves do not move, they only transfer energy
5. wave refraction- occurs as waves come to shallow water, the waves bend
C. Origin of Breakers
1. when depth= 1/2 wavelength, wave slows down
2. line of breakers- 1-2 times the wave height
D. Shoreline Currents
1. swash- forward motion of water; backwash- water moving back to sea, causes undertow
2. longshore currents- a movement parallel to shore; greatest mover of sediment
3. rip current- strong surface currents that flow away from the beach; much more dangerous
than backwash
IV. Shoreline Features
A. Waves erode by sheer force and also grinding action
1. deep water shoreline- sea cliffs, caves, and arches
B. Attached and Unattached Sandbars
1. deposition of sand in certain areas due to current flow
2. if it’s attached at one end it’s a spit; eventually becomes a bay
a. curved end of a sand bar is a hook (ex: Sandy Hook, NJ)
b. shelter lagoons- entrance completely blocked by a sandbar
3. unattached sandbars- parallel to land; called barrier islands
4. all of these are not permanent features; they naturally move
C. Beach Materials
1. beach- area b/t the high and low tide levels
2. can be many different materials; usually quartz
D. Shorelines
1. irregular- headlands and bays; Maine- very irregular coastline; drowned coastline
a. shoals- shallow areas that are the result of drowned shoreline
2. coastal plain- also drowned; wider valleys
3. glaciated areas- fjords, deep glacial valleys under water
4. regular coastline- usually occur only at plate boundaries
E. Coral
1. needs water 18-21°C, and less than 45 m deep
2. fringing, barrier, and atoll are the three types
Chapter 20- Studying the Universe
I. Optical Telescopes
A. Gather more light than the human eye
1. magnify lenses are used to collect more light than the eye + to magnify images
B. Telescopes- use lenses and mirrors; to find radius, you should know A=r2
C. Refracting Telescope (Refractor)- two lenses, the larger is the objective
D. Reflecting Telescope (Reflector)- one curved mirror (objective), and one flat mirror
E. Some telescopes have multiple mirrors- called MMTs
1. lots of small mirrors act like one large one
F. Hubble Space Telescope (HST)
1. to avoid the interference of the atmosphere, the telescope is located above it (in space)
II. Energy Beyond Visible Light
A. Electromagnetic energy- 3 x 106 m/s
1. frequency and wavelength determine the EMR Spectrum
B. Radio Astronomy- study of radio waves from space
C. radio telescopes- strength and direction of waves
D. VLA- Very Large Array- many radio dishes are used to have the effect of one large one
E. Many Other Types of Instruments- Gamma Ray observatories; UV ray satellites
III. A Closer Look at Visible Light
A. Spectroscope- studies visible spectrum w/ a prism
1. spectrograph- photographic plate
B. Kinds of Spectrum
1. continous- an unbroken band of colors
2. bright-line spectrum (emission) - an unevenly spaced series of lines if different colors and
brightness
3. dark-line spectrum (absorption)- a continous spectrum w/ dark lines where light is absorped;
the dark lines are on the same location as the bright lines on the bright line spectrum
C. Dark-line Spectra- show composition of outer layers or objects
D. Doppler Effect
1. if an object is moving away, it is red; closer, blue; the same, yellow( no shift)
2. this is because if a wavelength is stretched, it moves toward the red side of the spectrum, and
if it is moving closer, it will have a blue shift, as the waves of light compress
Chapter 21- Stars and Galaxies
I. Stars and Their Characteristics
A. Constellation- groups of stars that appears to form a pattern; 88 all together
1. circumpolar constellations- constellations which can be seen all year long
2. constellations seem to move due to earth’s rotation
B. Seasonal Changes
1. stars themselves are moving
2. sun may be in the way to view the stars; ex: Lyra and Orion
C. Distance
1. astronomical unit- 159 million km; 93 million mi.; average distance b/t Earth and the sun
2. light year- 9.5 million km; about 6 trillion mi.; the distance light travels in a year
D. Physical Properties of Stars
1. sun is average; density= 1.4 x water; 1.38 x 106 km
2. size range- smaller than Earth to 2000 times the sun
3. tremendous range in density, too
4. mass- .01 of the sun to 200 x; most are about the same as the sun
5. color- based on temp.; red to yellow to blue/white
E. Elements- hydrogen and helium; sun is 70% H; 28% He; 2% others
F. Brightness
1. apparent- how a star looks to is on Earth
2. luminosity- the actual or true brightness of a star;
3. absolute magnitude- the apparent magnitude of a star if it were placed at a distance of 32.6
light years from the sun
4. magnitude- each full magnitude is 2.5 x brighter
II. Kinds of Stars
A. Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram- relates temperature, luminosity, and color
B. Types of Stars
1. red giants- huge
2. supergiants- even larger; either blue or red; if it’s blue- means its hotter
3. dwarves- white, red, yellow, orange
C. Variable Stars
1. vary in brightness over regular periods of time
2. pulsating- expand/contract; cepheids are a type of yellow supergiant variables, have a dimbright periods range of about 1 day to 50 days; most are 5 days
3. eclipsing binary- two stars revolving around each other; dim stars eclipse the bright star 
becomes dimmer
D. Pulsars- send out powerful bursts of radio waves
III. Formation of Stars
A. Large Clouds of Gas and Dust; low density
a. nebulae (pl.) 2 types: dark and diffuse; dark blocks light, diffuse is lit up by nearby star
b. contraction occurs  become protostars  then, move to stable state
c. blue stars become stable faster
B. Red Giants (or Supergiants)
1. contraction of core causes fusion to begin again  makes the star expand greatly
C. White Dwarves
1. collapsed giant star
2. occasionally becomes a nova
D. Supernovas
1. collapse of red giant; tremendous explosion
E. Neutron Stars and Black Holes
1. neutron star- remnant of supernova
2. black holes- an x-ray source
IV. Galaxies and the Universe
A. Galaxies
1. systems containing billions of stars
2. milky way- diameter= 140,000 ly; thickness= 20,000
3. local group- a cluster of 17 galaxies that the Milky Way is part of
B. Types of Galaxies
1. spiral- flat disk w/ bulge at the center, arms trail out of the bulge; 3/4 of known galaxies
2. elliptical- range from spherical to lens-shaped; no arms, most stars at the center
3. irregular- smaller, fainter, and less common than others; stars spread out unevenly
C. Quasars- quasi-stellar radio sources; discovered in 1961
1. most distant objects; very luminous and massive
D. Origin of the Universe
1. big-bang hypothesis- all matter exploded, spread out, became galaxies
2. background radiation- thought to be the “echo” of the Big Bang
Chapter 22- The Sun and the Solar System
I. The Sun
A. Galileo- telescope; sunspots; sun’s rotation
1. special solar telescope must be used to view the sun
B. Properties of the Sun
1. diameter- 1.38 x 106 km; 110 x Earth
2. surface- 5,000 C; internal- 15,000,000 C
C. Atmosphere
1. photosphere- surface; 400 km thick; granules occur there
2. chromosphere- outer part of the atmosphere
3. corona- above the chromosphere, very little gas, almost a vacuum; can see during eclipses
4. solar prominence- huge, red, flame-like arches of material that occur in the corona
D. Sunspots- dark spots on the photosphere; from cool parts of the sun’s surface
1. sunspot cycle- 11 years
E. Solar Wind
1. solar wind- constant stream of electrically charged particles
2. coronal holes- great tears in the corona, solar winds pours out of these
3. solar flares- a source of solar wind; outbursts of light that rise in areas of sunspot activity
F. Source of the Sun’s Energy
1. fusion provides energy b/c matter can be converted into energy; as Einstein’s E=mc2 proves
2. the sun is mostly hydrogen; 4 hydrogen nuclei have a mass of 4.030; when they are fused, the
finished product has a mass of 4.003; matter isn’t lost  becomes energy
II. Observing the Solar System
A. The Solar System- everything orbiting the sun; from sand-like grains to planets
1. 9 planets and 61 natural satellites
B. Planets & Stars
1. stars don't seem to move; planets appear to always move, usually east
2. retrograde motion- a periodic backward, or westward, loop made by a planet in front of the
background of the constellations
C. Solar System Models
1. geocentric- earth-centered system; proposed by Greek astronomer Ptolemy; he thought the
planets orbited around orbits called epicycles, which moved around Earth on a larger orbit
called a deferent; explained retrograde motion incorrectly
2. heliocentric- sun-centered solar system; planets revolve around sun; correctly explained RM
III. Motion in the Solar System
A. Tycho
1. Danish astronomer, kept careful measurements of positions of objects in the sky
2. after his death, the data was given to Johannes Kepler:
B. Kepler and the Three Laws of Planetary Motion
1. planets travel in elliptical orbits, w/ sun as 1 focus; closest to sun- perihelion; furthestaphelion
2. equal area law- law that states that as a planet moves around the sun, an imaginary line
joining the 2 will sweep over equal areas of space in equal periods of time
3. harmonic law- states: the period of a planet squared is equal to the cube of its distance from
the sun
C. Isaac Newton and the Universal Law of Gravitation
1. universal law of gravitation- shows that the force of gravity b/w any 2 objects but inversely
related to the square of the distance b/t the centers of the two objects
2. escape velocity- the minimum velocity needed to escape the gravitational pull of a planet,
moon, asteroid, or other object
Chapter 24- Earth’s Moon
I. Properties and History of the Moon
A. Properties
1. Diam.= 2476 km; D= 3.3 g/cm2; mass= 1/80 of Earth’s; gravity= 1/6 of Earth’s
2. few moonquakes; layered structure: crust, mantle
B. Front and Back
1. very slow rotation period; same side always faces us
2. front- maria (named by Galileo), and highlands
3. back- mostly highlands and craters
4. egg-shaped; crust thicker on back side
C. Origin- Planetesimal Theory (small planet hits Earth, molten rock shoots out, forms moon;
planetesimal becomes Earth’s core)
1. after creation, then bombardment and lava flows
2. now inactive; bombardment by micrometeroids- only geologic activity
D. Lunar Rocks
1. higher % of elements with high melting temperatures
2. ages= highland- 4.0-4.3 billion years old; maria- 3.1-3.8 billion years old
II. Lunar Surface Features
A. Lunar Maria- smooth plains w/ circular basin
1. dark gray- black; resembles basalt; crystalline
2. contain plagioclase feldspar, and pyroxene
3. stronger gravity over maria; mascons (mass concentration); also rilles
B. Lunar Highlands
1. lunar mountains- around maria
2. rocks- coarse crystalline (i.e. gabbro), and breccia
C. Lunar Craters and Rays
1. craters- hollows on the surface
2. rays- bright streaks originating from a crater
D. Lunar Soil
1. a loose mixture of rock materials
2. a grayish brown mixture of rock pieces and fine particles
III. The Moon’s Motions and Phases
A. Orbit- rotation= 27.33 days; distance= 386,000 km
1. apogee and perigee; looks same size as sun from Earth
B. Moonrise and Moonset- East to West
1. moves 13east every night; rises 50 min. later each night
C. Phases- daily changes in the moon’s appearance
1. due to: it reflects light and orbits the Earth
2. waxing- increasing; waning- decreasing in size
D. Lunar Months= 29.5 days
1. as the moon orbits the Earth; Earth orbits the sun
2. the moon has to catch up to the Earth
E. Lunar Eclipses
1. umbra- the full shadow; penumbra- other part of shadow
F. Solar Eclipses
1. chromosphere and corona glow around the sun
2. annular eclipse- sun appears as a ring
3. short- 7.5 minutes at a given location
IV. Sun, Moon, and Tides
A. Tides- daily rise and fall of ocean water
1. direct and indirect high tides- (indirect- back of Earth from moon)
B. Rise and Fall of Tides
1. in 24 hours 50 minutes, the moon passes over all of the ocean
C. Spring and Neap Tides
1. occurs when sun and moon pull together or against
2. spring- together; neap- against
D. Ocean Basins, Shorelines, Tidal Ranges
1. Tidal range- difference in level of H and L tides
2. very small in lakes and open ocean
Chapter 25- Earth’s Motions
I. Earth’s Rotation
A. Rotation- a turning motion; axis= straight line connecting the North and South Poles
1. axial tilt- 23.5; parallelism of the axis
B. Evidence
1. Foucault Pendulum- turned totally around in 24 hours; demonstrates Earth’s rotation
2. Coriolis Effect- farther away from the equator, the slower the Earth spins
C. Effects of Earth’s rotation
1. day and night
2. sunrise and sunset
D. Rate of Rotation
1. 15 per hour; for a total of 360 in 24 hours
II. Time Measurement and Earth’s Rotation
A. Solar time- time by the sun
1. solar moon- point where sun reaches highest
2. it is different depending on your longitude
B. Standard Time- 24 zones, 15 wide
1. each is centered on a meridian; gives clock time, too
2. starts w/ Prime Meridian
C. Daylight Saving Time
1. standard time is advanced one hour
D. International Date Line
1. east- back; west forward
III. Earth’s Revolution
A. Orbit- also revolution
1. apparent shifting of position- parallax
B. Path and rate- slightly elliptical orbit
1. distance:
average150,000,000 km
perihelion- (Jan. 2)
147,600,000 km
aphelion- (July 4)
152,400,000 km
C. Effects of revolution
1. seasons (not influenced as much by revolution as by axial tilt)
IV. Seasons on the Earth
A. Summer in the North
1. Summer Solstice- June 21; 23.5 N; Tropic of Cancer
B. Winter in the North
1. Winter Solstice- December 21; 23.5 S; Tropic of Capricorn
C. The Equinoxes- spring and autumn- 3/21 & 9/23
D. The Sun and the Dome of the Sky
1. zenith- point directly overhead
2. altitude- angle between the horizons and the sun
Chapter 13- Plate Tectonics

I. What is Plate Tectonics?
A. Study of the creation and movement of plates
1. the plates make up the surface; they move
B. Plate thickness
1. lithosphere- crust + upper mantle
2. continental crust- up to 60 km
3. oceanic crust- as little as 8 to 10 km; much denser
C. Plate Movement
1. they float on the asthenosphere (isostacy)
2. partially melted (plastic); contains convection cells
II. Evidence for Plate Tectonics
A. Africa & South America- fit together
1. proposed by Alfred Wegener (continental drift)
2. used fossils of Mesosaurus- on two continents
B. Earthquakes & Volcanoes
1. mark the location of plate boundaries
2. occur in areas of high heat flow
C. Magnetism- study= paleomagnetism
1. some mineral particles are magnetic
2. indicate magnetic pole reversals
3. used at spreading centers- divergent
D. Heat Flow and Seafloor Elevation
1. heat flow- measure of heat energy coming from interior of Earth
2. higher at certain types of boundaries (spreading)
3. elevation is indicative of heat flow
III. Kinds of Plate Boundaries
A. Diverging- also spreading centers
1. mid-ocean ridges- rift valleys, fracture zones
2. ex: Mid-Atlantic Ridge, East Pacific Rise
B. Sliding- also transform faults
1. fault- a break or crack in Earth’s crust along which movement has occurred
C. Converging- collision
1. involves two continental plates
2. ex: Himalayas, Appalachian, Urals
D. Converging- subduction
1. one plate overrides another
2. usually a deep-sea trench results
3. continental/oceanic- or both oceanic
IV. Continental Growth & Plate Tectonics
A. The Craton- ancient core of the continent
1. oldest and most altered rock
2. North America- Canadian Shield
B. Sources of Growth
1. deep-sea sediments, volcanoes
2. thin-skinned thrusting- Appalachian
3. terranes- blocks of lithosphere
Chapter 14- Volcanoes and Plate Tectonics
I. Volcanism Releases Magma
A. Magma: molten rock underground
1. sources- asthenosphere, plate boundaries
2. less dense than solid rock; it rises
3. when it reaches the surface it becomes lava
a. felsic- high silica amount; very viscous (thick, slow flow)
b. mafic- low silica; ferromagnesium; very fluid; denser
B. Gases in Magma
1. water vapor; sulfur; carbon dioxide
2. more gas- more explosive
C. Lava- magma that reaches the surface
D. Lava Fragments
1. Tephra- solid fragments
a. ash, lapilli, blocks (solid when it erupts) & bombs (liquid) <_ [smaller ___> larger]
2. glowing avalanche (pyroclastic flow) [pyro=fire; clastic=broken]
a. superheated gas & tephra- usually ash
b. fast; deadly; hugs the ground, and flattens everything it flows by
II. Kinds of Eruptions
A. Rift- long, narrow fractures in the crust
1. usually fluid lava- shield volcanoes
2. oceanic (spreading centers)- pillow lava
3. land- lava plateau- basaltic
4. basalt (mafic rock, dense, iron & magnesium, flows easily)- columnar jointing (hexagonal)
B. Subduction- very explosive
1. usually very thick lava- andesite is the name for that lava
2. many islands chains are formed this way (at the border of two oceanic plates)
C. Hot Spots- occur in the middle of a plate- usually erupts basalt
1. shield volcanoes- extremely fluid lava
2. source of heat: asthenosphere
a. mantle plume (small convection cells)
3. Hawaii- shows direction of plate movement (convection cells don’t move)
III. Examples of Eruptions
A. Eldfell- Iceland (spreading center & hot spot)
1. new volcano in 1973
2. buried Vestmannaeyjar
B. Mt. Saint Helens- 5/18/80; Washington State
1. Cascade Range; Cascadia Subduction Zone
2. earthquake triggered eruption
C. Kilauea- Hawaii; on the side of Mauna Loa
1. very deep magma sources; very active
D. Vesuvius- 79 A.D.; also 1944
1. buried Pompeii; Herculaneum
2. subduction- very viscous, gas-rich magma
IV. Plutonic Activity
A. Plutons & Volcanism
1. magma inside other rocks- igneous intrusions or plutons
B. Types of Intrusions
1. dikes- sheets of magma that cuts across layers; usually basalt or diabase
2. sills- sheets of magma that are parallel to the old rocks; basalt or diabase
a. the Palisades are an example
3. laccoliths- dome-shaped masses
a. very viscous (thick)
4. volcanic neck- interior of a volcano
5. batholiths- largest of all intrusions
a. cores of mountain ranges
i. ex: Sierra Nevadas
b. small batholith= stock
Chapter 15- Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics
I. Earthquakes Result From Stress
A. What is an Earthquake?
1. 3,000 strong quakes occur each year
2. earthquake- a shaking of the Earth’s crust caused by a release of energy
3. result from the movement of lithospheric plates
B. Causes of Earthquakes
1. volcanoes, cavern collapses, meteorites
2. main cause: stress between lithospheric plates
3. elastic-rebound theory- important role of friction
C. Earthquake Depth
1. varies greatly >30 km at diverging boundaries to 700 km at subduction zones
a. at subduction boundaries, plate plunges into the asthenosphere; makes earthquakes much
lower
b. quakes occur until rocks become flexible
2. focus- area of first movement
3. epicenter- point on surface above focus
D. Earthquake Waves
1. P waves- also compressional or primary
a. back and forth motion (stretch/compression)
b. travel through any material
c. speed= 2x S wave
2. S waves- also shear or secondary
a. side to side motion (right angles)
b. travel through solids only
3. P and S waves travel best through solid, rigid rocks
4. L waves- set up by P and S waves at surface
a. also called surface waves
II. Locating an Earthquake
A. Seismographs (ex: Fordham University)
1. instrument that detects and records quake waves
2. heavy weight and base attached to bedrock
3. seismogram- record sheet of a seismograph
B. Determining Distance to Epicenter
1. uses different speeds of P and S waves
a. uses time travel graph
C. Locating Epicenter
1. three different seismograph stations are needed
III. Measuring an Earthquake
A. Earthquake Magnitude
1. Richter Scale- developed in 1940s
a. each number 32x stronger than the last
2. Seismic Moment scale- more accurate
a. takes more info into account
b. Alaska- 1964= 9.2; Chile-1960= 9.5
B. Earthquake Damage
1. ground shaking- side to side is worst
2. foundation failure- usually from liquefaction
C. Prediction
1. no one can accurately predict where or how strong an earthquake will be
IV. Earthquake Waves Inside the Earth
A. P and S wave Velocity
1. waves bend and stop inside the Earth
2. sharp decrease in speed of outer core (liquid); S waves can’t travel at all
3. waves recover at inner core
B. The Moho- density boundary between mantle & crust- averages 32 km in depth
1. discovered in 1909 by Mohorovicic
C. The Shadow Zone- p. 281
1. P waves are bent as they travel through Earth
2. S waves cannot pass through liquid
3. b/c of these factors, a shadow zone is formed, where earthquake waves don’t reach
V. Examples of Earthquakes
A. Alaska- 1964
1. affected very large area of fault plane; very long- 5 minutes
2. generated tsunamis
B. San Andreas Fault
1. boundary between Pacific and North America
2. plates are stuck
C. New Madrid
1. fault associated with craton
2. rocks in the area conduct seismic waves well
3. midplate earthquakes- very rare
Chapter 16- Mountains and Plate Tectonics
I. Mountains result from collisions
A. Continental Margins
1. active- occur along plate boundaries
2. passive- not associated with plate boundaries; stable
B. Collisions between Oceans and Continents
1. creates subduction boundaries
2. also, abduction occurs & terranes are added
C. Collision between Two Continents
1. closing of ocean basin- sea floor subducted between continents
2. then mountain building occurs (Himalayas, Alps)
II. Features of Collision Mountains
A. Faults
1. three types: normal, reversed, strike-slip
B. Folds
1. anticline- upfold in rock layers
2. syncline- downfold in rock layers
3. sides called limbs; steepness called dip; direction/orientation is strike
C. Volcanoes- core of ranges is usually a batholith
1. Andes- granite batholith; volcanoes now gone
a. resembles Sierra Nevadas of 100 million years ago and Appalachians of 450 mya
III. Other Evidence of Mountain Building
A. uplifting- can be checked with fossils and raised beaches
B. tilting- steep inclining of layers of roc
C. overturning- seen by mud cracks, etc.
Chapter 17- Properties of Ocean Water
I. Earth- The Water Planet
A. The World Ocean
1. oceans cover 72.5% of Earth’s surface
2. average depth is 4x that of average elevation on land
3. Pacific O. is largest- approx. 30% of surface
B. Beginnings of Oceanography
1. oceanography- study of the oceans
2. Matthew Fontaine Maury- US Navy officer who was injured- Father of Oceanography in US
a. Depot of Charts and Instruments
b. studied logbooks of ships
c. Physical Geography of the Sea- first thorough oceanographic book
3. H.M.S. Challenger- 1872; first ship that had a sole purpose of collecting data about the
oceans
4. many advances in WWII (submarines, sonar)
C. Seagoing Ocean Research
1. JOIDES Resolution- largest oceanographic ship in the world
2. Alvin- minisubmarine
II. The Salinity of Seawater
A. Salinity
1. salinity- a measure of dissolved solids in seawater
a. 1/2 of known elements are found in ocean water
2. many salts are in ocean water; main one is NaCl
3. average measure- 35g salt per 1000g seawater= 35g/kg or 35%0
4. surface salinity varies between 33-37 parts per thousand (ppt)
B. Measuring Salinity
1. mainly by electrical conductivity of water
2. very important for determining water masses
a. water masses- mass of water w/ distinct characteristics; i.e., salinity, temperature, &
density
C. Composition of Seawater
1. mostly NaCl; Na= 30.61% and Cl=55.04%
2. measure of chloride is called chlorinity
D. Mining Sea Water
1. over 55 elements are found in sea water
2. gold- 4 parts per trillion (ppt); not worth mining; too spread out
3. salt- 27 metric tons per km3
4. salt & magnesium can both be mined profitably
III. Temperature of Ocean Water
A. Heating the ocean
1. water does not heat easily- high heat capacity
2. solar radiation is absorbed near the top
3. three layers- surface, middle, & deep
a. surface- (mixed) warmest; most plant life; most sunlight
b. middle- temperature drops rapidly (thermocline)
c. deep- cold, no sunlight
B. Mixed Layer (another name for the surface layer)
1. wind and waves mix heat evenly
2. enough light to support marine plants
3. temperature depends on latitude
C. Temperatures under the Mixed Layer
1. thermocline- zone of rapid temp. change
2. polar water is found at the bottom of the ocean everywhere
a. this is b/c the cold water is dense, so it sinks and goes below the warmer waters
IV. Life in the Sea
A. Sunlight and Marine Life
1. phytoplankton- tiny plants in mixed layer
2. diatoms- type of phytoplankton w/ silica shells
3. these two for the basis of the food chain
4. zooplankton- tiny animals that eat phytoplankton, and are eaten by larger organisms
5. food chain: phytoplankton/diatoms ___> zooplankton ___> other larger organisms
B. Oxygen and Marine Life
1. source- air at surface gets trapped in bubbles; helps marine life prosper
2. carbon dioxide accumulates at great depths
C. Ocean-floor Vents
1. White and Black Smokers
a. white smokers (a type of hydrothermal vent); 15-150 C; BaSO4 is given off (gives color)
b. black smokers (a type of hydrothermal vent); important to life in deep sea; occur at midocean ridges; 380 C; constantly flows, constant circulation; carry more dissolved
materials b/c they’re so hot; H2S; FeS; CuS- given off; gives black color
c. as they lose heat b/c of cold ocean water, they release what materials they’re carrying
2. life at vents
a. are able to live b/c of heat
b. these bacteria live off sulfur compounds (chemosynthesis); instead of photosynthesis(which
is how all other bacteria on Earth get food)
c. the bacteria are eaten by the larger organisms at the vent
Chapter 18- The Ocean Floor and its Sediments
I. Studying the Ocean Floor
A. Echo Sounding & Satellites
1. old way- heavy lead weight on a rope (very time consuming)
2. new- Precision Depth Recorder (PDR)
a. uses sonar
3. sonar- low frequency penetrates sediment; can tell you about the past ocean floors
a. we can see the layers + the past conditions of the ocean floor
4. satellites- use sea surface elevation
a. sea surface elevation- relationship between earth’s gravity and sea water
b. in some places, the sea surface is above sea level, and in others, it is below
c. satellites can measure fluctuations in sea level
B. Sampling Sediment
1. dredge- dragged along sea floor to grab rocks
2. core- records sediment layers
a. gravity corer- smallest one; consists of a pipe that is stuck into the floor to take sediment
b. piston corer (hydraulic piston corer)- are used in deeper water; takes larger core
c. rotary drilling (DSDP, JOIDES Resolution)- most important type
C. Direct Observations
1. Alvin- minisubmarine; takes long time diving and surfacing
2. Argo- towed, unmanned, very small
II. Continental Margins
A. Continental Shelves
1. the part of the continent that is under water
2. very flat
3. extends until the shelf break- area where slope increases dramatically
a. usually 130 m deep; Antarctica is 300 m deep, deepest one
4. characteristics vary depending on type of margin
a. active- much narrower, trench
b. passive- broad, gentle slope
B. Continental Slopes
1. begin at the shelf break
2. slope increases rapidly to about 4
a. Atlantic gradient- 3; Pacific- 5; greatest- 25
3. usually about 200 km wide + 3 km deep
4. submarine canyons occur there
C. Submarine Canyons
1. places where they occur
a. occur only at passive margins
b. starts on the shelf, and goes to the rise
c. ex: Hudson Canyon
2. submarine canyons are cut by gullies
3. Origin
a. most are not started by rivers
b. turbidity currents- density currents; dense sediment-carrying mass of water
i. turbidity currents are the main movers of sediment from the continental shelf to the
deep-sea floor
ii. turbidity currents send sediment to the ends of the canyons, called abyssal fans
III. The Ocean Basins
A. Abyssal Plains
1. avg. 3000-6000 m deep; very deep
2. flattest areas on the earth’s surface
3. formed of sediments; buried original surface- makes it flat
a. formed from turbidity currents
4. widespread in Atlantic Ocean (ex: Hatteras)
a. don’t occur a lot in Pacific b/c of active margins w/ trenches
B. Abyssal Hills
1. small, rolling hills; occur in groups called provinces
2. usually near ridges and margins
3. requirements: 1-10 km across; <1 km high
4. abyssal plains from when sediments cover these provinces
a. they can cause these plains easily b/c the hills are so low
C. Seamounts, Guyots, and Atolls
1. seamount- undersea mountains (usually of volcanic origin); > 1 km tall
a. associated with boundaries or a hot spot
b. ex: Emperor Seamount chain; in North Pacific Ocean
2. guyots- flat-top islands; old seamounts
3. Corals- tiny animals; like light and warm, clean water
a. usually grow on sinking islands
b. fringing, barrier, and atoll- Charles Darwin
4. trenches- long, steep-sided troughs
a. occur at subduction boundaries
b. most are in Pacific Ocean
c. longest: Peru-Chile Trench; deepest: Marianas Trench
5. mid-ocean ridges- undersea mountain ranges
a. new ocean floor is created; diverging boundary
b. continuous- 80,000 km
c. usually 1-3 km above ocean floor
d. differences between E. Pacific Rise + Mid-Atlantic Ridges: spreading rates
6. Fracture Zones- divide ridges into segments
a. many transform faults
b. beyond ridge, no earthquakes
IV. Ocean Floor Sediments
A. Oozes
1. an organic sediment- made of biological remains
2. an ooze must be > 30% organic by mass
3. two types: calcareous and siliceous
a. Globigerina- have calcium carbonate; diatoms and radiolaria are siliceous
4. Carbonate Compensation Depth (CCD)- 4500 m; calcium carbonate dissolves there
a. b/c of pressure
B. Muds & Clays
1. muds- mixture of fine particles of various sizes
2. clays- settle to bottom from ocean surface
a. most important- red clays; common in deep ocean trenches; form at 1 mm per millennium
3. muds and clays may also come from land
a. from dust of deserts, ash of volcanoes, and rock materials from icebergs
C. Turbidites
1. turbidite- deposits made by turbidity currents
2. most important feature- graded beds
a. graded bed- a single layer that changes from large particles at the bottom to smaller ones
at the top
b. form b/c turbidity currents carry particles of all sizes
D. Authigenic Sediments
1. authigenic means, “formed in place”
a. these sediments form directly on the seafloor; don’t settle from the surface
2. manganese nodules- lumps of materials made from minerals rich in manganese & iron oxides
a. most of the material forming the nodules come from nearby
b. contain two important metals; copper and nickel
c. from at rate of 1 mm every million years
Chapter 19- Ocean Currents
I. Surface Currents
A. Ocean Currents
1. a continuous flow of water along a broad path in the ocean
2. can be in many directions
3. movement of water masses
4. each ocean- two complete circles of currents
5. cold- flow toward the equator; warm- away
B. Currents and Winds
1. driving force of ocean currents is the wind- particularly the trade winds (most important) and
the westerlies
2. monsoons- seasonal winds and currents
C. Warm Currents
1. flow away from equator
2. Gulf Stream- largest and fastest current
a. 240 km wide; 1.6 km deep; 1x108 cusec
b. west side of Sargasso Sea- very still and calm; lot of seaweed (such as Sargassum)
D. Gulf Stream Rings
1. the path of the Gulf Stream changes
2. these eddies “pinch” off- either warm or cold
a. cold: counter-clockwise; warm: clockwise
E. Cold Currents
1. flow toward the equator
2. always slower than warm currents
3. flow on the east sides of the ocean basins
F. Counter Currents
1. found at the equator between the equatorials (always flow west _> east)
2. flow in the direction opposite wind currents
3. return water to the east side of the basin
4. Cromwell Current- subsurface; Pacific Ocean
II. Currents Under the Surface
A. Density Current
1. result from the creation of a relatively denser area of water
a. ex: turbidity currents
2. causes: evaporation, freezing, and cooling
B. Density Currents by Evaporation
1. occur in hot, dry climates
2. Mediterranean Sea- flow at Strait of Gibraltar
C. Density Currents from Polar Water
1. most dense seawater poles
2. Atlantic Bottom Water- formed at Weddell and Ross Seas
a. Temp.= -1.9 C; Salinity= 34.6%0
b. deepest water in all 3 ocean basins
3. North Atlantic Deep Water
a. forms near Greenland- Norwegian Sea
b. temp.= 3 C; Salinity= 34.5%0
c. found in all 3 ocean basins
4. Antarctic Intermediate Water
a. temp.= 3.3 C; Salinity 33.8%0
5. deep currents move very slowly
6. responsible for deep-ocean circulation
D. Upwelling
1. a vertical movement at cold deep water to the surface
2. caused by the wind
3. common on the west coast of continents
4. also the return of deep water to the surface by Antarctica
5. this water contains large amounts of plant nutrients- feeds phytoplankton
Chapter 32, 33, 34- Earth History
I. Reading the Rock Period
A. Telling Time
1. relative time- general figure; time in respect to something else
2. absolute time- the exact date; many methods to find
B. Finding age w/ relative time
1. law of superposition- older rock on bottom; newer on top
2. law of cross-cutting relationships- intrusions are younger than rock layers they cut through
3. law of included fragments- occurs w/ clastic rock; pebbles inside rock are older than rock
(ex: conglomerate)
4. unconformity- a place in the rock record where layers of rock are missing
C. Geologic Timetable
1. eras- longest segments of geologic time
2. periods- divisions of eras
3. epochs- divisions of periods, smaller biological & geological changes
II. The Fossil Record
A. How fossils are formed
1. original remains- actual fossil
2. replaced remains- ex: petrified wood
3. casts and molds
B. Fossils provide a record of past life
1. shows changes in biological structures- record of evolution
2. Charles Darwin- Origin of Species; his book
C. Index Fossils
1. index fossil- easily recognizable, unique, widespread
2. key bed- same job as index fossil; layer instead of just a fossil
III. Measuring Absolute Time
A. Tree Rings- count the number of rings
1. two rings per year- one thick (spring), and the other thin (post-leaf)
B. Varves- any sediment that shows a yearly cycle
1. very common and clear in glacial lakes
C. Radioactive Elements and Absolute Time
1. three types of decay- alpha, beta, gamma
2. loss of particles- radioactive decay
3. uses radioactive isotopes
D. Half-Life
1. radioactive elements decay at steady rates
2. HL is the rate at which half the atoms of a radioactive element is changed to a stable form
E. Radiocarbon Dating
1. uses carbon 14; radioactive isotope
2. half-life is 5700 years- used for organic material
F. Other Radiometric Methods
1. uranium _> changes to lead (4.5 by- Half Life); rubidium _> strontium (49 by); potassium _>
argon (1.3 by)
IV. Precambrian Time
A. What is it?
1. all time before Paleozoic Era- Archean and Protozoic Eras- 90% of Earth’s history
2. rocks are largely devoid of fossils
B. Life- mostly stromafolites from bacteria or algae
C. Precambrian rock record
1. mostly igneous and metamorphic rocks
2. exposed areas of craton (shields)
3. many important ores were formed, especially Fe, Cu, Au, Ag, Ni, Cr, Ur
V. The Paleozoic Era
A. Fossils- this era marks the beginning of an extensive fossil record
B. Cambrian Period- trilobites (index fossils)
C. Ordovician P.- brachiopods
D. Silurian P.- eurypterids; salt beds of NYS formed then; Lockport dolomite (Niagara) was
deposited
E. Devonian P.- age of fish; fish start to proliferate
F. Missippian P.- crinoids
G. Pennsylvanian P.- coal fields of North America formed
H. Permian P.- very hot- more salt came; closes out Paleozoic
1. Permian extinctions- 220 mya; 96% of life on Earth perished
VI. The Mesozoic Era
A. The dinosaurs- many different types
1. carnivores (T. Rex & Allosaurus) and herbivores
2. Archeopteryx and Protoavis; forerunners of birds
B. Plants: Cretaceous- flowering plants and trees flourish
C. Era ends w/ Cretaceous extinction- 65 mya; 50% of life perished
VII. The Cenozoic Era
A. most recent era- Tertiary and Quaternary Periods
1. Colombian Plateau built; Cascades active
B. mammals increase greatly in size and number
Chapter 26- Weather & the Atmosphere
I. Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere
A. What is Weather?
1. weather- the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place
2. meteorology- science that studies weather
B. Observing the Weather
1. most basic- direct observation; w/out instruments
a. sky conditions, wind direction/speed, temperature
2. Beaufort Scale- created by Sir Francis Beaufort; measures magnitude of wind
3. windchill, humidity, air pressure changes
C. Composition of the Atmosphere
1. Air (78% N3, 21% O2, .98% Ar, .03% CO2)
2. composition is same to 80 km, but then it thins out
a. up to 1000 km- mostly oxygen; up to 12400 km- mostly helium; above that- hydrogen
3. weight- 99% w/i 32 km; 50% w/i 5.5 km
D. Water Vapor, Ozone, and Dust
1. WV- from oceans and plants- varies dramatically depending on position
2. ozone- (O3); formed from O2 and UV light
a. from 10-50 km; absorbs UV light
b. CFCs- destroy ozone
E. Structure of the Atmosphere
1. troposphere- weather lane; lowest layer; temp. falls as altitude rises
2. stratosphere- strong winds; ozone layer found (temp. rises)
3. mesosphere- 3rd layer (temp. falls)
4. thermosphere- gets hit with a lot of radiation (temp. rises)
F. Ionosphere
1. from 66-500 km; UV light knocks electrons off oxygen atoms; ionized particles
2. reflects radio waves back to Earth
3. affected by solar flares and prominences
4. auroras- caused from interactions of solar flares in ionosphere
II. Heating of the Atmosphere
A. How Heat Moves
1. radiation, conduction, convection, advection
B. Heat Balance of the Earth’s Atmosphere
1. insolation- incoming solar radiation
2. 30% reflected w/ 70% absorbed (19% atmosphere, 51% surface)
C. Absorption and the Greenhouse Effect
1. Earth radiates energy in infrared section of EMS
2. certain gases in atmosphere absorb infrared radiation: H2O, CO2, CH4 (all gases)
III. How and Why the Temperature Varies
A. Temperature Drops With Altitude
1. Normal Lapse Rate- the rate the temperature changes with altitude
a. 1 C- 160 m
2. warmest near surface- lots of energy absorbed
3. as air rises, less collisions of particles (less energy less heat)
4. Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate- air cools 1 C- 100m outside of clouds
B. Temperature Inversions
1. sometimes surface air is colder
2. ground cools faster than air, so ground cools lowest layer
3. traps pollution  causes smog in some cities
C. Seasons and the Sun’s Rays
1. angle of insolation varies from 0 to 90
2. higher angle receives more energy in a region
3. at low angles, much energy is reflected; high- absorbed
D. Warmest and Coldest Hours
1. warmest- usually mid-afternoon
2. coldest- just before sunrise
3. temp. range- difference b/t high and low
E. Warmest and Coldest Months(NH- mid latitudes)
1. strongest sunlight 6/21; warmest in July
2. weakest sunlight 12/21; coldest in Jan./Feb.
F. Heating of Land and Water
1. land heats and cools much more regularly than water due to a difference in specific heat
2. reasons
a. depth sunlight reaches
b. evaporation
c. water has greater specific heat
IV. Measuring Air Temperature
A. Temperatures and Thermometers
1. temperature- measure of the average kinetic energy molecules
2. thermometers- heated material expands
a. mercury- good to -40 C
b. alcohol- good to -129 C
3. also bimetal bars are used
B. Temperature Scales
1. degree- definite fraction of the difference b/w two fixed temperatures
2. Celsius and Fahrenheit are the same at -40
a. freezing: C=0; F=32
b. evaporation: C=10; F= 212
3. also Kelvin (used a lot in science)
4. conversion 1 C= 1.8 F
a. C= (F - 32) x 1.8
b. F= (C x 1.8) + 32
C. Isotherms- lines on a map that connect points of equal temperature
1. similar to contour lines
2. shift more in Northern Hemisphere and on land
Chapter 27- Evaporation, Condensation, + Precipitation
I. Evaporation and Humidity
A. States of Water
1. in atmosphere- solid (snow, hail), liquid (raindrops), gas (water vapor)
2. changes:
Solid
Gas
Liquid
3. sources: bodies of water, glaciers, volcanoes
B. Evaporation (LG)
1. molecules always move
2. at certain energy level, they escape water surface
3. higher temperature, more molecules escape
4. a cooling process; b/c they take energy w/ them
C. Specific Humidity (SH) and Capacity (C)
1. moisture capacity depends on temperature; warmer air higher capacity
2. Specific Humidity- actual amount of water vapor
3. when SH=C, the air is saturated
4. for each increase of 11 C, capacity doubles
D. Relative Humidity (RH)
1. Relative Humidity- how near the air is to its capacity for holding water vapor
2. compares specific humidity w/ capacity
3. expressed as a percent
E. Finding Relative Humidity (RH)
1. hydrometers- instruments used to measure RH
2. pyschrometer- uses evaporation cooling
a. two thermometers- wet bulb and dry bulb
II. Forms of Condensation
A. Condensation (GL) and the Dew Point
1. dew point- saturation temperature
2. when warm air cools, it cannot hold as much water vapor, so some must come out
B. Condensation Needs Cooling and Nuclei
1. air must be cooled first
2. water vapor needs condensation nuclei
C. Dew and Frost from Contact
1. must be w/ a surface cooler than the air
2. if dew point + temp. > 0 C  dew; if DP and temp. < 0 C  frost (solid)
3. killing frost- causes plant cells to burst
D. Fogs from Radiation and Advection
1. from when a whole layer of air is cooled below DP
2. radiation- when ground cools rapidly and cools the lowest air; winds mix the layer
3. advection- wind moves moist air over much colder land or water ( Newfoundland, Canada)
III. Clouds
A. Origin of Clouds
1. high mists or fogs
2. air that has cooled below the dew point
3. types:
a. stratiform- flat, long, high clouds
b. cumiliform- puffy, white
4. composition varies- water, ice-water, or just pure ice crystals
5. supercooled water- Temp.: < 0- no condensation nuclei
B. Cloud Names & their Meanings
1. cirrus- high, feathery, tufted; composed of ice crystals
2. alto- middle
3. stratus- sheets of clouds, or layers
4. cumulus- puffy
C. Adiabatic Lapse Rate
1. Dry Rate- 1 C/100 m; expansion or compression
2. Moist Rate- .6 C/100 m
D. Clouds w/ Vertical Development (Cumiliform)
1. form w/ rising air currents
2. two types: cumulonimbus + cumulus
3. depend on atmospheric instability
a. in instable air, the air continues to rise, & the much larger + taller cumulonimbus is formed
b. w/ stable air, the air can’t rise any more, + cumulus clouds are formed
E. Cumulus + Cumulonimbus Clouds
1. formed by rising air
a. lifting condensation level (LCL)- height at which water vapor condenses
b. dew point rate- .2 C/100 m
F. Layer Clouds
1. form in stable air when the lapse rate of surrounding air is less than the moist adiabatic lapse
rate
IV. Precipitation
A. Raindrop Formation
1. precipitation is the falling of any from of water from the air to Earth’s surface
2. warm cloud process- water droplets combine until they’re so heavy that gravity pulls them
down
3. ice processes- ice, acting as condensation nuclei, attracts water; grows larger until it drops
4. most precipitation comes from nimbostratus clouds
B. Forms of Precipitation
1. drizzle- smaller raindrops- falls less intensely than rain
2. rain- liquid precipitation all the way down
3. snow- starts as ice, and stays as ice until it hits the surface
4. sleet- can start as ice or water, then reaches place where air is > 0 C (if it’s solid it will melt,
if it’s liquid, it will stay liquid); then it hits a thick layer of cold air (< 0 C), and freezes again
5. freezing rain- starts as either solid or liquid, comes to layer > 0 C, and arrives at a thin layer
of cold air; b/c it’s thin it continues to be liquid until it hits the cold ground and freezes
6. hail- ice pellets; falls from cumulonimbus clouds; convection current inside cloud; ice crystals
gather water vapor, + when it reaches the top of the current, it picks up layers of ice each
time; when it gets too heavy it falls to the ground
C. Measuring Precipitation
1. rain gauge ( in .01”); usually snow is 10”/1” rain
D. Where does it rain?
1. depends on climate, storms; a lot at the equator
E. Where does it not rain?
1. in rain shadows of mountain ranges (behind tall mountains)
F. Acid Rain- big problem in New England + Upstate NY
1. usually sulfuric acid; condensation nuclei are pollutants
Chapter 28- Atmospheric Pressure and Winds
I. Air Pressure
A. What is Air Pressure?
1. pressure- force per unit area
2. air pressure- weight of the atmosphere per unit area
3. it is equal in all directions- horizontal and vertical
B. Measuring Air Pressure
1. barometer- instrument used to measure air pressure
2. air pressure on a dish of mercury supports a column of mercury- 76 cm or 30 inches (normal)
3. also aneroid barometer- thin metal can
4. barograph- records aneroid temperature
5. air pressure drops w/ height; an altimeter ia an aneroid barometer w/ a scale for height
a. barometer drops 1 cm/123 m
C. Air Pressure Units
1. the height of a mercury column- can be measured in cm or inches
2. metric unit- millibar (1 bar= 1000 mb)
a. standard sea level pressure= 1013.2 mb or 29.92 inches of mercury
3. sea-level pressure- corrected reading for high latitudes, taking into thought that air pressure
drops w/ height
4. max air pressure: 1030-1050 mb; min. 960- 1000 mb (870- lowest ever)
5. isobars- lines that connect points of equal air pressure; used on weather maps
D. Why Does Air Pressure Change?
1. changes in temperature- warmer air is lighter (air more spread out)  less air pressure
2. changes in humidity- more water vapor  lighter b/c water vapor is lighter than the O2 + N2
it pushes out less air pressure
E. Highs, Lows, & Pressure Gradients
1. high- a set of increasing isobars
2. low- a set of decreasing isobars
3. pressure gradient- determined by the closeness of the isobars; gradient affects wind speed;
steep gradient  faster wind speed
II. Wind
A. What makes the Wind Blow?
1. uneven heating of the atmosphere sets up a pressure gradient
B. Local Winds- wind on a small scale (not global)
1. wind over an island is a local wind; sea breeze- cold wind from sea; land breeze- warm
breeze from land; caused by the more rapid temperature changes of land
2. mountain and valley winds- at night, cold, heavy air sinks from mountaintops
C. The Coriolis Effect- NH- wind turns right; SH- left
1. winds don’t move in straight lines, but they curve b/c of Earth’s rotations
D. Measuring Wind (unevenly at 10 m above ground)
1. wind direction w/ a wind vane
2. wind speed w/ an anemometer
3. speed usually measured in knots or nautical miles/hr. (1.15 statute miles/hr., 1.85 km/hr.)
III. Origin of the World Wide Wind Belts
A. Winds on a Nonrotating Earth
1. very simple- like a large scale sea breeze
B. Latitude Wind Cells
1. circulation cells- rotating wind cycles; caused by rising + sinking of air b/c of air pressure
a. different than on nonrotating Earth b/c the Coriolis effect causes the many different cells
b. Hadley Cell- 0 - 30 cell; discovered by Hadley
2. equator- low pressure; poles- high
3. polar front- surface b/t warm and cold air; at 60
C. Pressure Belts + Winds
1. doldrums- low pressure belt near equator
2. horse latitudes- high pressure belt at 30 ; ships got stranded there b/c of high pressure, had to
throw their shipments of horses overboard to lighten themselves enough to move
3. international convergence zone (ITCZ)- region at the equator where winds converge
D. Weather in the Wind and Pressure Belts
1. doldrums- winds converge; most vertical motion of water
2. trade winds- very steady
3. horse latitudes- very still; clouds are scarce
4. prevailing westerlies- changing, fluctuating; moderate precipitation
5. polar front- low pressure; stormy
6. polar easterlies- sinking air, high pressure; cold, dry
IV. Winds and Wind Shifts
A. Effect of Continents
1. shift of the ITCZ- weather more extreme in the NH, shifts more over land b/c of lower
specific heat
2. pressure belts are broken up into highs and lows b/c of uneven heating of the atmosphere
B. Monsoons- seasonal winds that reverse in direction
1. strongest change over India
C. Jet Streams- narrow zones of very strong winds
1. height- 6-12,000 meters; 150-300 knots
2. pushes weather systems
Chapter 29- Air Masses and Fronts
I. Air Masses
A. Origin of an Air Mass
1. air mass- huge section of the lower troposphere w/ the same weather throughout
2. they form by staying in an area for a long time
3. form in areas of light winds (b/c the air needs to stay in the same area)
B. Kinds, Sources, and the Paths of Air Masses
1. named for their source region
2. types + abbreviations
a. maritime tropical (mT)- hot and moist; forms in tropics over oceans
b. continental tropical (cT)- hot and dry; low
humidity; forms over hot land
c. maritime polar (mP)- cold and humid; formed in high latitudes over water
d. continental polar (cP)- cold and dry; formed in high latitudes over land
e. continental arctic (cA)- extremely cold + dry; formed in extreme high latitudes over land
3. several source regions near North America
C. Weather in an Air Mass
1. may last for several days
2. weather depends on type and where it’s moving to; air masses moderate over time
D. Skies in the Air Mass
1. depends on ground temp. compared to air temp.
2. cooler ground- stable, inversions, fog
3. warmer ground- unstable, convection
E. Observing an Air Mass
1. Rawinsande- small weather balloon
II. Fronts and the Formation of Lows
A. What is a Front?
1. front- the boundary b/w two air masses
2. signals a change in the weather
3. usually a gentle slope= 1/100 to 1/400; 5 km in height
B. Types of Fronts
1. cold- cold air advancing; steeper slope
2. warm- warm air advancing; gentle slope
3. stationary- warm and cold balances
4. occluded- cold front overtakes a warm front
C. How Mid-latitude Lows (Cyclones) Form
1. all start along the polar front as a “wave”
2. involves cold polar air + warm tropical air
3. whole system moves east
4. eventually cold front overtakes the warm front
III. Weather of Lows, Fronts, and Highs
A. Low Pressure Weather
1. winds flow in counter-clockwise direction in NH
2. condensation releases heat and lowers pressure
3. lots of cloud cover, usually stormy
B. Warm Front Weather
1. clouds may be 1500 km ahead of front (b/c of gentle slope)
2. usually stratiform clouds (also cirrus); nimbostratus clouds (rain)
C. Cold Front Weather
1. move rapidly, steep slope  instability
2. narrow precipitation zone (b/c of steep front); abrupt weather change to cooler (b/c of speed)
3. thunderstorms (Cumulonimbus clouds)
D. Weather in a High
1. called anti-cyclones (winds move clockwise)
2. air flows out of high pressure; makes winds
3. sinking air; usually clear skies- fog; inversions from in stable morning air
Chapter 30- Storms and Weather Forecasts
I. Thunderstorms and Tornadoes
A. How Thunderstorms Form
1. small storms formed by rising air unstable air
2. most are 10-20 km across; 15 km tall
3. local or air mass thunderstorms- maritime tropical, best air mass; thunderstorms start b/c the
surface gets heated; warm air rises; instability, this type is scattered and small
4. frontal thunderstorms- develop ahead of cold front; form continuous line for very long;
stronger and lasts longer that air mass ones
5. squall lines are associated w/ cold fronts
B. Electricity in a Thunderstorm
1. a discharge of electricity from thundercloud to ground, another cloud, or ground to cloud
2. temp= 28,000° C; thunder is from the difference in temperature of the lightning and the air
3. can be heard at a maximum of 16 km
4. the lightning bolt itself is about 1/4 of an inch wide
C. Lightning Danger and Protection
1. kills 300 people per year
2. usually strikes tallest object; offers the least resistance for the channel
D. Tornadoes
1. US Great Plains have the most tornadoes in the world
a. warm, moist air (Gulf of Mexico) and cool, dry (Rocky Mts.) air meet; leads to instability
b. cold fronts can trigger strong storms- frontal thunderstorms trigger tornadoes
2. usually very narrow; travel rapidly
3. very strong winds (F5= 316 m.p.h.)
4. waterspouts- occur over water, much weaker
5. Fujita Scale (F0-F5)- based on destruction caused by the tornado; F0s + F1s- most common
a. not b/c of conditions of tornadoes b/c they’re short-lived; hard to record
E. Severe Weather Watches and Warnings
1. issued on Nat. Severe Storms Forecast in KC, MO
2. severe thunderstorms- strong winds, hail, tornado
3. warning- issued when severe storm has been sighted
II. Cyclonic Storms
A. Hurricanes
1. hurricane- an intense tropical low pressure system w/ sustained winds greater than 120 knots
(75 m.p.h.)
2. storm surge- most destructive part of the hurricane
3. grow more powerful from condensation (Heat)
4. eye, calmest part of middle, air sinks; eye wall, strongest part, 300-600 km
5. very low pressure in hurricanes
B. Sources and Tracks of Tropical Storms
1. originate as lows in ITCZ
2. get energy from heat and condensation
3. US hurricanes form by West Africa sometimes
4. most common from July to November
C. Naming and Forecasting Hurricanes
1. before 1953; only identified by year
2. in 1984, two sets of six lists w/ male + female names
3. exceptional storms names are retired (Andrew)
4. weather satellites record data; hurricane hunters- fly through hurricane to get data about eye
D. Winter Storms (mid-latitude lows)
1. for snow: moisture and a lot of cold air
2. originate along the polar front
3. blizzard- a snowstorm w/ high winds and low temperature
III. Forecasting and Weather Maps
A. United States
1. forecasts produced by computer
B. Forecasting w/ Computers
1. computers are very good, but they still need more help
C. Satellites
1. geostationary satellites- stay above the same point on Earth’s surface (at 35, 850 km)
2. Doppler- sees wind and precipitation using the Doppler Effect; very sensitive and accurate
D. Surface Weather Maps
1. US Weather Service- produce weather maps every 3 hrs.
a. Central Park- weather service observer for 120 years
2. station model- way of showing info on a weather map at a particular location
a. use international standard symbols
Chapter 31- Climate and Climate Change
I. Climate and Climate Change Controls
A. What is Climate?
1. it is the overall weather of an area
2. temperature and rainfall are most important
B. Use of Variation
1. compare a location w/ another similar one
C. Climate Controls
1. latitude, altitude, prevailing winds, topography, ocean currents, distance to ocean
II. Factors that Control Temperature
A. Latitude
1. differences b/w tropics, mid-latitudes, and polar areas
2. hours of daylight/night, affects temperature range; high latitudes  can be all day or all night
B. Altitude
1. height above sea level- 1°/160 m
C. Land and Sea
1. continental- large yearly temperature range
2. marine- small yearly temperature range
D. Prevailing Winds
1. depends if wind is off land
2. at Mid-latitudes; west  has marine weather; east  continental air masses
E. Topography
1. mountains may block wind; leeward- hot and dry; windward side- cool and rainy
F. Ocean Currents
1. Gulf Stream- bring warm weather; Labrador Current- cold
III. Factors that Control Rainfall
A. Latitude + Prevailing Winds
1. tropics- trade winds  bring heavy precipitation; they increase lifting, b/c of convergence 
brings instability  brings rain
2. Polar Easterlies + Prevailing Westerlies  converge at Polar Front  forms cyclones
B. Mountains and Rainfall
1. NH: north and east, south and west; SH: south and east, north and west
2. orographic lifting- rain and mountains; mountains block clouds  rains in front of mountains
3. warm- Chinooks- Rockies; foehn- Europe; Santa Ana- California
4. cold- Mistral- Alps; Boro- Yugoslavia
C. Distance from the Ocean
1. depends on wind direction; ocean moderates temperature
D. Ocean Currents + Fogs
1. warm air blowing over cold land/water  creates fogs
IV. Climate Change
A. Sources of Climate Change
1. heat budget is in balance
2. many sources of change
B. Causes of Cooling
1. number of sunspots- cool parts of the sun
2. volcanoes- ash blocks sun
3. location of continents- spreads heat evenly
C. Causes of Global Warming
1. Greenhouse Effect- greenhouse gases trap infrared rays in
2. volcanoes- release carbon dioxide- a greenhouse gas
3. El Nino- warming of the coastal regions of the Pacific; causes short-term warming of the
coastal regions; reverses wind direction
a. La Nina- opposite  causes cooling
D. Is the Climate Getting Warmer
1. no one really knows
Frequently used abbreviations:
NH= North
Hemisphere
SH= South
Hemisphere
w/= with
w/i= within
w/o= without
b/c= because
b/t= between
cm= centimeter
m= meter
in.= inch
km= kilometers
mb= millibar
NA= North
America
RM= Retrograde
Motion