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Order Code Code RS21654 October 29, October 29, 2003 Report for for Congress CRS Report Received through through the the CRS CRS Web Islamic Religious Schools, Madrasas: Background Febe Armanios in Middle East Religions Religions and Cultures Analyst in Foreign Affairs, Defense, Defense, and and Trade Foreign Affairs, Summary September 11, 2001, the Islamic Islamic religious schools Since the terrorist attacks on September known as madrasas (or madrassahs) in the Middle East, Central, and Southeast Asia have been of increasing increasing interest to U.S. U.S. foreign foreign policy policymakers. makers. Some allege ties between between madrasas and terrorist organizations, such as Al Qaeda, and assert that these religious of these schools promote Islamic extremism and militancy. Others maintain that most of religious schools have been blamed unfairly for fostering anti-U.S. sentiments and for of their role in the producing terrorists. This report provides an overview of madrasas, of Muslim world and issues related to their alleged financing by Saudi Arabia and other Related CRS CRS products products include include CRS CRS Issue Issue Brief Briefffi93113, external donors. Related IB93113, CRS Report This report report will will be be updated updated as events warrant. RS21457, and CRS Report RS21432. RS21432. This Overview Since the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, the Islamic schools known as madrasas have have been been of of increasing increasing interest interest to analysts analysts and to officials officials involved involved in formulating U.S. foreign policy toward the Middle East, Central, and Southeast Asia. formulating U.S. foreign Madrasas drew added attention when it became known that several Taliban leaders and Al Qaeda members had developed radical political views at madrasas in Pakistan, some allegedly were built and and partially partially financed financed through through Saudi Saudi Arabian Arabian sources. sources. of which allegedly These revelations have led to accusations that madrasas promote Islamic extremism and of these militancy, and are a recruiting ground ground for for terrorism. terrorism. Others maintain that most of religious schools have been blamed blamed unfairly for fostering anti-U.S. sentiments and argue Muslims live in that madrasas play an important role in countries countries where millions millions of Muslims poverty and the educational infrastructure is in decay. Background Definition. The Arabic word madrasa generally has two meanings: 1) in its more common literal and colloquial usage, it means "school"; 2) in its secondary meaning, a an educational educational institution institution offering offering instruction instruction in the Islamic Islamic subjects subjects madrasa is an in the of the Prophet Muhammad, including, but not limited to, the Quran, the sayings (hadith) of Congressional Research TheLibrary Libraryof ofCongress Congress Congressional ResearchService Service.:.The ACLURM002798 CRS-2 (jiqh), and law. jurisprudence (fiqh), law. Historically, madrasas were distinguished as as institutions of higher studies and existed in contrast to more of more rudimentary rudimentary schools called kuttab which Recently, "madrasa" has been used as a catchall denoting any the Quran.1 Quran. 1 Recently, only taught taught the secondary, or advanced - that promotes an Islamic based curriculum. school - primary, secondary, refers to any However in many many countries, countries, including including Egypt Egypt and and Lebanon, Lebanon, madrasa refers However educational institution (state-sponsored, (state-sponsored, private, private, secular, secular, or or religious). religious). In Pakistan and commonly refers Bangladesh, madrasa commonly refers to to Islamic Islamicreligious religiousschools. schools. This This can can be be a reform" could have significant semantic semantic marker, analysis of "madrasa reform" significant marker, because because an an analysis different implications within various cultural, political, political, and and geographic geographic contexts. contexts. Unless otherwise noted in this paper, the term madrasa refers to Islamic religious schools at the primary and secondary levels. History. As an institution oflearning, One of ofthe of learning, the madrasa is centuries old. One the first established madrasas, called the Nizamiyah, was built in Baghdad during the eleventh century A.D. Offering food, food, lodging, lodging, and and aa free free education, education, madrasas spread rapidly century A.D. Offering throughout the Muslim world, and although their curricula varied from place to place, it religious in character character because these schools ultimately ultimately were was always religious were intended to work. In emphasizing classical prepare future Islamic religious scholars (ulama) for their work. traditions in Arabic Arabic linguistics, linguistics, teachers teachers lectured lectured and students students learned learned through through rote traditions of Western Duringthe thenineteenth nineteenthand andearly early twentieth twentieth centuries, centuries, in in the era of memorization. During colonial rule, rule, secular institutions institutions came to supersede supersede religious religious schools schools in in importance importance colonial revitalized in the 1970s with the throughout the Islamic world. world. However, madrasas were revitalized rising interest interest in religious religious studies studies and Islamist politics countries such rising politics in countries such as Iran and In the 1980s, madrasas in Afghanistan and Pakistan were allegedly boosted by Pakistan. In financial support from the United States,2 States,2 European European governments, governments, and an increase in financial Saudi Arabia, all of whom reportedly viewed these schools as recruiting grounds for the Inthe the early early 1990s, 1990s, the the Taliban Taliban movement was formed anti-Soviet Mujahedin Mujahedin33 fighters. In "student" in in Arabic), many of by Afghani Islamic clerics and students (talib means "student" of whom were former Mujahedin who had studied and trained in madrasas and who advocated a oflslam strict form of Islam similar to the Wahhabism Wahhabism44 practiced in Saudi Arabia. Relationship between Madrasas and other other Educational Educational Institutions. Institutions. Relationship most Muslim Muslim countries countries today, part of of aabroader broader educational educational Madrasas, in most today, exist exist as part infrastructure. For For those those who who can can afford afford the the high high tuition tuition costs, costs, there there is aa private private infrastructure. educational sector sector where students students can receive what what is considered educational considered to be a quality WesternWesternof their their relatively relatively lower people turn tum to state state style education. Because of style education. Because lower costs, costs, many many people However, in in recent recent years years and in more impoverished nations, schools, where they exist. exist. However, the rising costs and shortages of public educational institutions have encouraged parents of a state educational system have argued to send their children to madrasas. Supporters of ofIslam, new ed (Leiden: 1965-); "Madrasah," See "Madrasa" in the Encyclopedia of (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1965-); "Madrasah," theOxford Encyclopedia Encyclopedia of ofthe Modern Islamic World (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1995). in theOxford 1 2Mary Ann Weaver, "Children of the Jihad," The New Yorker, June 12, 12,1995. 1995. 2 3 literally "one "one who fights in the cause ofIslam." The term mujahedin refers to Islamic guerrillas, literally of Islam." 4 The word "Wahhabi"is derived from from the name of of aa Muslim Muslim scholar, scholar, Muhammad Muhammad Ibn Abd (1703-1791). Wahhabism is the one of of the more conservative forms of al-Wahhab (1703-1791).Wahhabism of Sunni Islam. At its core, it stresses the absolute unity of of God and a return to a pure and orthodox practice of Islam, as embodied in the Quran and in the life of the Prophet Muhammad. ACLURM002799 CRS-3 of existing existing schools or or the building of new ones could offer a viable that the improvement improvement of building of madrasas. Others Others maintain that reforms reforms should be alternative to the religious-based religious-based madrasas. alternative institutionalized primarily within Islamic madrasas in order to ensure a well-rounded well-rounded curriculum at these popular popular institutions. institutions. In the Agency for International International Development's Development's Education in the Muslim World," both of of these (USAID) 2003 Report on "Strengthening "Strengthening Education viewpoints are are advocated. advocated.'5 Although there there are a few schools Curriculum. Although schools thatteach that teach secular secular subjects, in general general madrasas offer a religious-based curriculum, focusing on the Quran and Islamic texts. instruction in basic religious tenets, some argue that a small group of radicalized Beyond instruction radicalized specifically located Afghanistan-Pakistan border, spawning a madrasas, specifically located on on the Afghanistan-Pakistan border, are are spawning of Islam and calling on Muslims to fight fight nonbelievers nonbelievers and stand against militant form of West. 6 Other Otherobservers observers suggest suggest that that these what they see as the moral depravity of the West.6 on teaching schools are wholly unconcerned with religious scholarship and focused solely schools unconcerned scholarship teaching 7 recentstudy studyby by USAID USAID denotes denotes the links between madrasas and extremist violence. AArecent violence.' Islamic groups groups as "rare but worrisome," but also adds that "access to quality education alone cannot dissuade all vulnerable youth from from joining joining terrorist terrorist groups."g groups."' even in in more more moderate moderate ("quietist") ("quietist") schools, schools, students students are One source reports that even Some "immoral" and and "materialistic" "materialistic" Western Western culture.9 culture. 9 Some often instructed to reject the "immoral" Western and Islamic educators also express concern that these quietist madrasas, with pedagogical techniques, techniques, such as rote rote memorization, memorization, their defined curricula and dated pedagogical prepared for the the modern modem workforce. workforce. produce individuals individuals who produce who are neither skilled nor prepared of the madrasa system view its traditional pedagogical approach as a way to Defenders of preserve an authentic Islamic Islamic heritage. heritage. Because most madrasa graduates have access to of education, they commonly are employed in the religious sector only to a limited type of as preachers, prayer leaders, and Islamic scholars. Socio-Economic Factors. Madrasas offer a free education, room, and board to their students, students, and thus thus they they appeal appeal to to impoverished impoverished families families and and individuals. individuals. On the whole, these religious schools are supported by private donations from Muslim believers of zakat -— one through a process of of alms-giving known in Arabic as zakat. The practice of of the five pillars of pillars of the the Islamic Islamic faith faith-—prescribes prescribes that that aafixed fixedproportion proportion of ofone's one's income be given to specified charitable causes, and traditionally a portion of zakat has endowed 10 religious education. Almost all all madrasas are intended for educating boys, although religious education:6 Almost there are a small number of madrasas for girls. 5 "StrengtheningEducation Educationin in the theMuslim Muslim World," World," USAID USAID Issue Issue Paper No. No.2, "Strengthening 2, June 2003. Nov.lDec. 2002, iss. 133; Anna 6 Husain Haqqani, "Islam's "Islam's Medieval Outposts," Foreign Policy, Nov./Dec. aI, "School by the Book,"Newsweek, March 11, 11,2002. Kuchment, et al, 2002. 7 Somewriters writershave have implied implied that all madrasas are harbors of 'Some of militancy. See, for example, Jessica Jessica Stern, "Preparing for a War on Terrorism," Current History 100, iss. 649 (2001): 355-357; and Alan Richards "At War with Utopian Fanatics," Middle East Policy 8, iss. 4 (2001). 8 "Strengthening Education in the Muslim World," op. cit. 9 Haqqani, "Islam's Medieval Outposts," op. cit. The traditional traditional zakat is one-fortieth one-fortieth of a person's wealth, wealth, but but there there are are varying varying Quranic Quranic The of this point. See Jonathan interpretations of interpretations Jonathan Benthall, Benthall, "Financial Worship: The Quranic Injunction of the Royal Anthropological Institute 5, no. 1999): 27-42. to Almsgiving," Journal of no. l(London, 1999): 10 ACLURM002800 CRS-4 Examples of the Current State of Madrasas Role of Saudi Saudi Arabia. Arabia. In recent years, years, the dissemination dissemination of of Saudi Saudi Arabian Arabian Role of aa Saudi Saudi educational educational curriculum curriculum have donations to Islamic Islamic charities charities and the export of donations Although in in Saudi Saudi Arabia Arabia itself, itself, schools schools teach subjects received worldwide worldwide attention. attention. Although beyond religious studies, conservative Islamic teachings permeate the Saudi educational structure. Viewing Viewing Saudi Saudi Arabia Arabia with with greater greater scrutiny scrutiny following following the system structure. the events events of September 11, experts have maintained that Saudi school curricula foster anti-Western anti-Semitic sentiments. Saudi official official textbooks also reportedly denounce and anti-Semitic sentiments. Saudi denounce Shi'a Islam as well as any popular Islamic practices that do not agree with Wahhabi beliefs. 11 In response to such allegations and following a review of of schoolbooks in 2002, the Saudi of a Saudi government survey, 5% ofthe minister stated stated that, in light of foreign minister of the material material was 10% questionable, while 85% called for understanding with considered "horrible" and 10% Shortlythereafter, thereafter,the the government government vowed vowed to remove objectionable other religious religious faiths. faiths.'12 Shortly train teachers in promoting tolerance, tolerance, but skeptics skeptics question the extent to parts and to train which the government is willing or able to instill reforms in its schools. On the global front, concern has been expressed over the spread of of radical Islam Saudi-funded schools, universities, and mosques, which exist in many countries through Saudi-funded including Bangladesh, Bosnia, Indonesia, Indonesia, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, and even in the United of Saudi Wahhabism of more Some view view the teaching teaching of States. Some Wahhabism as threatening threatening the existence of moderate beliefs beliefs and practices practices in other parts parts of the the Muslim Muslim world. world. However, there are those who argue argue that that aa differentiation differentiation should should be made made between between funding funding to to support support those charitable projects, such as madrasa-building, and funding which has been channeled, of Saudi overtly or implicitly, to support extremist teachings in these madrasas. Critics of policies allege that the Saudi government has permitted or encouraged fund raising by charitable Islamic Islamic groups groups and and foundations linked linked to Al Qaeda, which the U.S. charitable U.S. government government In 2003, 2003, the the Saudi Saudi has identified identified as has as responsible responsiblefor forthe the September September1111hijackings.13 hijackings.' In government announced banning private charities and relief groups groups from government announced that that itit was was banning private charities instituted to ensure that the money is donating money overseas, until new regulations are instituted 14 Theextent extent to to which which these these government government not being channeled channeled to to terrorist terroristorganizations. organizations.' The regulations will be effective remains to be seen. Pakistan's educational educational infrastructure infrastructure Pakistan. Hosting over 10,000 madrasas,15 Pakistan's of recent concern in the United States. Facing an an economy economy that is marked by has been of States. Facing many Pakistanis Pakistanis have turned to madrasas for the extreme poverty poverty and underdevelopment, underdevelopment, many 11 Information on accusations against the Saudi curriculum, in addition to the contents of Saudi schoolbooks can Prokop, "Saudi Arabia: Arabia: The Politics of Education," schoolbooks can be found in Michaela Prokop, International Affairs 79, no. 1 (London, 2003):77-89. "The American-Saudi American-Saudi Relationship: a briefing by HRH Prince Saud al 12 John Duke Anthony, "The Gulfwire Newsletter, October 13, 13,2002. Faisal, Minister of Foreign Affairs," Gulfhire 2002. 13 24,2003. Glenn R. Simpson, "Unraveling "Unraveling Terror's Terror's Finances," Wall Street Journal, October 24, 2003. 14 Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency Implements New Regulations Regarding Charities," Press Release on 12, 2003, 2003, available available on the website website of the the Saudi Saudi Arabia Arabia Embassy Embassy at Release on June June 12, on the [http://www.saudiembassy.net/pressJelease/releasesl03-PR-0612-SAMA.htm]. [http://www.saudiembassy.net/press release/releases/03-PR-0612-SAMA.htm],visited visited on 27,2003. October 27, 2003. 15 "Strengthening Education Education in the Muslim World," op. cit. "Strengthening ACLURM002801 CRS-5 16 However, However,because because of oflinks linksbetween between Pakistani Pakistani free education, education, room, free room, and and board. board.' madrasas and the ousted Afghan Taliban regime, as well as alleged connections of of some madrasas to Al Qaeda, some observers consider the reform of Pakistani schools as an important component of combating anti-U.S. anti-U.S. terrorism terrorism and in helping to stabilize the 17 Offering Offering financial financial incentives, incentives, the the Pakistani Pakistani recently-formed Afghani recently-formed Afghani government. government." government is encouraging madrasas to register as part of of what it portrays as an attempt to monitor their curricula and to ensure that madrasas are not promoting violence. violence. After encountering initial resistance, in July 2003, the Pakistani government announced a plan comply with with registration registration procedures procedures with with additional additional reward those those madrasas that comply to reward 1S benefits, including better better teacher teacher training, training, salaries, salaries,text textbooks, books,and andcomputers. computers.' Other Countries of Interest. Currently, the popularity of madrasas is rising in Southeast Asia. Forexample example in in Indonesia, Indonesia, home home to the the largest largest number number of parts of Southeast parts Asia. For Muslims in the world, almost 20-25% of of primary and secondary school children attend pesantrens (Islamic religious schools).19 schools ).19 InIncontrast contrast to to most most madrasas, Indonesian pesantrens have been noted for teaching a moderate form oflslam, of Islam, one that that encompasses encompasses Islamic mysticism Sufism. However, However, the the Saudi-based Saudi-based charity charity al-Haramayn, al-Haramayn, some some Islamic mysticism or or Sufism. of which have been named by the U.S. government as conduits for terrorism, branches of Indonesia20 prior to the Saudi reportedly was operating some educational institutions in Indonesia20 of its operations worldwide. government's2003 2003 order order requiring requiring al-Haramayn al-Haramayn to close all of government's Islam, has Qatar, a country country which officially officially adheres Wahhabist brand of Islam, Qatar, adheres to to the Wahhabist expressed intentions intentions to overhaul overhaul its primary primary and secondary school system by introducing expressed modem instruction instruction and classes in Islamic Islamic studies and more modern more and reducing reducing the the number number of classes Arabic. This This reform reform project, project, part part of ofwhich which isis being beingadministered administered by by the the RAND RAND Arabic. Corporation, aims to promote religious tolerance, accountability and decision-making, while preserving preserving Qatar's Some Muslim Muslim critics, critics, expressing expressing a while Qatar's cultural culturalidentity.21 identity.' Some widespread sentiment in the Middle East and in the Islamic world, resent such reforms, alleging that they are dictated by the United States and are disrespectful of the native Islamic heritage.22 heritage. 22 16 Chris Kraul, "The World Dollars to Help Pupils in Pakistan," Lost Angeles Times, April 14, 16 2003. 17 17 "Afghan Leader Condemns Pakistani BBe Monitoring Pakistani Clerics Clerics for for Training TrainingTaleban TalebanFighters," Fighters,"BBC 15,2003. South Asia, September 15, 2003. 18 "Madarassah Reform in in Pakistan," Pakistan," website website of ofthe the Embassy Embassy of of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. 18 "Madarassah Reform Pakistan. [http://embassyofpakistan.orglpb5.php], visited on October 27,2003. [http://embassyofpakistan.org/pb5.php], 27, 2003. 19 Ronald A Luckens-Bull, "Two Sides of of the Same Coin: Modernity and Tradition in Islamic 19 Education in Indonesia," Anthropology and Education Quarterly 32, no.3 (2001):353. 20 JanePerlez, Quietly Promote Promote Strict StrictIslamin YorkTimes,July Jane Perlez, "Saudis "Saudis Quietly Islam in Indonesia," Indonesia," New York Times, July 5, 2003. 20 21 Erik W. Robelen, "U.S. Institutions Help Shape Education in the Islamic World," Education Week, May 28, 2003. 21 22 Susan Susan B. B. Glasser, "Qatar "Qatar Reshapes Reshapes its Schools, Putting English over Islam," Islam," Washington Post, February 2, 2003. 22 ACLURM002802 CRS-6 Current U.S. Policy and Legislation 2002, USAID committed $100 million over five years for general general In September 2002, education reform The Research Research Triangle Triangle Institute Institute (RTI), (RTI), aa U.S.-based, U.S.-based, education reform in in Pakistan. Pakistan. The non-profit corporation, non-profit corporation, has has received received aa USAID USAID contract contract for for $60 $60 million million of of this this aid to 23 Education Sector Sector Reform Reform Assistance (ESRA) project in Pakistan. implement USAID's USAID's Education Pakistan.23 also has has committed committed additional additional resources resources through through the Middle East The United States also received $29 million in FY2002 and $90 million in Partnership Initiative (MEPI), which received One of ofMEPI's MEPI's goals goals is is to to encourage improvements in 108-11 ).24 One FY2003 (through P.L. 108-11).24 secular education throughout the Arab world, and MEPI' s MEPI's draft strategies have registered TheBush Bush concern over the rising rising enrollment enrollment in in Islamic Islamic schools schools (madrasas).25 The concern over the Administration is requesting $145 million for MEPI MEPI in in FY2004. FY2004. The House Committee on Appropriations has recommended $45 $45 million for MEPI and for "Islamic outreach" programs in the FY2004 Foreign Operations Operations Bill Bill (H.R. (H.R. 2800). 2800). The Committee cited the of education, training and exchanges" but stated that "these funds must be "importance of apportioned more non-Arab Muslim nations" nations" apportioned more equitably equitably between between Arab Arab Muslim Muslim and non-Arab (H.Rept. 108-222). 108-222). The The Senate Senate report report (S.Rept. (S.Rept. 108-106) 108-106) on on Foreign Foreign Operations Operations (H.Rept. appropriations (S. 1426) supports the Administration's full budget request for MEPI. congressional hearings relationship between Recent congressional hearings have have examined the possible relationship 26 terrorist-financing. There Thereappears appears totobe besome somelegislative legislative interest interest in madrasas and terrorist-financing.26 improving outreach improving outreach and and educational educational programs programsthroughout throughoutthe theMuslim Muslimworld. world. For Relations report (S.Rept. (S.Rept. 108-39) on the example, the Committee on Foreign Relations example, the Senate Committee FY2004 Foreign Relations Authorization Act (S. 925) supports "an effective campaign growinganti-Americanism, anti-Americanism, counter credible credible reports reports and and observed observed evidence evidence ofofgrowing to counter S.Con.Res. 14 and H.Con.Res. 242, resolutions especially in the Islamic world." Both S.Con.Res. of Congress regarding the education curriculum in the Kingdom of "expressing the the sense of "expressing Saudi Arabia," criticize the educational system in in Saudi Saudi Arabia. Arabia. Additionally, H.R. 3137, assistance or or reparations a resolution "to prohibit prohibit assistance reparations to Cuba, Libya, North Korea, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Syria," lists several specific charges against Saudi Arabia, calling the country ofWahhabism, "the center of Wahhabism, the ultra-purist, jihadist form oflslam." of Islam." FY2004 Request Request for for Economic Support Funds (ESF) in Pakistan, The Bush Administration's Administration's FY2004 under which educational programs would be administered, is $200 million. million 23 CRSReport Report RS21457, The Middle '24CRS Middle East East Partnership Partnership Initiative: Initiative: An An Overview, by Jeremy Sharp. "The Middle Middle East East Partnership Partnership Initiative Initiative Programming Programming Guide," USAID/Asia USAIDIAsia & 25 "The & Near East Bureau and Department of of State/Near East Affairs, June 2003. These include the Hearing These Hearing on Terrorism Two Years After After 9/11, Senate Judiciary Subcommittee 10,2003 on Technology, Terrorism, and Government Information, September 10, 2003 and the Hearing on Terror Financing, Senate Governmental Affairs Committee, July 31,2003. 31, 2003. 26 ACLURM002803