Download I find the book worth reading.

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ
РЕСПУБЛИКИ КАЗАХСТАН
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ
имени ШАКАРИМА г. СЕМЕЙ
Документ СМК 3 уровня
УМКД
УМКД
Учебно-методические
материалы по дисциплине
«Иностранный язык»
Редакция №1 от 11.09.2014г
УМКД 042-18-17.1.17/03-2014
УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЙ КОМПЛЕКС
ДИСЦИПЛИНЫ
«Иностранный язык»
для специальностей магистратуры
6М080100 -Агрономия, 6М080200 - Технология производства продуктов животноводства,
6М060700 – Биология, 6М060600 – Химия, 6М120100 – Ветеринарная медицина,
6М072800- Технология перерабатывающих продуктов, 6М 072700 – Технология
продовольственных продуктов, 6М 072400 – Технология машины и оборудования,
6М060100- Математика, 6М073200 – Стандартизация и сертификация,
6М 077500 – Метрология, 6М 073500- Пищевая безопасность.
УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ МАТЕРИАЛЫ
Семей
2014
1
CONTENT
Module 1
Theme 1 ……………………………………………………………………….1-22
Theme 2 ………………………………………………………………………22-52
Theme 3 ………………………………………………………………………52-64
Theme 4 ………………………………………………………………………64-92
Theme 5 ……………………………………………………………………...92-112
Theme 6 …………………………………………………………………….113-135
Module 2
Theme 7 ……………………………………………………………………135-172
Theme 8 ……………………………………………………………………172-185
Theme 9 ……………………………………………………………………185-193
Theme 10 …………………………………………………………………..193-214
Theme 11 …………………………………………………………………..214-226
2
MODULE 1
Theme 2. Grammatical categories of the English language. Ways of translation of passive
constructions into the Russian language. Extension and systematization of knowledge of
grammatical material necessary for the translation of scientific literature on specialties.
GENERAL NOTION OF THE PROBLEM OF GRAMMATICAL
CATEGORIES IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR, part 1.
The immediate expression of grammatical time, or "tense", is one of the typical functions of the
finite verb. It is typical because the meaning of process, inherently embedded in the verbal lexeme, finds
the complete realization only if presented in certain time conditions. That is why the expression or nonexpression of grammatical time, together with the expression or non-expression of grammatical mood in
person-form presentation constitutes the basis of the verbal category of finitude, i.e. the basis of the
division of all the forms of the verb into finite and non-finite.
When speaking of the expression of time exposes it as the universal form of the continual
consecutive change of phenomena, time, as well as, space is the basic forms of the existence of matter,
they both are ineluctable properties of reality and as such are absolutely independent of human
perception. On the other hand, like other objective factors of the universe, time is reflected by man
through his perceptions and intellect, and finds its expression in his language.
It is but natural that time as the universal form of consecutive change of things should be
appraised by the individual in reference to the moment of his immediate perception of the outward reality.
This moment of immediate perception, or "present moment", which is continually shifting in time, and the
linguistic content of which is the "moment of speech", serves as the democration line between the past
and the future. All the lexical expressions of time, according to as they refer or do not refer the denoted
points or periods of time, directly or obliquely to this moment are divided into "present oriented" or
"absolutives" expressions of time.
The absolute time denotation in compliance with the experience gained by man in the course of
his cognitive activity distributes the intellective perception of time among three spheres the sphere of the
present with the present moment included within its framework the sphere of the present by way of
retrospect; the sphere of the present day by way of prospect.
Thus, words and phrases like now, last week, in our century, in the past, in the years to come,
very soon, yesterday, in a couple days, giving a temporial characteristic to an event from the point of view
of its orientation in reference to the present moment, are absolute names of time.
The non-absolute time denotation does not characterize an event in terms of orientation towards
the present. This kind of denotation may be either "relative" or "factual".
The relative expression of time correlates two or more events showing some of them either as
preceding the others, or following the others, or happening at one and the same time with them. Here
belong such words and phrases as after that, before that, at one and the same time with, so time later, at an
interval of a day, or different times, etc.
The factual expression of time either directly states the astronomical time of an event, or else
conveys this meaning in terms of historical landmarks. Under this heading should be listed such words
3
and phrases as in the year 1966, during the time of the First World War, at the epoch of Napaleon, at the
early period of civilization.
In the context of real speech the above types of time of naming are used in combination with one
another, so that the denoted event receives many sided and very exact characterization regarding its
temporal status.
Of all the temporal meanings conveyed by such detailing lexical denotation of temporal meaning
conveyed by such detailing lexical denotation of time, the finite verb generalizes in its categorical forms
only the most abstract significations, taking them as dynamic characteristics of the reflected process. The
fundamental divisions both absolute time and of non-absolute relative time find in the verb a specific
presentation, idiomatically different from one language to another. The form of this presentation is
dependent, the same as with the expression of other grammatical meanings, on the concrete semantic
features chosen by a language as a basis for the functional differention within the verb lexeme. And it is
the verbal expressions of abstract, grammatical time that forms the necessary background serving as a
universal temporal "polarizer" and "leader", the marking of time would be utterly inadequate. Indeed,
what informative content should be following passage convey with all its lexical indications of time, if it
were with all its lexical indications of time achieved through the forms of the verb – the unit of the
lexicon which the German grammarians very significantly call "zuwort" – the "time word".
My own birthday passed without ceremony, I would as usual, in the morning and in the afternoon
went for a walk in the solitary woods behind my house. I have never been able to discover what it is that
gives these woods their mysterious attractiveness. They are like no woods I have ever known
(S.Maugham).
In Modern English, the grammatical expression of verbal time, i.e. tense, is effected in two
correlated stages. At the first stage, the process receives an absolute time characteristic by means of
apposing the past tense to the present tense.
The marked member of the opposition is the past form. At the second stage, the process receives a
non- absolute relative time characteristic by means of opposing the forms of the future tense to the forms
of no future making. Since the two stages of the denotation are expressed separately, by their own
oppositional forms and besides, have essentially different orientation characteristics, it stands to reason to
recognize in the system of the English verb not one but two temporal categories. Both of them answer the
question: in the "what is the terming of the process?" But the first category, having the past tense as its
strong member, expresses a direct retrospective evalution of the time of the event reflected on the
utterance finds its adequated location in the temporal context, showing all the distinctive propeties of the
lingual presentation of time mentioned above.
In accord with oppositional marking of the two temporal categories under analysis, we shall call
the first of them the category of "prospective time", or contractedly prospect.
The category of primary time, as has just been stated, provides for the absolutive expression of
the time of the process denoted by the verb, i.e. such an expression of it as given its evolution, in the long
run, in reference to the moment of suffix –(e)d, nemic interchange of more or less individual
specifications. The suffix marks the verbal form of the past time leaving the opposite is to be rendered by
the formula "the past tense – the present tense", the latter member representing the non-fast tense
according to the accepted oppositional interpretation.
The specific features of the category of primary time, that it divides all the tense forms of the
English verb into two temporal planes: the plane of the present and the plane of the past, which affect also
the future forms very important in this respect is the structural nature of the expression of the category:
4
the category of primary time is the only verbal category of primary time is only the category of immanent
order which is expressed by inflexional forms. These inflexion forms of the past and present coexist in the
same verb+entry to speech with the other, analytical models of various categorical expression, including
the futures; on the other hand, the future of the present, is prospected from the present; on the other hand,
the future of by the speaker the meaning of the present with this connotation will be conveyed by such
phrases at this very moment, or this instant, or exactly now, or some other phrase like that. But an
utterance like "now while i’m speaking" breaks the notion of the zero time proper, since the speaking
process is not a momentary but a durative element. Furthermore, the present will still be the present if we
relate to such vast periods of time as this month, this year, in our epoch, in the present millennium, etc.
The denoted stretch of time may be prolonged by a collocation like that beyond any definite limit. Still
furthermore, in utterances of general truths as for instance, "Two plus two makes four" or "The sun is a
star", the idea of time as such is almost suppressed the implication of constancy, unchangeability of the
truth at all times being made prominent. The present tense as the verbal form of generalized meaning
covers all these denotations, showing the present time in relation to the process as inclusive of the
moment of speech incorporating this moment within its definite or indefinite stretch and opposed to the
past time.
Thus, if we say, "Two plus two makes four", the linguistic implication of it is "always, and so at
the moment of speech". If we say "I never take his advice", we mean linguistically "at no time in terms of
the current state of my attitude towards him, and so at the present moment". If we say, "In our millennium
social formations change quicker than in the previous periods of man’s history", the linguistic temporal
content of it is "in our millennium, that is, in the millennium including the moment of speech". This
meaning is the invariant of the present, developed from its categorical opposition to the past, and it
penetrates the uses of the finite verb in all its forms, including the perfect, the future, and the continuous.
Indeed, if the radio carries the news, "The two suspected terrorists have been taken into custody
by the police", the implication of the moment of speech refers to the direct influence or after-effects of the
event announced. Similarly the statement "You will be informed about the decision later in the day"
describes the event, which although it ahs not yet happened, is prospected into the future from the present,
i.e. prospection itself incorporates the moment of speech. As for the present continuous its relevance for
to present moment it self-evident.
This, the analyzed meaning of the verbal present arises as a result of its immediate contrast with
the past form which shows the exclusion of the action from the plane of the present and so the action
itself as capable of being perceived all the verbal forms of the past, including the perfect, the future and
the continuous. Due to the marked character of the past verbal form, the said quality of its meaning does
not require special demonstration.
Worthy of note, however, are utterances where the meaning of the past tense stands in contrast
with the meaning of some adverbial phrase reffering the event to the present moment. Cf.: Today again I
spoke to Mr. Jones on the matter, and again he failed to see the urgency of it.
The seeming linguistic paradox of such cases consists exactly in the fact that their two-typed
indications of time, one verbal grammatical and one adverbial-lexical approach the same event from two
of opposite analysis. But there is nothing irrational here. As a matter of fact, the utterances present
instances of two-plane temporal evaluation of the event described: the verb-form shows the process as
part and gone, i.e. physically disconnected from the resent as for the adverbial modifier, it presents the
past eent as a particular happening, belonging to a more general time situation which is stretch out up to
the present moment inclusive, and possibly past the present moment into the future.
5
A case directly opposite to the one shown above is seen in the transpositional use of the present
tense of the verb with the past adverbials, either included in the utterance as such, or else expressed in its
contextual environment. E.g.: Then he turned the corner and what do you think happens next? He faces
nobody else than Mr. Greggs accompanied by his private secretary!
The stylistic purpose of this transposition, known under the name of the "historic present" is to
create a vivid picture of the event reflected in the utterance. This is achieved in strict accord with the
functional meaning of the verbal present, sharply contrasted against the general background of the plane
of the utterance content.
The combination of the verbs shall and will with the infinitive have of late become subject of
renewed discussion. The controversial point about them is wether these combinations really constitute,
together with the forms of the past and present, the categorical expression of verbal tense, are jus modal
phrases whose expression of the future time does not differ in essence from the general future orientation
of other combinations of modal verbs with the infinitive. The view that shall and will retain their modal
meanings in all their uses was defended by such a recognized authority on English grammar of the older
generation of the twentieth century linguists as O.Jesperson. In our times, quite a few scholars, among
them the successors of Descriptive linguistics, consider these verbs as part of the general set of modal
verbs, "modal auxiliaries" expressing the meanings of capability, probability, permission, obligation, and
the like.
A well grounded objection is against the inclusion of the construction will+Infinitive. In the tense
system of the verb on the same basis as the forms of the present and the past has been advanced by
L.S.Barhudarov. His objection consists in the demonstration of the double making of this would be tense
form by one and the same category; the combinations in question can express at once both the future form
time and past form time which hardly makes any sense in terms of a grammatical category. Indeed, the
principle of the identification of any grammatical category demands that the forms of thecategory in
normal use shoul be mutually exclusive. The category is constituted by the opposition of its forms, not by
their co-opposition.
However, reconsidering the status of construction shall/will+Infinitive in the eight of oppositional
approach, we see that, far from comparing with the past – present verbal forms as the third member –
form of the category of primary time, it marks its own grammatical category, namely, that of prospective
time. The meaningful contrast underlying the category of prospect time is between an after action and
non- after-action. The after-action or the future having its shall/will – feature, constitutes the marked
member of the opposition.
The category of prospect is also temporal, in so far as it is immediately connected with the
expression of processual time, like the category of primary time. But the semantic basis of the category of
prospect is different in principle from that of the category of primary time: while the primary time is
absolutive, i.e. present – oriented the prospective time is purely relative; it means that the future form of
the verb only shows that the denoted process id prospected as an after-action relative to some other action
or state or event, the timing of which marks the zero-level for it. The two are presented, as it were, in
prospective coordination: one is shown as prospected for the future, the future being relative to the
primary time either present or past. As a result, the expression of the future receives the two mutually
complementary manifestations: one manifestation for the present time – plane of the verb, the other
manifestation for the past time – plane of the verb. In other words, the process of the verb is characterized
by the category of prospect irrespective of its primary time characteristics, or rather as addition to this
characteristic, and this is quite similar to all the other categories capable of entering the sphere of verbal
time, e.g. the category of development (continuous in opposition), the category of retrospective
coordination (perfect in opposition), the category of voice (passive in opposition): the respective forms of
6
all these categories also have the past and present versions, to which in due course, are added the future
and non0future versions. Consider the following examples: 1) I was making a road and all the coolest
stunk. 2) None of us doubted in the least that Aunt Emma would soon be marveling again at Eustace’s
challenging success. 3) The next thing she wrote she sent to a magazine, and for many weeks worried
about what would happen to it. 4) She did not protest for she had given up the struggle. 5) Felix knew that
they would have settled the dispute by the time he could be ready to have his say. 6) He was being
watched chased by that despicable going of hirelings.
As we have already stated before, the future tenses reject the do-forms of the indefinite aspect,
which are confined to the expression of the present and past verbal times only. This fact serves as a
supplementary ground for the identification of the expression of protest as a separate grammatical
category.
Of course, it would be an ill turn to grammar if one tried to introduce the above circumstational
terminology with all its pedantic strings of "non’s" into the elementary teaching of language. The stringed
categorical "non-terms" are apparently too redundant to be recommended for ordinary use even at an
advaced level of linguistic training. What is achieved by this kind of terminology, however, is a
comprehensive indication of the categorical status of verb-forms under analysis in a compact tense
presentation. Thus whenever a presentation like that is called for, the terms will be quite in their place.
In analyzing the English future tenses the modal factor naturally should be through taken into
consideration. A certain modal colouring of the meaning of the English future cannot be denied especially
in the verbal form of the first person. But then, as is widely known, the expression of the future in other
languages is not disconnect from modal semantics either and this is conditioned by the mere fact that the
future action, as different from the present or past action, as different from the present or past action,
cannot be looked upon as a genuine feature of reality. Indeed, it is only foreseen, or anticipated, or
planned, or desired, or otherwise prospected for the time to come. In this quality, the Russian future tense
does not differ in principle from the verbal future of other languages, including English, suffice it to give
a couple of examples chosen at random:
Я буду рассказывать тебе интересные истории. Расскажу о страшных кометах, о битве
воздушных кораблей, о гибели прекрасной страны по ту строну гор. Тебе не будет скучно любить
меня (А.Толстой). Немедленно на берег.
The future of forms of the verbs in the future of the above Russian examples clearly expresses
promise; those in the second examples render a command.
Moreover, in the system of the Russian tenses there is a specialized modal form of analytical
future expressing intention (the combination of the verb стать with the imperfective infinitive). E.g. Что
же вы теперь хотите делать? – Тебе это не касается что я стану делать. Я план обдумываю.
(А.Толстой)
Within the framework of the universal meaningful feature of the verbal future, the future of the
English verb is highly specific in so far as its auxiliaries in their very immediate etymology are words of
obligation and tne survival of the respective connotations in them in backed by the inherent quality of the
future as such. Still on the whole, the English categorical future of differs distinctly from the modal
constructions with the same predicator verbs.
In the clear-out modal uses of the verbs shall and will the idea of the future either is not expressed
at all or else is only rendered by way of textual connotation, the central semantic accent being laid on the
expression of obligation, necessary, inevitability, promise, intention, desire. These meanings may be
7
easily seen both on the examples of ready phraseological citation, and genuine everyday conversation
exchanges.
The modal nature of the shall/will+Infinitive combinations in the cited examples can be shown by
means of equivalent substitution:
 He who does not work must not eat either…  All right Mr. Crackenthorpe, I promise to have
it cooked…  None are so deaf those who do not want to hear… I intend not to allow a woman to
come near the place.
A counting for the modal meanings of the combinations under analysis, traditional grammar gives
the following rules: shall + Infinitive with the first person, will + Infinitve with the second and the third
persons express modal meanings, the most typical of which are intention or desire part for I will and
promise or command on the part of the speaker for you shall, he will. Both rules apply to refined British
English. In American English with all the persons, shall as expressing modality.
However, the cited description, though distinguished by elegant simplicity, cannot be taken as
fully agreeing with the existing lingual practice. The main feature of this description contradicted by
practice is the British use of will the first person without distinctly pronounced modal connotations. Cf.:
I will call for you and your young man at seven o’clock. When we wake I will take him up and
carry him back. I will let you know on Wednesday what expenses have been necessary. If you wait there
on Thursday evening between seven and eight I will come if I can.
That the combinations of will with the infinitive in the above examples do express the future time,
admits of no disputes. Furthermore, these combinations, seemingly, are charged with modal connotations
in no higher degree than the corresponding combination of shall with the infinitive. Cf.:
Haven’t time, I shall miss my train. I shall be happy to carry it to the House of Lords, if
necessary. You never kow what may happen I shan’t have a minute’s peace.
Granted our semantic institutions about the exemplified, uses are true, the question then arises
what is the real difference if any, between the two British first person expressions of the future, on with
shall the other one with will? Or are they actually just semantic doublets, i.e. units of complete synonymy,
bound if by the paradigmatic relation of the alternation?
Observing combinations with will instylisticall neutral collocations the first step of our study we
note the adverbial of time used with this construction. The environmental expressions, as well as
implications, of future time do testify that from this point of view there is no difference between will and
shall both of them eqully conveying the idea of the future action expressed by the adjoining infinitive.
As our next step of inferences, nothing the types of the infinitive environmental semantics of will
in contrast to the contextual background of shall, we state that the first person will – future express an
option does not at all imply that the speaker actually wishes to perform the action or else that he is
determined to perform it, possibly in defiance of some contrary force. The exposition of the action shows
it as being not bound or by any special influence except the speaker’s option; this is exhaustive
characteristic. In keeping with this, the form of the will- future in question may be tentatively called in
"voluntary future".
On other hand, comparing the environmental characteristics of shall with the corresponding
environmental background of will it is easy to see that, as different from will the first person shall
expresses of future process that will be realized without the will of the speaker, irrespective of his choice.
8
Inform of the first person future should be referred to as the non-voluntary i.e. as the weak member of the
corresponding opposition.
Further observation of the relevant textual data show that some verbs constituting a typical
environment of the non-voluntary shall-future occur also with the voluntary will, but in a different
meaning, namely in the meaning of an active action the performance of which is freely chosen by the
speaker of. Your arrival cannot have been announced to his majesty. I will see about it.
At the final stage of our study the disclosed characteristics of the two first-person futures are
checked on the lines of transformal analysis. The method will consist not in free structural manipulations
with the analyzed constructions, but in the textual search for the respective changes of the auxiliaries
depending on the changes in the infinitival environment.
Applying these procedures to the texts, we note that when the construction of the voluntary will –
future is expanded a syntactic part re-modeling the whole collocation into one expressing an indunatary
action, the auxiliary will is automatically replaced by shall. In particular, it happens when the expanding
elements convey the meaning of supposition or uncertainty. Cf.:
Give me a goddess’s work to do, and I shall do it.  I don’t know what shall do with Barbara.
Oh, the only very well, very well. I will write another prescription.  I shall perhaps write to your
mother.
Thus, we conclude that within the system of the English future tense a peculiar minor category is
expressed which affects only the forms of the first person. The category is constituted by the opposition
of the forms will+Infintive and shall+Infinitive expressing respectively the voluntary future and the nonvoluntary future.
The future in the second and third persons, formed by the indiscriminate auxiliary will does not
express this category, which is dependent on the semantics of the persons: normally it would be irrelevant
to indicate in an obligatory way the aspect of futurity option otherwise than with first person, i.e. the
person of self.
This category is neutralized in the contracted form –‘ll, which is of necessity indifferent to the
expression of the futurity opposition. As is known, the traditional analysis of the contracted future states
that –‘ll stands for will, not for shall. However, this view is not supported by textual data. Indeed, bearing
in mind the results of our study, it is easy to demonstrate that the contracted forms of the future may be
traced both to will and to shall.
Form the evidence afforted by the historical studies of the language we know that the English
contracted form of the future –ll has actually originated from the auxiliary will. So, in Modern English an
interesting process of redistribution of the forms ha staken place, based apparently on the contamination
will –‘ll –shall. As a result, the form –‘ll in the first person expresses not the same "pure" future as it the
expresses by the indiscriminate will in the second and third persons.
The described system of the British future is by for more complicated than the expression of the
future tense in the other notional variants of English in particular, in American English where the future
form of the first person is functionally equal with the other persons. In British English a possible tendency
to a similar leveled expression of the future is actively counteractions of the future auxiliarities in the
negative form, i.e. shan’t and survival of shall in the first person against the leveled positive contraction –
ll’. The second is the use of the future tense in interrogative sentences where the first person only shall is
normally used. Indeed it is quite natural that a genuine question directed by the speaker to himself, i.e. a
question directed by the speaker to himself, i.e. a question showing doubt or speculation, is to be asked
9
about an action of non-wilful, involuntary order, and not otherwise. Cf.: what shall we be shown next?
Shall I be able to master shorthand professionally? The question was, should I see Beatrice again before
her departure.
The semantics of the first person futurity question is such that even the infinitives of essentially
volution governed actions are transferred here to the plane of non-volution, subordinating themselves to
the general implication of doubt, hesitation, and uncertainty.
Apart from shall/will+Infinitive construction, there is another construction in English which the
framework of the general problem of the future tense. This is the combination of the predicator be going
with the infinitive. Indeed, the high frequency occurrence of this construction in contexts conveying the
idea of an immediate future action can’t but draw a vey close attention on the part of a linguistic observer.
The combination may denote a sheer intention to perform the action expressed by the infinitive
thus entering into the vast set of "classical" modal constructions.
I’m going to ask you a few more questions about the mysterious disappearance of the document.
Mr.Greff. he looked across at my desk and I thought for a moment he was going to give me the treatment
too.
But these simple modal uses of be going are countered by cases the direct meaning of intention
rendered by the predicator stands in contradiction with its environmental implications and is subdued by
them. Cf.: You are trying to frighten me. But are not going to frighten me any more (L.Helman). I did not
know now I was going to get out of the room (D.du.Mawren).
Moreover, the construction dispute its primary meaning of intention presupposing a human
subject is not infrequently used with non-human subjects is not infrequently asked used with non0human
subjects and even in impersonal sentences. Cf.: She knew what she was doing and she was sure going to
be the worth doing (W.Sarayan). There is going to be a contest over Ezra Grolley’s estate (E.Gardener).
Because of these properties it would appear tempting to class the construction in question as a
specific tense form, namely, the tense form of "immediate future", analogous to the French future
immadiat (Le spectacle va carn mencer).
Still, on closer consideration, we notice that non-intention cases of the predicator be going are not
indifferent stylistically. Far from being neutral, they more often than not display emotional coloring
mixed with semantic connotations of oblique modality.
For instance, when the girl from the first of the above examples appreciates something as "going
to be worth doing; she is expressing her assurance of its being so. When one labels the rain as "never
going to stop" one clearly expresses one’s annoyance at the bad state of the weather. When a future event
is introduced by the formula "there to be going to be", as is the case in the second of the cited examples,
the speaker clearly implies his foresight of a like nature. Thus, on the whole, the non-intention uses of the
construction be going+Infinitive cannot be rationally divided into modal and non-modal, on the analogy
of the construction shall/will+Infinitive. It broader combinability is based on semantic transposition and
can be likened to broader uses of the modal collocation be about, also of basically intention semantics.
The oppositional basis of the category of perspective time is neutralized in certain uses, in
keeping with the general regularities of oppositional reductions. The process of neutralization is
connected with the shifting of the forms of primary time (present and past) from the sphere of absolute
tenses into the sphere of relative tenses.
10
One of the typical cases of the neutralization in question consists in using a non-future temporal
form to express a future action which is to take place according to some plan or arrangement. Cf.: The
government meets in emergency session today over the question of continued violations of the cease-fire.
I hear your sister is soon arriving from Paris? Naturally I would like to know when he’s coming, etc.
This case of oppositional reduction is oppositional; the equivalent reconstruction of the correlated
member of the opposition is nearly always possible. Cf.: The government will meet in emergency
session… Your sister will soon arrive from Paris?  When will he be coming?
Another type of neutralization of the prospective time opposition is observed in modal verbs and
modal word combinations. The basic peculiarity of these units bearing on the expression of time is, that
the prospective implication is inherently in-built in their semantics, which reflects not the action
expressed by the infinitive. For that reason, the present verb-form of these units actually renders the idea
of the future. Cf.: There is no saying what may happen next. At any rate, the woman was sure to come
later in the day. But do you have to present the report before Sunday, there’s no alternative.
Sometimes the explicit expression of the future is necessary even with modal collocations. To
make up for the lacking categorical forms, special modal substitutes have been developed in language,
some of which have received the status of suppletive units. Cf.: But do not make plans with David. You
will not be able to carry them out. Things will have to go one way or the other.
Alongside of the above and very different from them, there is still another typical case of
neutralization of the analyzed categorical opposition, which is strictly obligatory. It occurs in clauses of
time and condition. Whose verb-predicate expresses a future action? Cf.: If things turn out as has been
arranged, the triumph will be all ours. I repeated my request to notify me at once whenever the messenger
arrived.
The latter type of neutralization is syntactically conditioned. In point of fact, the neutralization
consists here in the primary tenses shifting from the sphere of absolutive time into the sphere of relative
time, since they become dependent not on their immediate orientation towards the moment of speech, but
on the relation to another time level, namely, the time level presented in the governing clause of
corresponding complex sentence.
This kind of neutralizing relative use of absolutive tense forms occupies a restricted position in
the integral tense system of English. In Russian, the syntactic relative use of tenses is, on the contrary,
widely spread. In particular, this refers to the presentation of reported speech in the plane of past, where
the Russian present tense is changed into the tense of similarity, the past tense is changed into the tense of
priority, and the future tense is changed in the tense of prospected posteriority. Cf.: 1) Он сказал, что
изучает немецкий язык. 2) Он сказал, что изучал немецкий язык. 3) Он сказал, что будет изучать
немецкий язык.
In English, the primary tenses in similar syntactic condition retain their absolutive nature and are
used in keeping with their direct, unchangeable meanings. Compare the respective translations of the
examples cited above: 1) He said that he was learning German. 2) He said that he had learned German. 3)
he said that he would learn German.
It doesn’t follow from this that rule of sequence of tenses in English complex sentences
formulated by traditional grammar should be rejected as false. Sequence of tenses is an important feature
of all narration, for, depending in the continual consecutive course of actual events in reality; they are
presented in the text in definite successions ordered against a common general background. However,
what should be stressed here is that the tense-shift involved in the translation of the present-plane reported
11
information into the present0plane reported information is not a formal, but essentially a meaningful
procedure.
Literature.
1.
Ахмедова О.С. Современные синтаксические теории. М., 1963 стр.258
2.
Бархударов Л.С. Структура простого предложения современного английского языка. М.,
1966 стр.321
3.
Бархударов Л.С., Штелинг Д.А. Грамматика английского языка. М., 1973 стр.326
4.
Блох М.Я. Вопросы изучения грамматического строя языка. М., 1976 стр.312
5.
Блумфилд Л. Язык. М., 1968 стр.243
6.
Бурланова В.В. Осиновые структуры словосочетания в современном английском языке. Л.,
1975 стр. 264
7.
Воронцова Г.Я. Очерки по грамматики английского языка. М., 1960
8.
Гальперин И.Р. Текст как объект линвитического исследования. М., 1981. стр. 279
9.
Дольгова О.В. Семиотика неправильной речи. М., 1980 стр. 272
10.
Есперсон О. Философия грамматики. М, 1958 стр.359
11.
Жегадло В.Я. Иванова И.Я. Иофик Л.Л. Современный английский язык. М., 1956 стр.376
12.
Иванова ИЯ. Вид и время в современном английском языке Л. 1961 стр. 296
13.
Иванова ИЯ., Бурланова В.В. Теоретическая грамматика современного английского языка.
М., 1981 стр. 327
14.
Кошева И.Г. Грамматический строй современного английского языка. М., 1978 стр. 219
15.
Корнева Е.А., Кабрина Я.Д. Гузаева К.А. Пособие по морфологии современного
английского языка. М., 1978 стр. 219
16.
Лайонз. Дж. Введение в теоритескую лингвистику. М., 1978 стр.320
17.
Иртеньева Я.Ф. Грамматика современного английского языка (теоритический
курс). М. 1956
18.
Мухин А.М. Структура предложений и их моделиЛ.,1968. стр. 260
19.
Плоткин В.Я. Грамматические системы современного английского языка. К., 1975 стр.252
20.
Погепцев Г.Г Конструктивный анализ структуры предложения К. 1971 стр.224
21.
Слюсараева Я.А Проблемы функционального синтаксиса современного английского языка.
М., 1981 стр.357
22.
Смиринцкий А.И. Синтаксис английского языка. М., стр.252
23.
Смиринцкий А.И Морфология английского языка М., 1959 стр 56
Размещено на Allbest.ru
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, part 2.
In the previous chapter, we introduced the distinction between lexical and grammatical
morphemes, but apart from listing the inflectional affixes of English, we were — in our
discussion of the processes of word formation — primarily concerned with lexical morphemes.
We return now to grammatical morphemes, focusing on the diversity of their meanings and
forms in English. You will recall that grammatical morphemes may be either free roots (function
words) or bound affixes (inflectional suffixes). Semantically, grammatical morphemes express
grammatical notions such as number or tense, what are called the grammatical categories. In this
section, we will look in more detail at the different grammatical categories, the terms of each
category (the distinctions made within each category), and the means by which they are
expressed in English. In synthetic languages, such as Classical Latin or Greek, the grammatical
categories are expressed almost exclusively by inflectional endings, whereas in analytic
languages, such as Modern English or Modern French, the grammatical categories are expressed
primarily by word order (the position of a word in a sentence) and by function words, as well as
by a few inflections.1 A phrase containing a function word which is functionally equivalent to an
inflection is called a periphrasis, or periphrastic form. For example, in English, we can express
the possessive either by an inflection -’s (as in Alicia’s cat) or by a periphrasis with of (as in the
leg of the table)
12
Let us look first at the concept of a grammatical category, which is rather difficult to define. It is
important to keep in mind that a grammatical category is a linguistic, not a real world category,
and that there is not always a one-to-one correspondence between the two, though they are
usually closely related. For example “tense” is a linguistic category, while “time” is a category of
the world. While past tense usually expresses past time (as in I saw a movie last night), the pasttense auxiliary in the following expresses future time: I wish you would go. And the presenttense verb of I leave tomorrow expresses future time. Furthermore, grammatical categories can
be either formal or notional categories. In the first case, they are identified by the formal
distinctions made in a language solely by means of inflection. By these criteria, English, for
example, would be said to have only two tense distinctions, past and present (as in
work/worked). In the second case, however, there is assumed to be a universal set of grammatical
categories and terms, which may or may not be expressed in a language by different means. For
example, the universal tense distinctions might be considered to be past, present, and future.
These are expressed in English by means of inflection and, in the case of the future, by
periphrasis (as in will work). It is assumed that languages will express different sets of
grammatical distinctions and will do so in different ways. Furthermore, we can differentiate
between overt and covert categories. Overt categories have explicit or formal realization on the
relevant part of speech, such as past tense in English verbs (the -ed inflection), while covert
categories are expressed only implicitly by the cooccurrence of particular function words, such
as future tense in English verbs (the will auxiliary occurring with the verb). Finally, we must
decide whether a distinction is expressed systematically and regularly in a language, by regular
grammatical marker, whether it is expressed idiosyncratically and lexically, by the meaning of
content words. The distinction “dual” (the concept of ‘two’), which is expressed grammatically
separately from plural in many languages, can be expressed in Modern English only with the
lexical items both or two, not by an inflection or function word. However, in Old English, dual
was expressed grammatically by special forms of the personal pronouns, that is, by wit ‘we two’
and git ‘you two’. The following inventory of grammatical categories proceeds through the
nominal categories (number, gender, person, case, degree, definiteness) and then the verbal
categories (tense, aspect, mood, and voice).
Number
The first category, number, is relatively simple. There are two terms of this category in English:
singular (the concept of ‘one’) and plural (the concept of ‘more than one’). Number is expressed
by inflection, generally by -s:
– in count nouns (dog/dogs)
– in demonstratives (this/these, that/those)
– in the 1st and 3rd p of personal pronouns (I/we), possessive determiners (my/our),
possessive pronouns (mine/ours), and reflexive pronouns (myself/ourselves), but not in the 2nd p.
Note that for historical reasons the idiosyncratic forms of the personal pronouns are considered
“inflected forms”, though they do not always contain separable inflectional endings. Number is
also expressed by distinct forms of certain pronouns and adjectives:
– singular: every, each, someone, anybody, a/an
– plural: all, many, few, several, most
Number is also expressed in a limited way in verbs, by the singular -s of the 3rd p which occurs
in the present but not in the past tense (he writes versus they write, he wrote). Number is
expressed more fully in the inflected forms of the verb ‘to be’ (singular am, is, was, plural are,
were), which because of its high frequency, tends to preserve inflections more fully than do other
verbs. (Note: the history of the English language has involved a gradual loss of inflections in all
parts of speech.)
The concept of generic number,which incorporates both singular and plural and is used when one
doesn’t want to specify number, is expressed in English in three ways:
a. the definite article + singular noun (The tiger may be dangerous),
b. the indefinite article + singular noun (A tiger may be dangerous), and
13
c. O article + plural of count nouns or singular of mass nouns (Tigers may be dangerous or Gold
is valuable).
Gender
English has a rather straightforward system of gender called natural gender, as opposed to the
seemingly less motivated system called grammatical gender. Grammatical gender, the system
found in German, French, or Italian, for example, as well as in an earlier stage of English,
appears to be arbitrary; here, gender is not related to the sex of the object denoted but is really
just a means of subclassifying nouns as masculine/feminine or masculine/feminine/ neuter, as in
German das Mдdchen (n) ‘the girl’ or French le jour (m) ‘the day’ or Italian la vita (f) ‘the life’.2
In contrast, natural gender depends on the sex of the object in the real world. In this system, we
distinguish masculine, feminine, common or dual (m or f), and neuter (sexless) genders.
In English, gender is expressed by inflection only in personal pronouns, and only in the 3rd
person, singular he, she, it; the 1st and 2nd person forms I, we, and you are common gender,
while the 3rd person plural form they is either common gender or neuter (the people … they, the
boats … they). Relative and interrogative pronouns and some other pronouns inflectionally
express a related category of animacy (animate/inanimate): who, whom’s. what, which,
somebody/one vs. something, anybody/one vs. anything. Distinctions of animacy are variable, but
commonly speakers distinguish between human beings and higher animals (the {woman, dog}
who…) and lower animals and inanimate things (the {ant, stone} which…).
In nouns, gender is generally a covert category shown by the cooccurrence of relevant pronouns:
the boy…he, the girl…she. Note that there is nothing about the morphological form of the nouns
boy and girl which would indicate that they are masculine or feminine gender. (This is generally
the case in languages with grammatical gender as well; it is the accompanying article, not the
shape of the noun, which reveals its gender.) However, gender may also be expressed overtly on
the English noun in a number of limited ways:
1. by derivational suYxes, such as the feminine suYxes -ine (hero/heroine), -ess (god/ goddess),
-rix (aviator/aviatrix), and -ette (suVragist/suVragette) or the common gender suYxes -er
(baker), -ist (artist), -ian (librarian), -ster (prankster), and -ard (drunkard);
2. by compounds, such as lady-, woman-, girl-, female-, -woman or boy-, male-, gentleman-, man;
3. by separate forms for masculine, feminine, and common genders, such as boy/girl/child or
rooster/hen/chicken; and
4. by separate forms for masculine and feminine genders, such as uncle/aunt, horse/mare,
bachelor/spinster and proper names such as Joseph/Josephine, Henry/Henrietta.
You can see that none of these means is systematic. It is significant that the feminine is always
derived from the masculine, except in the case of widow/widower, presumably because women
outlive men. In the case of ballerina, there is no simple masculine form. Also, it is typical for the
masculine form to double as the common gender form, as with horse, though in the case of
goose/gander or drake/duck, the feminine form is the common gender form, presumably because
the female is more important in the barnyard economy.
The marked use of the feminine gender with ships, cars, countries, fortune, art, music, and nature
in Modern English is sometimes considered a remnant of grammatical gender. But it is better
seen either as a kind of personification or what George Curme calls “gender of animation”, by
which the object is animated and an emotional attachment is expressed. The use of neuter gender
with babies (What a cute baby. What’s its name?) or callers (A person is calling for you. Who is
it?) is an expediency used when the gender is unknown.
The lack of a common gender for the 3rd person singular, especially for use following a singular
indefinite pronoun such as each or every, has long been a source of difficulty in English.
Traditionally, the masculine form has been used for the generic (e.g., Every child should put on
his coat), but this expediency is now out-of-favor. In fact, the use of the plural their, which is
gender-neutral but which violates number agreement (e.g., Every child should put on their coat),
14
is found very early, while forms such as his or her or his/her (e.g., Every child should put on his
or her coat) are newer attempts to correct this deficiency.
Person
The category of person is quite simple. Three terms are recognized:
1st person: the speaker, person speaking;
2nd person: the addressee/hearer, person spoken to; and
3rd person: the person or thing spoken about.
Person distinctions are expressed by the inflected forms of the pronouns, for example:
– personal pronouns: I you he, they
– personal possessive determiners: my your his, their
– personal possessive pronouns: mine yours his, theirs
– personal reflexive pronouns myself yourself himself, themselves
Person is also expressed inflectionally in the singular, present tense, indicative of verbs by the -s
inflection on the 3rd person: I write vs. she writes. It is also expressed more fully in the verb ‘to
be’: I am/was, we are/were (1st person), you are/were (2nd person), he/she/it is/was, they
are/were (3rd person). Nouns are all 3rd person, but this is shown only covertly by the
cooccurrence of pronouns: the house…it (*I, *you), the houses…they (*we, *you).
The form one expresses generic person (all persons) in English, but since it is often considered
rather formal, we can also use the 1st p pl, 2nd p, or 3rd p pl forms in a generic sense:
one: One doesn’t do that.
we: We always hear too late.
you: You never can tell.
they: They’ll find a cure for cancer soon.
The generic you is the most common in informal usage. Finally, a few apparently deviant uses of
person are the following:
3rd p for 2nd p: your excellency, your honor
3rd p for 1st p: present company, the writer, your teacher, Caesar (spoken by Caesar himself)
1st p for 2nd p: we won’t do that anymore, will we (spoken by a parent to a child)
Case
Case is one of the more diYcult categories. It may be defined rather simply as an indication of
the function of a noun phrase, or the relationship of a noun phrase to a verb or to other noun
phrases in the sentence. Case is most fully expressed in the personal and interrogative/relative
pronouns, which distinguish nominative case (the function of subject), genitive case (the function
of possessor), and objective case (the function of object) by diVerent inflected forms:
– nominative: I, we, you, he, she, it, they, who;
– genitive: my/mine, our/ours, his, her/hers, its, their/theirs, whose; and
– objective: me, us, you, him, her, it, them, whom.
There is no distinction between the nominative and objective form of it, nor of you (though
historically the nominative form was ye, as in the archaic expression Hear ye, hear ye). The
genitive includes forms which function as determiners, such as my and our, as well as forms
which function as pronouns, such as mine or ours.
Nouns differentiate inflectionally between the nongenitive, or common, case and the genitive:
cat, cats cat’s, cats’
man, men man’s, men’s
While orthographically there appear to be four distinct forms of nouns when singular and plural,
common and genitive case are considered, you should keep in mind that the apostrophe is merely
orthographic so that the forms cats, cat’s, and cats’ are phonologically indistinguishable.
Only irregular plural such as the noun man actually distinguish four forms. Beyond this, nouns
can be said to distinguish nominative and objective case only by word order, by placing the noun
before or after the verb, respectively, in the usual positions for subject and object in an Subject–
Verb–Object language such as English. Hence, in the sentence The ship struck the dock, “the
ship” could be called nominative case and “the dock” objective case, though morphologically
15
both are common case This ordering principle is so strong that it may even override grammatical
principles. The sentence Who did you see? is more natural than the grammatically correct Whom
did you see? because in this structure the object (who) precedes rather than follows the verb, so
the nominative form who is preferred. Another case distinction which can be made is dative case
(the function of indirect object); this is really a subcategory of the objective case. It is shown by
periphrasis with to or for or by word order: He gave the book to Jane, He gave Jane the book.
What I have just presented is a simplified picture of case usage. There are other traditional cases,
such as the “instrumental” or “ablative”, which I have not mentioned because they are expressed
only periphrastically in Modern English, for example, with the prepositions with or from. There
are also many conventional uses of cases, such as use of the nominative case after the verb ‘to
be’ (e.g., It is I). In addition, the case functions are semantically complex: the same function can
be expressed by different cases, as in instances where the concept of possession is expressed by
either the genitive or dative case (e.g., The book is mine, The book belongs to me), or one case
can express several different functions or meanings. The genitive case is an excellent example of
this latter situation. It does not simply express the notion of possessor, but it indicates a variety
of other notions. The following types of genitives have been identified, based on the meaning
relationship holding between the noun in the genitive and the head noun:
possessive genitive: Felix’s car
subjective genitive: the Queen’s arrival
objective genitive: the city’s destruction
genitive of origin: Shakespeare’s plays
descriptive genitive: person of integrity
genitive of measure: an hour’s time, a stone’s throw
partitive genitive: a member of the crowd
appositive genitive: the city of Vancouver
Only the first, the possessive genitive, expresses the prototypical meaning of the genitive: Felix
owns his car. In contrast, the “subjective genitive” expresses the same relation as a subject does
to a verb (the Queen arrives), while the “objective genitive” expresses the same relation as a
direct object does to a verb (X destroys the city); it is certainly not the case that the Queen owns
her arrival or that the city owns its destruction. The phrase the shooting of the hunters is
ambiguous between subjective and objective genitive readings because it can mean either ‘the
hunters shoot X’ or ‘X shoots the hunters’. The child’s picture is likewise ambiguous—has the
child drawn the picture or has someone taken the picture of the child? The “genitive of origin”
expresses the source, person, or place from which something originates. An expression such as
the woman’s book could be ambiguous between the possessive genitive and the genitive of origin
— does the woman own the book or has she written the book? The “descriptive genitive” is
usually expressed periphrastically; the genitive noun is often equivalent to a descriptive
adjective, as in man of wisdom=‘wise man’. The “genitive of measure” expresses an extent of
time or space, the “partitive genitive” the whole in relation to a part. Finally, the genitive noun of
the “appositive genitive” renames the head noun.
Although the genitive can be expressed inflectionally with ’s or periphrastically with of NP, it is
not always possible to substitute one means of expression for the other. For example, while the
Queen’s arrival = the arrival of the Queen, a person of integrity ≠ *an integrity’s person or a
stone’s throw ≠ a throw of a stone. Certain types of genitives, such as the partitive, descriptive,
or appositive, are typically expressed only periphrastically. Another complex aspect of the
genitive is the double genitive, in which periphrastic and inflectional forms cooccur: a friend of
Rosa’s, no fault of his. The double genitive is necessarily indefinite (*the friend of Rosa’s) and a
human inflected genitive (*a leg of the table’s). It normally has a partitive sense (=‘one friend
among all of Rosa’s friends), though it is also possible to use it when Rosa has only one friend.
Contrast a portrait of the king’s (=‘one among all the portraits (of others) that the king owns’)
and a portrait of the king (=‘a portrait which depicts the king’).
Degree
16
Degree, unlike the nominal categories that we have been discussing, is a category that relates to
adjectives and adverbs. It has three terms, positive, comparative, and superlative. While positive
degree expresses a quality, comparative degree expresses greater degree or intensity of the
quality in one of two items, and superlative degree expresses greatest degree or intensity of the
quality in one of three or more items. The positive degree is expressed by the root of the
adjective (e.g., big, beautiful) or adverb (e.g., fast, quickly)—that is, it is null-realized—while the
comparative and superlative degrees are expressed either by inflection or by periphrasis (using
more, most):
positive O big fast beautiful quickly
comparative -er, more bigger faster more beautiful more quickly
superlative -est, most biggest fastest most beautiful most quickly
Whether the inflection or the periphrasis is used depends upon the phonological shape of the
root: monosyllabic forms are inflected as are disyllabic form sending in -y (e.g., holier), -er (e.g.,
bitterer), -le (e.g., littler), -ow (e.g., narrower), and -some (e.g., handsomer); all other forms
occur in the periphrasis, including adverbs ending in -ly (e.g., *quicklier). Lesser degree can be
expressed periphrastically with less and least, as in less big, least beautiful. Sometimes, the three
degrees of a particular word are expressed by different roots, as in bad/worse/worst or good/
better/best. This is called suppletion. The paradigm of the adjective old (older/elder, oldest/
eldest) shows irregularities but is not suppletive; the irregular forms elder/eldest are specialized
semantically to refer to familial relations, while the regular forms older/oldest are used in all
other functions. An interesting set of inflected forms is nigh, near, next; the positive form as
been lost, the old comparative has become the positive, new comparative and superlative have
developed (near/nearer/nearest), and the superlative form no longer exhibits degree.
For semantic reasons, not all adjectives can be inflected for degree, such as perfect, unique,
round, full, empty, married, and dead. These adjectives are incomparable because they express
absolute qualities. Something is either ‘dead’ or not; it cannot be more or less dead. Superlatives
such as most unique are thus logically impossible, though one frequently hears such forms,
where either most can only be understood as an emphatic or unique can be understood as
meaning ‘unusual’. Likewise, a form such as best time, rudest remark, or closest of friends often
expresses a high degree rather than a true comparison, with the superlative equivalent to ‘very’.
Finally, it is also common to hear the superlative used in the comparison of two items, as in put
your best foot forward.
Definiteness
The concepts of definiteness and indefiniteness are intuitively quite simple: definite denotes a
referent (a thing in the real world denoted by a noun) which is known, familiar, or identified to
the speaker and hearer, while indefinite denotes a referent which is novel, unfamiliar, or not
known. If we consider nouns on their own, definiteness is a covert category, obvious only in the
cooccurrence of an article with a noun, either the definite article the or the indefinite article a/an,
though all proper nouns and most pronouns are intrinsically definite. In actual practice,
definiteness can be quite confusing. First, it intersects with the category of specificity, specific
denoting a particular entity in the world and nonspecific denoting no particular entity.
Frequently, specificity coincides with definiteness (the car=‘a particular car known to the
hearer’) and nonspecific coincides with indefiniteness (a car=‘no particular car, not known to the
hearer’), though other combinations are possible.4 Second, article usage in English is complex
and in many instances arbitrary. There are several different uses for each article, articles are
often omitted, and there are dialectal differences in the use of articles. Thus, article usage can be
an area of grammar which is very difficult for non-native speakers to master.
In broad outline, the major uses of the are the following:
1. for something previously mentioned: yesterday I read a book…the book was about space
travel;
2. for a unique or fixed referent: the Prime Minister, the Lord, the Times, the Suez Canal;
3. for a generic referent: (I love) the piano, (We are concerned about) the unemployed;
17
4. for somethingwhich is part of the immediate socio-physical context or generally known: the
doorbell, the kettle, the sun, the weather;
5. for something identified by a modifying expression either preceding or following the noun: the
gray horse, the house at the end of the block; and
6. for converting a proper noun to a common noun: the England he knew, the Shakespeare of our
times, the Hell I suffered.
The first use listed above is known as the anaphoric, or ‘pointing back’, use of the definite
article. Many times, however, the definite article is omitted, for example, with institutions (e.g.,
at school), with means of transportation (e.g., by car), with times of day (e.g., at noon), with
meals (e.g., at breakfast), and with illnesses (e.g., have malaria), and it is not always possible to
predict when such omissions will occur.
The major uses of a/an are the following:
1. for something mentioned for the first time (see above);
2. for something which cannot or need not be identified: (I want) a friend;
3. for a generic referent: (He is) a teacher;
4. equivalent to ‘any’: a (any) good book;
5. equivalent to ‘one’: a week or two; and
6. for converting a proper noun to a common noun: a virtual Mozart, another China.
Deixis
Though not traditionally recognized as a grammatical category, deixis might be added to the list.
From the Greek word meaning ‘to point’, deixis denotes the marking of objects and events with
respect to a certain reference point, which is usually the time and place of speaking (the
speaker’s here and now). There are four different types of deixis: personal, spatial, temporal, and
textual. Personal deixis is expressed in the personal pronouns: I vs. you vs. he. As I denotes the
person speaking, the referent of I changes depending on who is speaking; the referent of I is
always related to the specific speech situation. (This deictic use of personal pronouns contrasts
with their anaphoric use in texts, as in the boy … he.) An interesting modification of personal
deixis is for social purposes, to mark a person who is socially close to or remote from the
speaker, such as the use of tu/vous in French or du/Sie in German. You may also be nondeictic in
its generic use (see above). Spatial deixis is expressed in certain verb pairs, such as come/go or
bring/take, denoting direction towards or away from the speaker, or in adverbs and
demonstratives, such here/there/(yon) or this/that, denoting position near to or far from the
speaker. Temporal deixis is expressed by various adverbs relating to the time of speaking: now,
then, yesterday, today, tomorrow, this morning. It is also expressed by tense, as we shall see
below. The final type of deixis, textual deixis, is expressed by the articles or demonstratives, as
in the following: I rode the roller coaster. {This, the ride} was very exciting. Here this or the ride
refers back in the text to the sentence preceding it. Self-Testing Exercise: Do Exercise 5.1 on
nominal categories.
Tense
We turn now to categories that relate strictly to the verb. The first such category is tense, which,
in simple terms, is the linguistic indication of the time of an action. In fact, tense establishes a
relation: it indicates the time of an event in respect to the moment of speaking (or some other
reference point). If we consider the time line below, for example, we see that a past-time
statement, such as It rained, or a future-time statement, such as It will rain, denotes a situation
that did hold before the present moment or will hold after the present moment, respectively Past
Present Future.
This relational aspect of tense makes it a deictic category, since whether a situation is past,
present, or future depends upon the moment of speaking and changes as that moment changes.
Before looking at tense more closely, we should remember that tense is not the only means of
expressing time in language; adverbs are commonly used for this purpose. These temporal
adverbs may be either deictic, expressing time in relation to the speaker and moment of
speaking, such as yesterday/today/tomorrow (i.e., past, present, future), or nondeictic, expressing
18
absolute time, either calendric, such as Tuesday, or clock, such as at 4:00. Tense, on the other
hand, is always deictic. The only tense distinction expressed inflectionally in English is that
between present and past, as in walk/walked or sing/sung, even though it is conventional to talk
about a three-way distinction between past, present, and future tense. However, the future is
expressed periphrastically and thus is not formally parallel to the past and present. Beginning
with an examination of the uses of the present tense form in English, we find that it is not, in
fact, used to denote actions which are actually going on at the present time. For this, the present
progressive is used, as in I am reading at this moment, not *I read at this moment. Instead, the
present is used for the expression of a number of other types of temporal as well as nontemporal
situations; for this reason, the term nonpast is preferred to present:
1. habits: I walk to work everyday. She smokes. We eat dinner at 6:00.
2. states: She lives at home. I like chocolate. I believe you. I have lots of work to do. The dog sees
well. I feel sick.
3. generic statements: Beavers build dams. Tigers are ferocious.
4. timeless statements: The sun sets in the west. Summer begins on June 21st. Two plus two is
four.
5. gnomic (proverbial) statements: A stitch in time saves nine. Haste makes waste.
6. future statements: We leave tomorrow. I see the doctor this afternoon.
7. instantaneous commentary: He shoots; he scores. Now I beat in two eggs. He pulls a rabbit
out of the hat.
8. plot summary: Hamlet dies at the end of the play. Emma marries Mr. Knightley.
9. narration in the present (the “historical present”): Then he says …
10. information present: I hear/see that Manfred has been promoted.
A habit indicates a series of events that are characteristic of a period. These events constitute a
whole. For habits to exist, the event (of walking to work, smoking, etc.) need not actually be
going on at the present moment. States include nondynamic situations such as emotional states
(love), cognitive states (understand), perceptual states (feel), bodily sensations (ache), and
expressions of having and being (own, resemble). A generic statement predicates something of a
numerically generic subject. Note that the diVerence between a state such as I am happy and a
generic statement such as Tigers are ferocious, in addition to the nongeneric/ generic subject, is
that the state refers to a specific situation and can occur with adverbs such as still, already, not
yet. Timeless statements express eternal truths and laws of nature. Gnomic statements express
proverbs, which though similar to eternal truths, aren’t necessarily timeless. Futures expressed
with the simple present generally refer to situations that are predetermined and fixed.
Instantaneous commentary occurs in sports reporting, cooking demonstrations, and magic shows,
though the progressive is also possible in these contexts. This is the only use of the nonpast
formfor actions actually going on at the current moment. The present is used in summarizing
works of literature and in talking about artists as artistic figures, though not as actual persons
(Shakespeare is the greatest writer in English vs. Shakespeare was born in Stratford on Avon).
The historical present is the use of present tense for narrating informal stories and jokes, though
it is being used increasingly frequently in serious literature. Finally, the information present is
the use of present tense with verbs of hearing or seeing where one might expect the past tense.
The uses of the past are much more unified. Generally, it denotes an event or a state in past time,
as in Haydn composed the symphony in 1758 or Handel lived in England for a number of years;
note that this past time is divorced from, or distinct from, the present moment. The past tense is
also the usual tense of narration (even for narratives set in the future!). The past tense may
denote a past habit (when an appropriate time adverbial is used), though there is also a special
past habitual form, used to, as in I drove to work last year, I used to drive to work. But the past
tense may also be used nontemporally for politeness to denote the present or the future (e.g., I
was hoping you would help) and in hypothetical statements to denote the future or the unreal
(e.g., If you studied more, you would do better). These are “modal” uses of the past, as we will
19
discuss more fully below. As noted above, the future tense is expressed noninflectionally by a
variety of periphrases:
1. will/shall + infinitive: I will help you tomorrow.
2. the simple present: The party begins at 4:00.
3. the present progressive: We’re having guests for dinner.
4. be going to, be about to + infinitive: The child is going to be sick. The boat is about to leave.
5. shall/will + the progressive: I will be moving next week.
All of the forms of the future carry subtle differences in meaning. For example, It’s going to rain
today or It’s about to rain might be uttered while looking up at a threatening rain cloud, while It
will rain today could only be the prediction of the meteorologist or a report of this person’s
prediction, but *It rains today is distinctly odd because it denotes the future as fact, or
predetermined, and as punctual, and the progressive It’s raining today could not function as a
future in this instance either. It will be raining today (when you want to mow the lawn) is
possible if it denotes a situation surrounding another event. Note that commands (e.g.,Wash the
dishes!) always carry a future meaning as well since you cannot command someone to do
something in the past nor to be doing something at the present moment. Despite the designation
of future as a tense, however, it bears a closer relation to modality than to tense since it expresses
what is not (yet) fact (see below).
Aspect
The category of aspect is one more often applied to languages such as Russian or Hopi, but it is,
in fact, equally applicable to English since the so-called “compound tenses”, the perfect and the
progressive, are better treated as expressions of the aspect. Aspect (which translates the Russian
term for ‘view’) can be defined as the view taken of an event, or the “aspect” under which it is
considered, basically whether it is seen as complete and whole (perfective aspect) or as
incomplete and ongoing (imperfective aspect). The simple past tense in English is perfective in
aspect since it views events as complete and whole, e.g., Yesterday, I drove to town, ran some
errands, and visited with my friends. The progressive periphrasis, consisting of be + the present
participle, presents actions as in progress, ongoing, and incomplete (not yet ended). It thus
expresses imperfective aspect. It is the usual way to express a situation happening at the very
moment of speaking, which by definition is incomplete. However, depending upon the temporal
nature of the situation expressed by the verb (a topic to be treated in more detail in the next
chapter)—in essence, whether it is punctual or durative— the progressive may denote somewhat
different situations:
1. a continuous activity: She is swimming. They were cleaning the house when I called.
2. a repeated activity (iterative aspect): He is bouncing the ball. The light was flashing when I
entered the house. He is breaking dishes (*a dish). People (*a person) will be leaving early.
3. a process leading up to an endpoint: The child is finishing the puzzle. She was solving the
problem when she was interrupted.
Voice
The category of voice, though usually considered a category of the verb, is actually relevant to
the entire sentence. Voice is an indication of whether the subject is performing action of the verb
or being something (active voice) or whether the subject is being aVected by the action or being
acted upon (passive voice).While the active is expressed by the simple forms of the verb, the
passive is expressed periphrastically:
–by be + the past participle, as in The report was written (by the committee); or
–by get + the past participle, as in The criminal got caught (by the police).
The diVerence between the be-passive and the get-passive is that the former focuses on the
resultant state (‘the report is in a written state’) while the latter focuses on the action bringing
about the state. In the passive, the logical subject—the agent—moves out of the position of
grammatical subject and is relegated to a by-phrase. However, it is common to delete the byphrase in the passive, to omit mention altogether of the agent who performed the action. This is a
manifestation of one of the rhetorical functions of the passive. Another distinction of voice is the
20
middle voice, in which the action of the verb reflects back upon the subject; in English, the
middle is generally expressed with a reflexive pronoun (a form in -self), which indicates the
sameness of the subject and the object, as in Henry shaved (himself), Terry bathed (herself),
Felicia cut herself. A form which is sometimes called a “middle” is what Otto Jespersen calls a
notional passive; this is a sentence which is active in form but passive in meaning: for example,
The shirt washes easily (=‘the shirt is easily washed’), these oranges peel easily (=‘these oranges
are easily peeled’), the cake should cook slowly (=‘the cake should be slowly cooked’). Note that
nearly all notional passives contain a manner adverb. They differ from regular passives in that,
not only do they occur without explicit agents, there is never even an implicit agent (*these
oranges peel easily by you). Another place where forms may be active in form but passive in
meaning are some infinitives, such as these apples are ready to eat (=‘these apples are ready to
be eaten’) or there are the dishes to do (=‘there are the dishes to be done’). A construction such
as that movie is filming in Vancouver, which is also active in form but passive in meaning (=‘that
movie is being filmed in Vancouver’) is a remnant or an earlier period when there was no
progressive passive construction (as in the customers are being served) but instead a simple
progressive was used (as in the customers are serving well).
In conclusion, we can approach the categories from a different perspective by noting which
different parts of speech each of the grammatical categories is relevant to:
–nouns: number, gender, case, (person), and definiteness;
–pronouns: number, gender, case, and person;
–adjectives and some adverbs: degree; and
–verbs: number, person, tense, aspect, mood, and voice.
Literature.
Laurel J.Brinton The Structure of Modern English. A linguistic introduction, John Benjamin’s
Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 2000 – 335p.
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, part 3.
§ 9. The category of person expresses the relation of the action and its doer to the speaker,
showing whether the action is performed by the speaker (the 1st person), someone addressed by
the speaker (the 2nd person) or someone/something other than the speaker or the person
addressed (the 3rd person).
The category of number shows whether the action is performed by one or more than one
persons or non-persons.
For the present indefinite tense of the verb to be there are three contrasting forms: the 1st
person singular, the 3rd person singular and the form for all persons plural: (I) am - (he) is - (we,
you, they) are.
In the past indefinite tense it is only the verb to be that has one of these categories - the
category of number, formed by the opposition of the singular and the plural forms: (I, he) was (we, you, they) were. All the other verbs have the same form for all the persons, both singular
and plural.
In the future and future in the past tenses there are two opposing forms: the 1st person
singular and plural and the other persons: (I, we) shall go - (he, you, they) will go; (I, we) should
come - (he, you, they) would come.
In colloquial style, however, no person distinctions are found either in the future or in the
future in the past tenses. The only marker for the future tenses is ‘ll used with all persons, both
singular and plural: I'll do it; He'll do it; We'll do it, etc. The marker for the future in the past
21
tenses is ‘d, also used with all persons and numbers: I said I’d come; He said he’d come; We
said we’d come, etc. Historically ‘ll is the shortened form of will, ‘d is the shortened form of
would.
The categories of person and number, with the same restrictions, as those mentioned above,
are naturally found in all analytical forms containing the present indefinite tense of the
auxiliaries to be and to have, or the past indefinite tense of the auxiliary to be: (I) am reading (he) is reading - (we, you, they) are reading; (I) am told - (he) is told - (we, you, they) are told;
(he) has come - (I, we, you, they) have come; (he) has been told - (I, we, you, they) have been
told; (he) has been reading - (I, we, you, they) have been reading.
A more regular way of expressing the categories of person and number is the use of personal
pronouns. They are indispensable when the finite verb forms in the indicative as well as the
subjunctive moods have no markers of person or number distinctions.
I stepped aside and they moved away.
They had been walking along, side by side, and she had been talking very earnestly.
If you were his own son, you could have all this.
If she were not a housemaid, she might not feel it so keenly.
The verb is always in the 3rd person singular if the subject of the predicate verb is expressed
by a negative or indefinite pronoun, by an infinitive, a gerund or a clause:
Nothing has happened. Somebody has come.
To see him at last was a real pleasure. To shut that lid seems an easy task.
Seeing is believing. Visiting their house again seems out of the question.
What she has told me frightens me
The category of tense
§ 10. The category of tense in English (as well as in Russian) expresses the relationship
between the time of the action and the time of speaking.
The time of speaking is designated as present time and is the starting point for the whole scale
of time measuring. The time that follows the time of speaking is designated as future time; the
time that precedes the time of speaking is designated as past time. Accordingly there are three
tenses in English - the present tense, the future tense and the past tense which refer actions to
present, future or past time.
Besides these three tenses there is one more tense in English, the so-called future in the past.
The peculiarity of this tense lies in the fact that the future is looked upon not from the point of
view of the moment of speaking (the present) but from the point of view of some moment in the
past.
Each tense is represented by four verb forms involving such categories as aspect and perfect.
Thus there are four present tense forms: the present indefinite, the present continuous, the present
perfect, the present perfect continuous; four past tense forms: the past indefinite, the past
continuous, the past perfect and the past perfect continuous; four future tense forms: the future
indefinite, the future continuous, the future perfect and the future perfect continuous; and four
22
future in the past tense forms: the future in the past indefinite, the future in the past continuous,
the future in the past perfect, the future in the past perfect continuous.
The category of aspect
§ 11. In general the category of aspect shows the way or manner in which an action is
performed, that is whether the action is perfective (совершенное), imperfective
(несовершенное), momentary (мгновенное, однократное), iterative (многократное,
повторяющееся), inchoative (зачинательное), durative (продолженное, длительное), etc.
In English the category of aspect is constituted by the opposition of the continuous aspect and
the common aspect.
The opposition the continuous aspect <——> the common aspect is actualized in the
following contrasting pairs of forms:
Continuous
Common
is speaking
speaks
was speaking
spoke
will be speaking
will speak
has been speaking
has spoken
The forms in the left-hand column (whether taken in context, or treated by themselves) have a
definite meaning: they describe an action as a concrete process going on continuously at a
definite moment of time, or characteristic of a definite period of time (hence its name - the
continuous aspect). The forms in the right-hand column, if treated by themselves, are devoid of
any specific aspectual meaning. They denote the action as such, in a most general way, and can
acquire a definite and more specified aspective meaning due to the lexical meaning of the verb
and specific elements of the context in which they are used. Thus, for example, the verb form
sang, when regarded out of context, has no specific aspectual characteristics, conveying only the
idea of the action of singing with reference to the past. However when the same form is used in
the context, it acquires the aspectual meaning conferred on it by that context. Compare the
following sentences:
When he was young he sang beautifully (пел = умел петь).
He went over to the piano and sang two folk-songs (спел).
He went over to the piano and sang (запел).
While everybody was busy lighting a camp fire, he sang folk-songs (пел).
The fact that these forms may express different aspectual meanings according to the context,
accounts for the term - the common aspect.
23
The category of perfect
§ 13. The category of perfect is as fundamental to the English verb as the categories of tense
and aspect, whereas it is quite alien to the Russian verb.
The category of perfect is constituted by the opposition of the perfect to the non-perfect.
The perfect forms denote action preceding certain moments of time in the present, past or
future. The non-perfect forms denote actions belonging to certain moments of time in the
present, past or future.
To see the difference between the two categories compare the following pairs of sentences
containing non-perfect and perfect forms:
Perfect
Non-perfect
I have seen the film, and I think it is dull.
I see you are tired.
At last you are here! I’ve been waiting for you so Whom are you waiting for?
long!
She had left by the 2nd of September.
She had been sleeping for half an hour when the
telephone woke her up.
She left on the 2nd of September.
When the fire began, everybody was sleeping.
I shall have returned before you get the supper ready.
I shall return at 10.
§ 14. The perfect forms belong either to the continuous or to the common aspect and as such
they have specific semantic characteristics of either one or of the other. Thus the perfect
continuous forms denote continuous actions taking place during a definite period of time
preceding the present moment or some moment of time in the past or future. The moment of time
in question may be either e x c l u d e d or i n c l u d e d in the period of time of the action, as in
the following:
Don’t wake her up, she has only been sleeping for half
an hour. (She is still sleeping at the moment of
speaking.)
I’ve woken her up, she has been sleeping
ever since dinner. (She is not sleeping at
the moment of speaking.)
She had been living in St.-Petersburg for 10 years
when we met. (She was still living there at that
moment of past time.)
They had been living in St.-Petersburg for
10 years when they moved to N. (They
were not living in St.- Petersburg any
longer at that moment of past time.)
He will have been working here for 20 years next
autumn. (He will still be working here at that moment
of the future.)
He will have been working there for 5
years before he returns to our institute.
(He will not already be working there any
longer at that moment of the future.)
The perfect forms of the common aspect are devoid of any specific aspect characteristics and
acquire them only from the lexical meaning of the verb or out of the context in which they are
24
used. Thus terminative verbs in the perfect forms of the common aspect express completeness of
the action:
She had shut the window and was going to sleep.
The completed actions expressed by such forms may be momentary or iterative, as in:
He had stumbled and fallen down before I could
support him.
He had stumbled and fallen down on his
knees several times before he reached the
bushes.
Non-terminative verbs may express both completed and incompleted actions:
She had spoken to all of them before she came to any
conclusion.(поговорила)
I have known him all my life. (знаю)
They may also express iterative or durative actions:
He had lived in many little towns before he settled in
St.-Petersburg.
She had lived here since the war.
Thus the difference between the perfect and the perfect continuous forms is similar to the
difference between the indefinite and the continuous non-perfect forms.
Before passing on to a thorough study of all verb forms in detail it should be clearly
understood that every one of them is a bearer of three grammatical categories, those of tense,
perfect, and aspect, that is every form shows whether the action refers to the present, the past, the
future or the future viewed from the past; whether it belongs to a certain moment of time within
each of these time-divisions or precedes that moment, and whether it is treated as continuous or
not.
The category of voice
§ 64. Voice is the grammatical category of the verb denoting the relationship between the
action expressed by the verb and the person or non-person denoted by the subject of the
sentence. There are two main voices in English: the active voice and the passive voice. There
are also other voices which embrace a very limited number of verbs: reflexive (wash oneself),
reciprocal (embrace one another), medial (the book reads well).
The active voice indicates that the action is directed from the subject or issues from the
subject, thus the subject denotes the doer (agent) of the action:
We help our friends. - Мы помогаем нашим друзьям.
25
The passive voice indicates that the action is directed towards the subject. Here the subject
expresses a person or non-person who or which is the receiver of the action. It does not act, but is
acted upon and therefore affected by the action of the verb.
We were helped by our friends in our work.
В работе нам помогли наши друзья.
The contrast between the two voices can be seen from the following examples:
I had asked no questions, of course; but then, on the
other hand, I had been asked none.
Я не задавал вопросов, но, с другой
стороны, и мне не задавали вопросов.
They saw but were not seen.
Они видели, но их не видели.
The difference in the meaning of the forms helped - were helped, had asked - had been asked,
saw - was seen illustrates the morphological contrast between the active and the passive voice.
A sentence containing a verb in the passive voice is called a passive construction, and a
sentence containing a verb in the active voice is called an active construction, especially when
opposed to the passive construction.
The subject of an active construction denotes the agent (doer) of the action, which may be a
living being, or any source of the action (a thing, a natural phenomenon, an abstract notion).
The subject of a passive construction has the meaning of the receiver of the action, that is a
person or non-person affected by the action.
The object of an active construction denotes the receiver of the action, whereas the object of
the passive construction is the agent of the action. The latter is introduced by the preposition by.
If it is not the agent but the instrument, it is introduced by the preposition with.
The cup was broken by Jim.
It was broken with a hammer.
The category of mood
§ 73. The meaning of this category is the attitude of the speaker or writer towards the content
of the sentence, whether the speaker considers the action real, unreal, desirable, necessary, etc. It
is expressed in the form of the verb.
There are three moods in English - the indicative mood, the imperative mood and the
subjunctive mood.
Literature.
1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского
языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических
институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.496с.
26
RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
Technology is an important part of our lives. We use computers and other
electric equipment at work and in the home. However, some people believe we rely too
much on machines, and that the more technology improves, the lazier and weaker
humans will become.
Technological advances are changing our lives very rapidly. Nowadays we can't do without
such gadgets as mobile phones, PCs, digital tape recorders, air conditioners, fax machines and
so on. Many people feel ill at ease without their laptop computers or GPS navigation systems.
In my opinion, technology facilitates our lives and saves our time. Computers help us do the
most difficult sums and investigate complicated data. People do business, communicate and
do the shopping via the Internet. It is much easier to do housework nowadays, thanks to
electric equipment such as microwave ovens, washing machines and so on.
However, many people say that technology makes us lazier and weaker. For example, such
technological developments as the telephone and the Internet have made communication
much easier, but they can cause the loss of social interaction. A lot of people prefer
communicating through a keyboard than face to face. That is why people don't meet as often
as they did in the past. A lot of people are fond of watching TV and playing computer games.
They spend hours in front of the screen. They have no time to read books or to communicate
with their friends. They move less, speak less and they even think less. Of course, such way
of
life
does
much
harm
to
their
health.
To sum up, people should continue to develop technology, but they must do it wisely.
Otherwise we may regret in the future.
Some people say that technical devices do more harm than good. However, others
think that it is impossible to live without computers or mobile phones nowadays.
Nowadays people can't imagine their lives without different technical devices. Every day we
use computers, laptops, mobile phones, i-Pods, digital tape recorders and so on.
I have always wondered if our lives could be better without these technical devices.
Personally, I can't do without my computer as it helps me study. For example, it helps me
prepare reports and create beautiful presentations. Besides, the computer is a great source of
entertainment. I often play computer games, watch films or listen to music. The Internet helps
me learn the latest news, access useful information, communicate with my friends and what
not. A mobile phone is a vital part of my daily life. It gives me an opportunity to be reachable
everywhere
and
to
keep
in
touch
with
my
friends.
However, many people say that technical devices enslave those who use them. Besides, they
do much harm to our health. For example, if people spend much time in front of the screen,
they have problems with their eyesight and sleep. They don't go out or exercise, they feel
exhausted and depressed. Computer games can cause addiction and make people aggressive.
As for mobile phones, they use electromagnetic radiation which can influence our health in a
negative
way.
To conclude, I would prefer a technological way of life to a natural one, though it has a
number of disadvantages. In my opinion, modern society can't do without progress and
technology. People can avoid the risk to human life and health if they use technological
devices wisely.
Mobile telephones have become very popular nowadays. However, some people say
that their use should be restricted.
Mobile phones have changed people's lives. They give us an opportunity to stay in touch
and to be reachable everywhere. It is very comfortable, especially for the busy modern
lifestyle. So, the mobile phone has become a vital part of our daily lives and it is difficult to
imagine
how
people
lived
without
mobile
phones
in
the
past.
In my opinion, the mobile phone is a very useful device. Thanks to it, I can access people I
need to speak to and I can never miss anything important. If I need some help, I just call my
friends and they rush to rescue me. If I have a meeting and I'm late, I can send an SMS with
27
my excuses. It is very fast and convenient. What is more, with the help of my mobile phone I
can access the Internet, send and receive photos and video, play games, listen to music and
what
not.
However, mobile phones have some disadvantages. Firstly, they deprive people of privacy
and it is almost impossible to relax with your mobile phone on. Secondly, many people are
worried about the harmful influence of mobile phones on their health. Mobile phones use
electromagnetic radiation. Scientists say that there is no significant health effect from mobile
phone radiation. But still it is better not to use your mobile phone too often.
To sum up, a mobile phone is very useful because it gives us the freedom of movement. It has
made communication much easier. But we shouldn't forget that a face-to-face conversation is
much better than just a telephone talk.
Most people are used to sending e-mails and SMS messages. But others still prefer
traditional paper letters or phone calls.
Nowadays more and more people are sending e-mails and SMS messages, while others say
that
it
may
lead
to
the
loss
of
social
interaction.
Personally, I communicate with my friends through e-mails and SMS messages. To my mind,
they have a number of advantages. Firstly, both e-mails and SMS messages are rather cheap
and quick. Secondly, they are non-intrusive. In comparison with a call, they do not interrupt a
person if he or she is in the middle of a meeting and can't answer you right now. Besides,
there are no standard rules for writing e-mails and SMS messages, and a lot of words can be
shortened. Their objective is to convey a comprehensible message as quickly as possible. That
is why traditional rules of grammar, spelling and punctuation are largely ignored.
However, a lot of people say that sending an e-mail or SMS message is not the same as
writing a letter. Paper letters are usually intimate and long. They give you an opportunity to
tell your friends or relatives all the latest news and to express your feelings. As for e-mails
and SMS messages, they are often short and impersonal. You can't see the sender's
handwriting, you can't feel the crisp paper and you are not likely to re-read these messages.
But I still believe that sending e-mails and SMS messages is more effective than writing
letters.
To conclude, when we are short of time, e-mails and SMS messages are the best way of
communication. But if we want to give or learn more detailed information, letters or phone
calls are better.
The Internet has revolutionized the way people live and work. However, some people
think it has more drawbacks than advantages.
The Internet is a great source of information and entertainment for many people. It has
made possible new forms of social interaction and has become a major source of leisure.
Personally, I can't imagine my life without the Internet. Thanks to it, I have an opportunity to
access news, documents, images, sounds, video, games and sports reports, to make friends, to
book tickets and to purchase different things online. There are a lot of different sites for
pupils, students, gardeners, engineers, bankers, people who are fond of music, cinema, sports
and even for disabled people. What is more, the Internet has revolutionized the way people
communicate. Sending electronic text messages is much faster and easier than writing letters.
People
use
e-mail
to
stay
in
touch
with
friends
worldwide.
However, there are still a lot of people who think that the Internet has too many
disadvantages. Internet-addiction is a topical problem nowadays. Spending much time in front
of the screen becomes a kind of obsession for many people. The symptoms of Internet
addiction include sleep deprivation, decreased physical activity and social interaction with
others. People who spend most of their time in the virtual world forget about the real one.
They neglect their relatives and ruin their families. Besides, there is a lot of rubbish online
and
you
can't
always
trust
what
you
read
on
the
web.
To sum up, the Internet becomes dangerous when it is misused. But if it is used wisely and
moderately, it helps you work, study or entertain and saves plenty of time.
28
Internet dating is becoming more and more popular. However, many people say that
meeting people online is dangerous.
Nowadays a lot of young people feel that meeting people online is just the same as
meeting in a bar. Many of them make friends online and even fall in love with their virtual
interlocutors.
To my mind, it is silly to trust a person you have never seen. You can never be sure that you
communicate with the individual whose personal information and photos you see. For
example, a "young" boy may turn out to be a 50-year-old man. Besides, it is very dangerous
to give detailed personal information to complete strangers. Your online friend may be a
swindler or even a murderer. So meeting such a person in real life may be extremely risky.
On the other hand, some people say that internet dating has many advantages. Firstly, it is
easier for shy people to chat through a keyboard than face to face. Secondly, you can search
the Internet when you are not busy. Besides, you can talk to lots of people at the same time
and you can have several online boyfriends or girlfriends. One can list all his or her romantic
requirements and then find exactly what he or she wants. But I still believe that face-to-face
dating
is
much
better.
To sum up, internet dating may help you find love. If you don't meet someone in real life, it
seems a great alternative. But Internet daters must be cautious because you never know what
you are going to get from online romance.
Various social networks have aroused great interest among Internet users. However,
some people say that they have a lot of drawbacks.
Social networks are very popular among users of different ages and professions. But many
people are concerned about the influence of social networks on their lives.
Personally, I think that social networks have a lot of benefits. Firstly, they link together users
of the Internet who have common interests and give people an opportunity to look for old and
new friends, to build communities, to send messages and to share news and pictures. There
are other sites which allow classmates from school or university to keep in contact with each
other. Secondly, many people use social networks to communicate and exchange personal
information for dating purposes. Thirdly, social networks are being used by teachers and
students. Teachers often help pupils with homework and post assignments, tests or quizzes.
Social networks also serve to foster teacher-parent communication. Parents can ask questions
without having to meet teachers face to face. Finally, some people search for job
opportunities
with
the
help
of
social
networks.
However, some users are worried about data theft and viruses. The problem is that many
people give out too much personal information that may be passed to third parties for
different purposes. To protect user privacy, social networks allow users to choose who can
view their profile or contact them. This prevents unauthorized users from accessing, adding,
changing,
or
removing
personal
information
and
pictures.
To conclude, the popularity of social networks continues growing because more and more
people find it easier to communicate digitally. What is more, millions of people use them for
fun as well as for business and educational purposes.
Artificial intelligence performs quite a lot of jobs nowadays. However, many people
are worried about computers doing the same things that people can do.
In the 90s and early 21st century artificial intelligence achieved its greatest success. Today
clever machines are taught to think and make decisions. But is it safe that artificial
intelligence
is
invading
the
world?
To my mind, computers and robots are very helpful. There are more and more jobs which
humans leave to robots such as exploring another planet, defusing bombs or just doing boring
household chores like cleaning. Computers can perform a lot of functions: they can control
cars and planes, give us the news or compose music. Many factory jobs are performed by
industrial robots nowadays. It has led to cheaper production of various goods, including
automobiles and electronics. Artificial intelligence has successfully been used in a wide range
29
of fields including medical diagnosis, stock trading, robot control, law, scientific discovery
and
toys.
However, there are some reasons to worry about robots. Firstly, the use of robots in industry
leads to unemployment as many jobs are performed by machines. Secondly, industrial robots
can be dangerous and cause harm to human workers. Besides, many people fear that highly
intelligent robots may take over and destroy the human race. There are a lot of books and
films about people losing control over clever machines that begin to kill their creators. But I
believe that it is early to worry because robots are still clumsy and not very intelligent.
To conclude, artificial intelligence serves to help people and make their lives easier. That is
why I think that we should promote research in artificial intelligence. But people must be
careful and pay more attention to security.
People have different attitude to cloning. Some of them think that cloning opens new
possibilities, while others are convinced that it is morally unacceptable.
Scientists have always dreamed of reproducing exact copies of animals and even human
beings. They have already succeeded in this field and created Dolly, the first cloned sheep,
and many other animals. But the question of cloning, especially human one, still remains
controversial.
Personally, I think that cloning plants and animals is rather interesting and exciting. Cloned
animals may be strong and healthy and they may produce more wool, meat or milk. Besides,
cloning will help us preserve species that are on the brink of extinction. Moreover, cloning
gives people new medical possibilities. Owing to it, scientists can create organs for
transplantation and save people who need a new heart, liver or kidneys.
However, quite a lot of people are against cloning. They say that people must not interfere in
the process of creating a new life because it is the duty of nature. What is more, scientists
don't know for sure how clones will behave and what diseases they may transmit. As for
human cloning, it seems to be dangerous and morally unacceptable.
To conclude, I think that science must develop in order to improve our lives. But people
should be more careful when they use new technologies and investigate new phenomena. So
to my mind, cloning must be used only when it is necessary to save lives and to solve
important problems.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC), the world's largest particle accelerator, is
expected to advance humanity's understanding of the deepest laws of nature. However,
a lot of people are worried about its existence.
The Large Hadron Collider has gained considerable attention of the scientific community,
the mass media and the general public. Experts say that it could change physics and our
understanding of the world. But why do many people worry that the LHC would be a
problem?
Personally, I'm amazed by all the interesting theories surrounding the LHC. Scientists hope
that the Large Hadron Collider will help us answer many of the most fundamental questions
concerning the structure of space and time, extra dimensions, the nature of the dark matter
and many others. There hasn't been any advance in fundamental physics for many years, but
the LHC may help us understand how the universe works and discover new facts about it.
However, many people are against the LHC. The project costs much money and the LHC is
considered to be one of the most expensive scientific instruments ever built. Moreover, people
fear that the experiments at the Large Hadron Collider may be extremely dangerous and that it
may swallow Switzerland or even destroy the planet. In his famous novel "Angels &
Demons" Dan Brown describes antimatter created at the LHC which is used in a weapon
against the Vatican. But according to scientists, the LHC presents no danger and there is no
reason for concern. I strongly feel that the experiments at the LHC should continue because
they are extremely interesting and nobody knows what is going to be found.
To conclude, I believe that the LHC may change the face of physics forever and help answer
the questions that people have been asking since the beginning of time.
30
The use of polygraph still remains controversial. Some people think that this device
helps detect a lie, while others are convinced that polygraph evidence is unreliable.
It is well-known that lying causes bodily changes. A polygraph, or a lie detector, measures the
physiological stress a person endures while he or she gives statements or answers questions.
The device measures the suspect's heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate and respiration. If
there is increased activity in these areas, the suspect might be lying. However, the accuracy of
the polygraph has been contested almost since the introduction of the device.
Personally, I think that a polygraph is a very useful invention. If people believe that it can
detect lies, they try to answer truthfully. In some countries polygraphs are used to interrogate
suspects and screen new employees. Polygraph examinations sometimes help extract
confessions
from
a
defendant.
But experts say that the accuracy of this method is questionable. According to them, if you go
into the test rested and relaxed, if you are cooperative and try to remain calm, you are likely
to pass polygraph tests. There were some cases when polygraph failed to trap known spies.
Conversely, innocent people have been known to fail polygraph tests. That is why polygraph
results
are
not
admissible
as
court
evidence.
To conclude, I believe that no device or expert can detect a lie with 100% accuracy. To my
mind, polygraph can make some people be honest, but it can also be deceived.
Some people think that science plays the most important role in the development of
our civilization; others believe that our world would be impossible without poetry.
What does science have in common with poetry? Science is a product of people's intellect.
Poetry is a product of their imagination and inspiration. Science deals with bacteria, atoms,
electricity, magnetic fields and so on. Poetry deals with human feelings such as love,
jealousy,
hatred
and
others.
I believe that the world wouldn't develop without science. The aims of science are making
discoveries and increasing human knowledge and understanding. Science deals with such
areas as the theory of evolution, the method of creation of the universe and the Earth, the
origins of life and many others. Science has already helped people answer a lot of
complicated questions. With the help of the latest achievements of science and engineering
we
can
solve
many
problems
and
make
our
lives
better.
However, many people are not sure that all we need is science. Some of them are convinced
that our lives would be dull without poetry. People's feelings are so intense, that they want to
express them using beautiful language. Poetry serves to stir our imagination and to evoke
emotional or sensual responses. While reading poetry we forget about our problems and
experience the poet's deepest dreams and fears. A good poem often makes us laugh or cry. It
also
makes
us
think
about
other
people's
feelings.
In conclusion, I'd like to say that it's rather difficult to live both without science and poetry.
Science helps develop technology and solve many problems. Poetry helps make our lives
more colourful and romantic. Besides, it helps us not to forget about human feelings, values
and beliefs.
Some people think that science has nothing in common with religion, while others
are convinced that it is not so.
There seems to be an eternal conflict between science and religion. Religious people have
disagreed or are still disagreeing with scientists in different areas. Does it mean that there is a
great
gap
between
science
and
religion?
To my mind, science and religion have little in common. Science is a product of people's
intellect. Religion is a product of the mystical sense and it requires some unquestioned faith.
Science is based on observation, research and experiment. Religious knowledge is gained
from religious leaders, scriptures and personal revelation. Scientists are convinced that there
must be explanations for all mysterious phenomena. It has already answered some
complicated questions about bacteria, atoms, electricity, magnetic fields and many others.
Religion deals with questions which science has not answered yet. What is the purpose of our
31
life?
Is
there
life
after
death?
What
happens
to
the
soul?
However, many people say that science and religion are not as different as it seems to be.
Many scientists dedicate their lives to solving the riddle of existence. But the more they learn
about the world, the more complex and harder to grasp it seems to be. Many scientists such as
Albert Einstein or Isaac Newton were devoutly religious individuals and worked to harmonize
science and religion. What scientists call the Energy is called God by religious people.
Besides, more and more scientists are becoming religious and they are beginning to use words
like
"God",
"soul"
or
"spirituality".
To conclude, one day people may realize that science and religion have a common ground
and that spiritual power is as important as scientific power.
Literature.
1. Юнева С.А. Открывая мир с английском языком. 150 эссе для ЕГЭ. – Москва:
«Интеллект-Центр», 2011. – 88с.
Theme 3. Non-finite forms of the verb: The characteristic traits of the verbals. Gerund
and Complex Gerund Construction, their structure and peculiarities of translation into
Russian.
NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB (VERBALS)
There are four non-finite forms of the verb in English: the infinitive (to take), the gerund
(taking), participle I (taking), participle II (taken). These forms possess some verbal and some
non-verbal features. The main verbal feature of the infinitive and participles I and II is that it can
be used as part of analytical verbal forms (is standing, is built, have come, will do, etc.)
Lexically non-finites do not differ from finite forms. Grammatically the difference between
the two types of forms lies in the fact that non-finites may denote a secondary action or a process
related to that expressed by the finite verb.
Non-finites possess the verb categories of voice, perfect, and aspect. They lack the categories
of person, number, mood, and tense.
None of the forms have morphological features of non-verbal parts of speech, neither
nominal, adjectival or adverbial. In the sphere of syntax, however, non-finites possess both
verbal and non-verbal features. Their non-verbal character reveals itself in their syntactical
functions. Thus, the infinitive and the gerund perform the main syntactical functions of the noun,
which are those of subject, object and predicative. Participle I functions as attribute, predicative
and adverbial modifier; participle II as attribute and predicative. They cannot form a predicate by
themselves, although unlike non-verbal parts of speech they can function as part of a compound
verbal predicate.
Syntactically the verbal character of non-finites is manifested mainly in their combinability.
Similarly to finite forms they may combine with nouns functioning as direct, indirect, or
prepositional objects, with adverbs and prepositional phrases used as adverbial modifiers, and
with subordinate clauses.
Non-finites may also work as link verbs, combining with nouns, adjectives or statives as
predicatives, as in: to be/being a doctor (young, afraid). They may also act as modal verb
semantic equivalents when combined with an infinitive: to have/having to wait, to be able/being
able to stay. So the structure of a non-finite verb group resembles the structure of any verb
phrase.
All non-finite verb forms may participate in the so-called predicative constructions, that is,
two-component syntactical units where a noun or a pronoun and a non-finite verb form are in
32
predicative relations similar to those of the subiect and the predicate: I heard Jane singing; We
waited for the train to pass; I saw him run, etc.
The gerund
The gerund is a non-finite form of the verb with some noun features. It is formed by adding
the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb.
The grammatical meaning of the gerund is that of a process. Thus to some extent it competes
with nouns of verbal origin, e.g. translating -translation, describing - description, arriving arrival, perceiving - perception, helping - help. Nouns, however, tend to convey the fact or the
result of an action, which in certain circumstances may be something material, whereas gerunds
convey the idea of action or process itself.
Show me your translation: it is neatly done, and there, are no mistakes in it.
You will enrich your vocabulary by translating from English into Russian and vice versa.
If the meaning of the gerund is nearly the same as that of the noun, the former emphasizes the
process, and the latter - the fact:
Thank you for helping me.
Thank you for your help.
It is natural that the verbal character of the gerund is more prominent in transitive verbs,
owing to their combinability and their passive forms.
Morphologically the verbal character of the gerund is manifested in the categories of voice
and perfect (see table V) and syntactically in its combinability. Thus the gerund may combine: a)
with a noun or pronoun as direct, indirect or prepositional object, depending on the verb it is
formed from; b) with an adjective or a noun as a predicative; c) with an infinitive.
Gerunds can be modified by adverbs and prepositional phrases functioning as adverbial
modifiers.
The nominal character of the gerund reveals itself syntactically, mainly in its syntactical
function, partly in its combinability.
Like a noun, it can function as subject, object, or predicative.
Seeing you is always a pleasure. (subject)
I remember seeing you somewhere. (object)
I am thinking of seeing the film again. (prepositional object)
Peter’s hobby is seeing all new films. (predicative)
When it is an attribute or an adverbial modifier, a gerund, like a noun is preceded by a
preposition.
There is a chance of catching the train.
Don’t forget to call me up before leaving London.
I reached my goal in spite of there being every reason against it.
33
The fact that the gerund can associate with a preposition is a sure sign of noun features.
Like a noun, but unlike the other non-finites, it can combine with a possessive pronoun and a
noun in the genitive case denoting the doer of the action expressed by the gerund.
Excuse my interrupting you.
I insist on John’s staying with us.
It combines with the negative pronoun no in the idiomatic construction of the type: There is
no getting out of it.
The grammatical categories of the gerund
As already stated the gerund has only two grammatical categories, those of voice and perfect.
Table V
The Grammatical Categories of the Gerund
Voice
Active
Passive
Perfect
Non-Perfect
running
-
taking
Perfect
being taken
having ran
-
having taken
having been taken
The category of perfect
The category of perfect finds its expression, as with other verb forms, in the contrast of nonperfect (indefinite) and perfect forms.
The non-perfect gerund denotes an action simultaneous with that expressed by the finite verb.
Students improve their pronunciation
John improved his pronunciation
by listening to tape recordings.
You will improve your pronunciation
The perfect gerund denotes an action prior to the action denoted by the finite verb.
I regret
I regretted
having uttered these words.
I will always regret
The perfect gerund is invariable in indicating priority, whereas the meaning of the non-perfect
gerund is vaguer and more flexible and may easily be modified by the context. Thus according to
the context the action denoted by the non-perfect gerund may precede or follow the action
34
denoted by the finite verb. The non-perfect gerund may denote a prior action thanks to the lexical
meaning of the verb or the preposition suggesting priority, so the non-perfect gerund is generally
used after verbs of recollection, gratitude, blame, reproach, punishment and reward.
I shall never forget taking this exam.
I remember talking to him once.
Thank you for helping me.
The non-perfect gerund is to be found in gerundial phrases introduced by the prepositions on
and after. The preposition on suggests immediate priority and an instantaneous action.
On reaching the end of the street we turned towards the river.
Tom, after reflecting a little, gave a long sigh.
The lexical meaning of the above-mentioned verbs and prepositions makes the use of the
perfect form redundant. It is used, however, when the priority is emphasized, as in following
examples:
And all of a sudden David remembered having heard the name before.
He came back after having been away for about ten years.
The non-perfect gerund expresses a succeeding action after verbs, adjectives and prepositions
implying reference to a future event (such as to intend, to insist, to object, to suggest, to look
forward to) and after the preposition before:
I insist on your staying with us.
We are looking forward to visiting new places.
Ann suggested going to the cinema.
I’m not keen on getting myself into trouble.
We met once more before parting.
The same form occurs after nouns suggesting futurity such as plan, intention, hope, prospect:
There is some hope of catching the last train.
The category of voice
The gerund of transitive verbs possesses voice distinctions. Like other verb forms, the active
gerund points out that the action is directed from the subject (whether expressed or implied),
whereas the passive gerund indicates that the action is directed towards the subject.
Active gerund
Passive gerund
I hate interrupting people.
- I hate being interrupted.
I am not used to talking in that way.
- I am not used to being talked to in that way.
On telling me the time, he turned away.
- On being told some impossible hour, he turned away.
He entered without having knocked at the door.
- The door opened without having been knocked on.
35
The perfect passive gerund is very rarely used.
There are some verbs (to need, to want, to require, to deserve) and the adjective worth which
are followed by an active gerund with passive meaning.
Your hair needs cutting.
This house wants painting.
Your suggestion is worth talking over.
Syntactical Functions of the Gerund
The gerund can perform any syntactical function typical of a noun, although in each case it
has peculiarities of its own. It may function (a) alone, without modifiers, or (b) as the headword
of a gerundial phrase, or (c) as part of a gerundial predicative construction. Since the functions of
gerundial constructions are identical with those of single gerunds or gerundial phrases, we shall
treat them together. The gerundial constructions are usually translated by clauses.
a) I like driving.
b) I like playing the piano.
c) I like John’s (his) playing the piano.
A gerundial phrase consists of a gerund as headword and one or more words depending on it.
A gerundial construction contains some nominal element denoting the doer of the action
expressed by the gerund and the gerund itself with or without some other words depending on it.
The nominal element can be a noun in the genitive case or a possessive pronoun (if it denotes a
living being), or a noun in the common case (if it does not denote a living being).
I remember John’s telling me that story once.
I remember the weather being extremely fine that summer.
We are absolutely against grown-up children being treated as babies.
There is a growing tendency, especially in informal speech, to use the pronoun in the
objective case and a noun in the common case to denote the doer of the action expressed by the
gerund with reference to living beings too.
They were all in favour of Tommy playing the main part.
The gerund as subject
As a rule the gerund as subject stands in front position.
John(‘s) coming tomorrow will make all the difference.
Growing roses, collecting postage stamps or old swords are hobbies.
The subject stands in postposition in sentences opening with an introductory it, which
happens when the meaning of the subject is accentuated and the predicate is a phrase such as to
be (of) no use (no good, useless), to make all the (no) difference.
If you want me to help, it’s no good beating about the bush.
It will make no difference your being quiet.
In American English the pattern There is no use in doing it is preferable to It is no use doing
it. In sentences with the introductory there the gerund is preceded by the negative pronoun no.
Such sentences are usually emphatic.
36
Well, there’s no avoiding him now.
There is no accounting for his strange behaviour.
The gerund as part of the predicate
The gerund is used in compound predicates of both types - verbal and nominal.
The gerund as part of the compound nominal predicate (predicative)
As predicative the gerund expresses either characterization or identity. In the latter case the
predicate reveals the meaning of the subject.
John’s hobby is collecting all sorts of bugs and butterflies.
The gerund as part of the compound verbal predicate
In combination with phasal verbs the gerund forms a compound verbal phasal predicate. The
finite phasal verb denotes a phase of the action expressed by the gerund. The most common
phasal verbs followed by the gerund are: to begin*,* to burst out, to start*, to cease, to
continue*, to give up, to go on, to finish, to keep on, to leave off, to stop.
* The verbs marked by an asterisk may also be followed by the infinitive.
Again you start arguing.
On hearing the joke everybody burst out laughing.
They kept on arguing.
Your health will improve as soon as you give up smoking.
This is the only function of the gerund that is not characteristic of the noun, for it is caused by
the verbal character of the gerund.
A gerundial predicative construction cannot form part of a compound verbal predicate.
The gerund as object
The gerund can be used as a direct or a prepositional object. As a direct object it follows a
number of monotransitive verbs, some of which take only the gerund, while others may be
followed either by the gerund or by the infinitive. The gerund is also used after the adjective
worth.
The following verbs are followed only by the gerund:
to admit
to postpone
to appreciate
to practise
to avoid
to put off
to deny
to recollect
to detest
to resent
to enjoy
to resist
to excuse
to risk
to fancy
to suggest
37
to imagine
to understand
to mention
to mind
can’t help
to miss
can’t stand
We all appreciate your helping us.
Avoid using very long sentences.
Fancy us (our) having to walk a mile in a wind like this!
I’m sorry that I missed seeing you!
Do you mind Ann’s joining us?
Practise listening to tape recordings. It’s good practice!
I find the book worth reading.
Verbs followed by either the gerund or the infinitive.
to have
to remember
to forget
to regret
to intend
to like (dislike)
can’t bear
to plan
can’t afford*
to prefer
* On the difference between the use of the gerund and the infinitive with some verbs see §
127.
I can’t bear your (you) being so sad.
We can’t afford going to the cinema too often now, we are revising for our exams.
I prefer walking home (to taking a bus).
After verbs taking an object and an objective predicative the gerund, or rather a gerundial
phrase or construction, is preceded by an introductory object it.
I find it strange our going without you.
I think it no use your (you) arguing about trifles.
As a prepositional object the gerund may follow (a) monotransitive prepositional verbs, (b)
ditransitive verbs taking a direct and a prepositional object, (c) adjectives and statives and (d)
participle II, generally when used as a predicative.
38
a)
to agree
to count
to object
to
to depend
to look forward
on
to rely
to hear
to learn
of
to think
to persist
to consist
in
to succeed
We all agree to your opening the discussion.
Happiness consists largely in having true friends.
All depends on the doctor being sent for in time.
They are thinking of doing something for him.
b) to accuse
of
to blame
to praise
to punish
to suspect
to prevent
to thank
from
to stop
for
to sentence
to assist
to help in
in
to have no difficulty
to congratulate smb. on
Roy accused me of disliking him.
What prevented you from becoming a professional actor?
Who will help me in hanging these pictures?
You should blame yourself for getting such a low mark.
I had no difficulty in getting the tickets for the concert.
c)
to be afraid
to be ignorant
to be aware
to be proud
to be conscious
of
of
to be sure
39
to be capable
to be responsible for
to be fond
to be sorry about
to be keen on
I don’t have the TV too loud, because I’m afraid of disturbing the neighbours.
We are all proud of our citizen’s getting the first prize.
Ned will be responsible for arranging the farewell party.
Don’t be sorry about missing the first scene, it was rather dull.
d)
to be accustomed
to
to be used
to be absorbed
to be (dis)pleased with (at)
to be surprised at
in
to be tired of
to be engrossed
I’m not used to being talked to in that rude way.
The teacher was displeased with the boys being noisy.
We were surprised at your leaving the party.
A teacher shouldn’t get tired of explaining things to his pupils.
The gerund as attribute
When used as an attribute, the gerund modifies nouns, mainly abstract nouns. It is always
preceded by a preposition, in the vast majority of cases by of, as in the following combinations:
the art of teaching, the habit of speaking, a certain way of walking, a chance of seeing
somebody, a hope of getting a ticket, an idea of going to the cinema, an intention of learning
another foreign language, etc.
There is a chance of catching the train.
Professor N spoke about new methods of teaching English to foreign students.
The idea of him being in Paris was not a pleasant one.
Lucy had the impression of being carried upstairs.
Isn’t there any hope of your being able to go with us at all?
In some cases the choice of the preposition depends on the requirements of the modified
noun, as in surprise at, experience in, skill in, apology (excuse) for, objection to.
The boy showed his skill in building model boats.
Imagine his surprise at seeing me.
When a gerund modifies a concrete noun it is preceded by the preposition for and the whole
gerundial phrase as attribute expresses the purpose or destination of the thing mentioned.
The barometer is an instrument for measuring the pressure of the air.
A gerund as attribute may precede the noun it modifies in phrases bordering on a compound
noun. A premodifying attribute is used without a preposition, as in a dancing master, a diving
40
suit, a reading lamp, a spending habit, a working method, a writing career, a swimming pool, a
walking stick, etc.*
* See §132.
The gerund as adverbial modifier
Owing to the variety of prepositions which may precede the gerund in the function of an
adverbial modifier, a gerund may have different meanings.
1) As an adverbial modifier of time it may characterize the main verb from the viewpoint of
priority, simultaneity, or posteriority. It may also indicate the starting point of the action. The
prepositions used are on, after, in, before, since.
One day, on returning to his hotel, he found a note in his room.
At first he couldn’t understand. After thinking it over he hit upon the explanation.
And I’ll wash the dishes and clean up before coming to bed.
I had had a lot of thoughts since leaving the office.
2) As an adverbial modifier of reason it is introduced by the prepositions because of, for,
from, for fear of, on account of, through.
So you see I couldn’t sleep for worrying.
We lost ourselves through not knowing the way.
He (Jolyon) took care not to face the future for fear of breaking up his untroubled manner.
3) As an adverbial modifier of manner the gerund generally occurs with the prepositions by or
without.
You will achieve a lot by felling the truth.
She dressed without making a sound.
4) As an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances it requires the preposition without.
They danced without speaking. (= They danced and didn’t speak)
The door opened without having been knocked on.
5) As an adverbial modifier of concession it is preceded by the preposition in spite of:
I don’t ask any questions in spite of there being a lot of questions to ask.
6) As an adverbial modifier of condition it takes the prepositions without, but for, in case of.
You won’t enrich your vocabulary without making use of an English dictionary. (= if you
don’t make use of...)
But for meeting John, I shouldn’t have become an English teacher.
7) As an adverbial modifier of purpose it is introduced by the preposition for, though this
pattern is rather rare.
They took her to the station for questioning.
41
The gerund and the infinitive compared
The gerund and the infinitive have much in common since they both have some nominal and
some verbal features. However, in the infinitive the verbal nature is more prominent, whereas in
the gerund the nominal one.
The basic difference in their meaning is that the gerund is more general, whereas the infinitive
is more specific and more bound to some particular occasion. When they combine with the same
verb the difference in their meaning and use should be fully realized.
1. With the verbs to like, to hate, to prefer the gerund expresses a more general or a habitual
action, the infinitive a specific single action:
I like swimming (I am fond of swimming).
I shouldn’t like to swim in this lake.
I hate interrupting people.
I hate to interrupt you, but I have to.
They prefer staying indoors when the weather is cold.
I’d prefer to stay at home in this cold weather.
2. With the verbs to begin and to start either form may generally be used, but again the
gerund is preferable when the action is more general.
She began singing when a child.
She went over to the piano and began to sing.
No gerund is used:
a) when the finite verb is in the continuous form.
He is beginning to study French.
It’s beginning to rain.
b) with the verbs to understand and to see (meaning to understand).
He began to understand how it was done.
c) when the subject denotes a thing, not a living being.
The doors began to creak.
The clock began to strike.
3. The verb to remember is followed by a gerund when it means a prior action (to recall, to
keep in one’s memory some past event), and by an infinitive when it means a simultaneous action
(the working of one’s memory).
I remembered posting the letters.
I remembered to post the letters. =
(Я помнил, что опустил письмо).
I remembered and posted.
(Я не забыл опустить письмо).
The same refers to the verb to forget.
I shall never forget hearing him sing
Don’t forget to post the letters!
(Я никогда не забуду как он пел).
(Не забудь опустить письма).
I didn’t forget to post the letters.
(Я не забыл опустить письма).
4. The verb to regret is followed by the gerund to suggest priority, whereas the infinitive
suggests a simultaneous action.
42
5. a) after to stop the gerund is used when it suggests the end of the action denoted by the
gerund, whereas the infinitive is used as an adverbial of purpose.
b) The phrasal verb to go on with a gerund suggests the continuation of the action, denoted by
the gerund and forms part of a compound verbal predicate; an infinitive points out a new stage in
the sequence of actions.
6. The verb to allow is used with a gerund when it is not followed by an indirect object.
They don’t allow smoking here.
They allowed us to smoke.
(Здесь курить запрещено).
(Они разрешили нам курить).
The gerund and the verbal noun compared
Although formed in the same way as the gerund, the verbal noun is another part of speech and
has no verbal features at all. The following table shows the main differences between the gerund
and the verbal noun.
Table VI
The characteristics of the gerund and the verbal noun
Forms
The gerund
The verbal noun
Grammatical
characteristics
M
Voice and perfect
being done, having done
-
o
r
f
The plural form
-
sufferings, comings and goings
o
l
o
g
y
Direct object
S
Of-phrase and
y
adjectival attributes
n
t
I like doing morning exercises.
-
The doing of morning
Exercises was very good for me.
The regular doing of morning
exercises
43
a
Adverbs as a modifier
x
Doing morning exercises regularly
-
will improve your health.
Articles
-
The doing of morning exercises.
The acting was perfect.
From the table we can see that the distinctive features of the gerund are its verbal categories in
the sphere of morphology and its verbal combinability. The distinctive features of the verbal
noun are its nominal category of number and its noun combinability. It must be taken into
consideration that a verbal noun is an abstract noun, and the use of the article and the plural form
is determined by the requirements of the meaning and context.
It is more difficult to discriminate between a gerund and a verbal noun in cases where the
verbal characteristics of the gerund are not apparent. This happens mainly when an -ing form is
used as a single word without any modifiers or with such modifiers as occur with both the
gerund and the verbal noun (His coming was unexpected. Her acting was perfect). In such cases
the meaning of the form should be taken into account. Thus a gerund suggests a process, an
activity, whereas a verbal noun denotes kinds of occupation (skating as compared to hockey), an
art form (acting, painting), a branch of knowledge (engineering, spelling as opposed to
pronunciation and as a synonym for orthography).
It goes without saying that an -ing form is a pure noun when it denotes an object, often the
result of activity (a building - a house; a drawing, a painting - a picture). In such cases a noun
unlike a gerund, may also combine with numerals, as in two drawings, four buildings, etc.
Literature.
1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского
языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических
институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.496с.
THE INFINITIVE, part 1.
The infinitive is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb
with those of the noun, serving as the verbal name of a process. By virtue of its general processnaming function, the infinitive should be considered as the head-form of the whole paradigm of
the verb. In this quality it can be likened to the nominative case of the noun in languages having
a normally developed noun declension, as, for instance, Russian. It is not by chance that A. A.
Shakhmatov called the infinitive the "verbal nominative". With the English infinitive, its role of
the verbal paradigmatic head-form is supported by the fact that, as has been stated before, it
represents the actual derivation base for all the forms of regular verbs.
The infinitive is used in three fundamentally different types of functions: first, as a notional,
self-positional syntactic part of the sentence; second, as the notional constituent of a complex
verbal predicate built up around a predicator verb; third, as the notional constituent of a finite
44
conjugation form of the verb. The first use is grammatically "free", the second is grammatically
"half-free", the third is grammatically "bound".
The dual verbal-nominal meaning of the infinitive is expressed in full measure in its free,
independent use. It is in this use that the infinitive denotes the corresponding process in an
abstract, substance-like presentation. This can easily be tested by question-transformations. Cf.:
Do you really mean to go away and leave me here alone? → What do you really mean? It
made her proud sometimes to toy with the idea. → What made her proud sometimes?
The combinability of the infinitive also reflects its dual semantic nature, in accord with which
we distinguish between its verb-type and noun-type connections. The verb-type combinability
of the infinitive is displayed in its combining, first, with nouns expressing the object of the
action; second, with nouns expressing the subject of the action; third, with modifying adverbs;
fourth, with predicator verbs of semi-functional nature forming a verbal predicate; fifth, with
auxiliary finite verbs (word-morphemes) in the analytical forms of the verb. The noun-type
combinability of the infinitive is displayed in its combining, first, with finite notional verbs as
the object of the action; second, with finite notional verbs as the subject of the action.
The self-positional infinitive, in due syntactic arrangements, performs the functions of all
types of notional sentence-parts, i. e. the subject, the object, the predicative, the attribute, the
adverbial modifier. Cf.: To meet the head of the administration and not to speak to him about
your predicament was unwise, to say the least of it. (Infinitive subject position) The chief
arranged to receive the foreign delegation in the afternoon. (Infinitive object position) The
parents' wish had always been to see their eldest son the continuator of their joint scientific
work. (Infinitive predicative position) Here again we are faced with a plot to overthrow the
legitimately elected government of the republic. (Infinitive attributive position) Helen was far
too worried to listen to the remonstrances. (Infinitive adverbial position)
If the infinitive in free use has its own subject, different from that of the governing
construction, it is introduced by the preposition-particle for. The whole infinitive construction of
this type is traditionally called the "for-to infinitive phrase". Cf.: For that shy-looking young
man to have stated his purpose so boldly — incredible!
The prepositional introduction of the inner subject in the English infinitive phrase is
analogous to the prepositional-casal introduction of the same in the Russian infinitive phrase
(i.e. either with the help of the genitive-governing preposition для, or with the help of the dative
case of the noun). Cf.: Для нас очень важно понять природу подобных соответствий.
With some transitive verbs (of physical perceptions, mental activity, declaration,
compulsion, permission, etc.) the infinitive is used in the semi-predicative constructions of the
complex object and complex subject, the latter being the passive counterparts of the former. Cf.:
We have never heard Charlie play his violin. → Charlie has never been heard to plan his
violin. The members of the committee expected him to speak against the suggested resolution.
→ He was expected by the members of the committee to speak against the suggested resolution.
45
Due to the intersecting character of joining with the governing predicative construction, the
subject of the infinitive in such complexes, naturally, has no introductory preposition-particle.
The English infinitive exists in two presentation forms. One of them, characteristic of the
free uses of the infinitive, is distinguished by the pre-positional marker to. This form is called
traditionally the "to-infinitive", or in more recent linguistic works, the "marked infinitive". The
other form, characteristic of the bound uses of the infinitive, does not employ the marker to,
thereby presenting the infinitive in the shape of the pure verb stem, which in modern
interpretation is understood as the zero-suffixed form. This form is called traditionally the "bare
infinitive", or in more recent linguistic works, respectively, the "unmarked infinitive".
The infinitive marker to is a word-morpheme, i.e. a special formal particle analogous,
mutatis mutandis, to other auxiliary elements in the English grammatical structure. Its only
function is to build up and identify the infinitive form as such. As is the case with the other
analytical markers, the particle to can be used in an isolated position to represent the whole
corresponding construction syntagmatically zeroed in the text. Cf.: You are welcome to acquaint
yourself with any of the documents if you want to.
Like other analytical markers, it can also be separated from its notional, i.e. infinitive part
by a word or a phrase, usually of adverbial nature, forming the so-called "split infinitive". Cf.:
My task is not to accuse or acquit; my task it to thoroughly investigate, to clearly define, and to
consistently systematise the facts.
Thus, the marked infinitive presents just another case of an analytical grammatical form.
The use or non-use of the infinitive marker depends on the verbal environment of the infinitive.
Namely, the unmarked infinitive is used, besides the various analytical forms, with modal verbs
(except the modals ought and used), with verbs of physical perceptions, with the verbs let, bid,
make, help (with the latter — optionally), with the verb know in the sense of "experience", with
a few verbal phrases of modal nature (had better, would rather, would have, etc.), with the
relative-inducive why. All these uses are detailed in practical grammar books.
The infinitive is a categorially changeable form. It distinguishes the three grammatical
categories sharing them with the finite verb, namely, the aspective category of development
(continuous in opposition), the aspective category of retrospective coordination (perfect in
opposition), the category of voice (passive in opposition). Consequently, the categorial paradigm
of the infinitive of the objective verb includes eight forms: the indefinite active, the continuous
active, the perfect active, the perfect continuous active; the indefinite passive, the continuous
passive, the perfect passive, the perfect continuous passive. E.g.: to take — to be taking
— to have taken — to have been taking; to be taken —to be being taken — to have been taken
— to have been being taken.
The infinitive paradigm of the non-objective verb, correspondingly, includes four forms.
E.g.: to go —to be going
— to have gone — to have been going.
46
The continuous and perfect continuous passive can only be used occasionally, with a strong
stylistic colouring. But they underlie the corresponding finite verb forms. It is the indefinite
infinitive that constitues the head-form of the verbal paradigm.
Literature.
1. Блох М. Я. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка: Учебник. Для студентов филол. фак.
ун-тов и фак. англ. яз. педвузов. — М.: Высш. школа, 1983.— с. 383.
THE INFINITIVE, part 2.
The infinitive is a non-finite form of the verb which names a process in a most general way.
As such, it is naturally treated as the initial form of the verb, which represents the verb in
dictionaries (much in the same way as the common case singular represents the noun).
In all its forms and functions the infinitive has a special marker, the particle to. The particle
to is generally used with the infinitive stem and is so closely connected with it that does not
commonly allow any words to be put between itself and the stem. Occasionally, however, an
adverb or particle may be inserted between them:
She doesn’t want to even see me once more.
The infinitive thus used is called the split infinitive, and is acceptable only to give special
emphasis to the verb.
Although the particle to is very closely connected with the infinitive, sometimes the bare
infinitive stem is used. The cases where the infinitive loses its marker are very few in number.
Like other non-finite forms of the verb the infinitive has a double nature: it combines verbal
features with those of the noun.
The verbal features of the infinitive are of two kinds: morphological and syntactical.
1) M o r p h o l o g i c a l : the infinitive has the verb categories of voice, perfect and aspect:
The evening is the time to praise the day. (active)
To be praised for what one has not done was bad enough. (passive)
She did not intend to keep me long, she said. (non-perfect)
I am so distressed to have kept you waiting, (perfect)
She promised to bring the picture down in the course of ten minutes. (common)
At that time I happened to be bringing him some of the books borrowed from him two
days before, (continuous)
2) S y n t a c t i c a l : the infinitive possesses the verb combinability:
a) it takes an object in the same way as the corresponding finite verbs do;
b)it takes a predicative if it happens to be a link verb;
c) it is modified by adverbials in the same way as finite verbs:
Infinitive
Finite verb
47
a) To tell him about it the same night was out of the
question.
She told me about it only yesterday.
She did not mean to depend on her father.
You see, I depend on his word only.
b) She wanted to be a teacher.
I don’t want to look pale tonight.
He was a teacher of French.
c) To draw his attention I had to speak very loudly.
She looked pale and haggard.
He spoke loudly, turning his head from side to side.
The nominal features of the infinitive are revealed only in its function:
To understand is to forgive. (subject, predicative)
That’s what I wanted to know. (object)
I saw the chance to escape into the garden. (attribute)
I merely came back to water the roses, (adverbial modifier of purpose)
The Grammatical Categories of the Infinitive
As has already been stated the infinitive has three grammatical categories, those of perfect,
voice, and aspect.
The system of grammatical categories of the infinitive is shown in the table below.
Table IV
Perfect
Voice
Active
Passive
Aspect
Non-Perfect Common
to go
to take
Continuous
Perfect
Common
Continuous
to be taken
to be going
-
to be taking
(to be being taken)
to have gone
-
to have taken
to have been taken
to have been going
-
to have been taking
-
It is seen from the table, that the passive voice is found only with transitive verbs and there
are no perfect continuous forms in the passive voice. As for the non-perfect continuous passive,
forms similar to the one in brackets, do sometimes occur, although they are exceptionally rare.
48
The category of perfect
The category of perfect finds its expression, as with other verb forms, in the opposition of
non-perfect and perfect forms.
The non-perfect infinitive denotes an action simultaneous with that of the finite verb (I am
glad to take part in it, I am glad to be invited there),
The perfect infinitive always denotes an action prior to that of the finite verb - the predicate of
the sentences. The meaning of priority is invariable with the perfect and perfect continuous
infinitive.
I am glad
I was glad
to have seen you again.
I shall be glad
The non-perfect infinitive is vaguer and more flexible in meaning and its meaning may easily
be modified by the context. Thus, it may denote an action preceding or following the action
denoted by the finite verb. It expresses succession, that is indicates that the action follows the
action denoted by the finite verb, as in the following cases:
1) When used as an adverbial modifier of purpose:
She bit her lip to keep back a smile.
I came here to help you, not to quarrel with you.
2) When used as part of a compound verbal predicate:
You must do it at once.
You know, she is beginning to learn eagerly.
3) When used as an object of a verb of inducement:
He ordered the man to come at three.
She always asks me to help her when she is busy.
He will make you obey.
The category of aspect
The category of aspect finds its expression in contrasting forms of the common aspect and the
continuous aspect. The difference between the category of aspect in finite verb forms and in the
infinitive is that in the infinitive it is consistently expressed only in the active voice:
to speak
- to be speaking
to have spoken
- to have been speaking
The passive voice has practically no aspect oppositions. (See Table IV). The semantics of the
category of aspect in the infinitive is the same as in the finite verb: the continuous aspect forms
denote an action in progress at some moment of time in the present, past, or future; the meaning
of the common aspect forms is flexible and is easily modified by the context.
49
The two aspects differ in their frequency and functioning; the continuous aspect forms are
very seldom used and cannot perform all the functions in which the common aspect forms are
used. They can function only as:
1) subject (To be staying with them was a real pleasure.);
2) object (I was glad to be waking.)
3) part of a compound verbal predicate (Now they must be getting back; The leaves begin to
be growing yellowish.)
The continuous aspect forms do not occur in the function of adverbial - modifiers and
attributes.
The category of voice
The infinitive of transitive verbs has the category of voice, similar to all other verb forms:
to say
to have said
-
to be said
to have been said
The active infinitive points out that the action is directed from the subject (either expressed or
implied), the passive infinitive indicates that the action is directed to the subject:
Active
He expected to find them very soon.
Passive
They expected to be found by night fall.
However, there are cases where the active form of the non-perfect infinitive denotes an action
directed towards the subject, that is although active in form it is passive in meaning:
His to blame.
The house is to let.
The active infinitive thus used is called retroactive.
The retroactive infinitive is rather productive although in nearly all cases it can be replaced by
the corresponding passive form:
He is to blame —> He is to be blamed.
There was only one thing to do ——> There was only one thing to be done.
Syntactical functions of the infinitive
The infinitive performs almost all syntactical functions characteristic of the noun, although in
each of them it has certain peculiarities of its own. In all syntactical functions the infinitive may
be used:
50
1) alone, that is, without any words depending on it:
She would like to dance.
2) as the headword of an infinitive phrase, that is, with one or more words depending on it:
She would like to dance with him tonight.
3) as part of an infinitive predicative construction, that is, as a logical predicate to some
nominal element denoting the logical subject of the infinitive:
She would like him to dance with her.
She waited for him to dance first.
As to the functioning of single infinitives and infinitive phrases, they are identical in this
respect and therefore will be used without distinction in illustrations. However it should be noted
that in fact the infinitive phrase is much more common than the single infinitive.
The infinitive as subject
The infinitive functioning as subject may either precede the predicate or follow it. In the latter
case it is introduced by the so-called introductory it, which is placed at the beginning of the
sentence:
To be good is to be in harmony with oneself.
It’s so silly to be fussy and jealous.
The second of these structural patterns is more common than the first, and the subject in this
pattern is more accentuated (compare for example: It’s impossible to do it and To do it is
impossible). The other difference is that in the second case the sentence can be both declarative
and interrogative, while in the first one the sentence can only be declarative:
Declarative sentences
It’s nice to see you again.
To find him still at home was a relief.
It was not a good idea to bring her here
To see her again did not give him the
usual pleasure.
Interrogative sentences
Is it bad to love one so dearly?
Wasn’t it a waste of time to sit there?
The infinitive subject in both structural patterns is a “to” - infinitive. If there are two or more
homogeneous infinitive subjects in a sentence, all of them keep the particle to:
To be alone, to be free from the daily interests and cruelty would be happiness to Asako.
It was awfully difficult to do or even to say nothing at all.
51
The function of the subject can be performed by the infinitive of any voice, aspect and perfect
form, although the common aspect non-perfect active forms are naturally far more frequent.
To expect too much is a dangerous thing.
To be walking through the fields all alone seemed an almost impossible pleasure.
To have seen her was even a more painful experience.
To be recognized, to be greeted by some local personage afforded her a joy which was
very great.
To have been interrogated in such a way was a real shock to him.
The predicate of the subject expressed by an infinitive always takes the form of the 3rd
person singular. As to its type, it is usually a compound nominal predicate with the link verb to
be, although other link verbs may also occur, as well as a verbal predicate.
To acquire knowledge and to acquire it unceasingly is the first duty of the artist.
To understand is to forgive.
To talk to him bored me.
To see the struggle frightened him terribly.
To write a really good book requires more time than I have.
The infinitive as part of the predicate
The infinitive is used in predicates of several types, both nominal and verbal.
The infinitive as predicative
In the function of a predicative the “to”-infinitive is used in compound nominal predicates
after the link verb to be:
His dearest wish was to have a son.
With homogeneous predicatives the use of the particle to varies. If the infinitives are not
linked by conjunctions, the particle is generally used with all of them:
My intention was to see her as soon as possible, to talk to her, to calm her.
If they are linked by the conjunctions and or or the particle to is generally used with the first
infinitive only:
Your duty will be to teach him French and play with him.
His plan was to ring her up at once, or even call on her.
The use of the infinitive as a predicative has some peculiarities.
1) In sentences with an infinitive subject the predicative infinitive denotes an action that
follows, or results from, the action of the subject infinitive.
To see her was to admire her.
To come there at this hour was to risk one’s life.
52
Sentences in which both the infinitives are used without any modifiers are usually of
aphoristic meaning:
To hear is to obey.
To see is to believe.
To define is to limit.
The predicative function is generally performed by the common non-perfect active forms of
the infinitive. Still passive forms sometimes occur:
To be born in poverty was to be doomed to humiliation.
2) The set of nouns that can function as the subject of a compound nominal predicate with an
infinitive predicative is very limited. It includes about 50 nouns describing situations:
action
function
order
advice
habit
plan
aim
happiness
principle
ambition
hope
problem
attempt
idea
purpose
business
ideal
reason
consequence
instruction
risk
custom
intention
role
desire
job
rule
difficulty
method
task
duty
need
thing
experience
object
wish, etc.
A predicative infinitive phrase may be introduced by the conjunctive, adverbs and pronouns
how, when, where, what, whom, the choice depending on the lexical meaning of the noun:
Now the question was what to tell him.
The problem was how to begin.
3) The function of the subject may be also performed by the pronoun all or the substantivized
superlatives the most and the least with an attributive clause attached to them:
All he wanted was to be left alone.
The least I can expect is to have this day all to myself.
In such cases the predicative infinitive can lose its marker to:
All I can do is get you out of here.
4) Occasionally the function of the subject can be performed by a gerund or a what-clause:
53
Living with hemophilia was to live off balance all the time.
“What we want to do,“ said Brady, “is to fight a world.”
The infinitive as simple nominal predicate
The infinitive as simple nominal predicate may be used in exclamatory sentences expressing
the speaker’s rejection of the idea that the person to whom the action of the infinitive is ascribed
is likely to perform this action, or belong to such sort of people*, as in:
* For details see Syntax § 41.
You - of all men - to say such a thing!
Me - to be your lover!
As a rule the infinitive in exclamatory sentences is used with the particle to, although it
occasionally occurs without it:
Me - marry him! Never!
The infinitive may be also used as predicate in interrogative infinitive why-sentences, both
affirmative and negative, where it expresses a suggestion:
Why let him sleep so long?
Why not go away?
In such sentences the infinitive is always used without the particle to.
The infinitive as part of a compound verbal predicate
The infinitive is used in compound verbal predicates of three types.
I. In a compound verbal modal predicate after the modal verbs can, may, might, ought,
must, shall, should, will, would, need, dare, to be, to have, and expressions with modal meaning
had better, would rather.
I can tell you nothing at all about him.
She ought to have told me before.
II. In a compound verbal phasal predicate after verbs denoting various stages of the action,
such as its beginning, continuation, or end. These verbs (to begin, to come, to start, to continue,
to go on, to cease, etc.) followed by a “to”-infinitive form a compound verbal phasal predicate.
Now I begin to understand you.
Then she came to realize what it all meant.
They continued to whisper.
The verbs to begin, to continue and to start can also be followed by a gerund, although with a
certain difference in meaning. Thus the verb to stop followed by a gerund means to put an end to
an action, to interrupt, whereas followed by an infinitive means to pause in order to do
something. So the infinitive after the verb to stop is used in the function of an adverbial modifier
of purpose.
He stopped to see what it was.
He stopped seeing her.
Он остановился, чтобы посмотреть, что это такое.
Он перестал с ней встречаться.
54
III. The compound verbal predicate of double orientation* has no analogy in Russian. The
three subtypes of this predicate can be distinguished according to the expression of the first part:
* For details see Syntax § 53.
1. The first part is expressed by one of the following intransitive verbs in the active voice: to
seem - казаться; to appear - оказаться, казаться; to prove, to turn out - оказаться; to happen, to
chance - случаться. After the verbs to prove and to turn out the infinitive is mostly nominal, that
is presented by to be + noun or adjective. After the verbs to seem, to appear, to happen all types
and forms of the infinitive are possible.
Simple sentences with this type of predicate are synonymous with complex sentences of a
certain pattern:
He seems to be smiling.
It seems that he is smiling.
She appeared to have said all.
It appeared that she had said all.
Sentences with compound verbal predicates of double orientation are translated into Russian
in different ways depending on the meaning of the first verbal element:
Странный человечек, казалось, читал
The strange little man seemed to read my thoughts.
мои мысли.
The man seemed to have come from far off.
Nothing appeared to be happening there.
Казалось, этот человек приехал откуда-то
издалека.
Казалось, что здесь ничего не
происходит.
Казалось, что он пробежал всю дорогу
бегом.
Не appeared to have been running all the way.
Он оказался здоровым ребенком.
Ночь оказалась холодной.
Не proved to be a healthy child.
Ты ее случайно не знаешь?
The night turned out to be cold.
Don’t you happen to know her?
2. The first part of the predicate is expressed by the passive voice forms of certain transitive
verbs. They are:
a) verbs of saying: to announce, to declare, to report, to say, to state, etc.
She was announced to be the winner.
Было объявлено, что победила она.
Не is said to have returned at last.
Говорят, что он наконец вернулся.
b) verbs of mental activity: to believe, to consider, to expect, to find, to known, to mean, to
presume, to regard, to suppose, to think, to understand, etc.
55
Предполагают (предполагается), что
он уезжает сегодня вечером.
He’s supposed to be leaving tonight.
Ее считают умной девушкой.
(Считается, что она умная девушка.)
She is believed to be a clever girl.
Считалось (считали, думали,
полагали), что ее отец давным-давно
умер.
Her father was thought to have died long ago.
c) verbs of sense perception: to feel, to hear, to see, to watch.
Soon he was heard to open the front door.
Вскоре услышали, как он открыл парадную дверь.
She was often seen to walk all alone.
Часто видели, как она гуляет совсем одна.
d) the verb to make.
He was made to keep silent.
Его заставили молчать.
3. The first part is expressed by the phrases: to be likely, to be unlikely, to be sure, to be
certain. In this case only the non-perfect forms of the infinitive are used, with future reference.
She is likely to be late.
He is sure to become your friend.
They are sure to be wanted as evidence.
In all these three subtypes the “to” - infinitive is always used.
The infinitive as object
The infinitive can have the function of object after verbs, adjectives, adjectivized participles
and statives.
After verbs the infinitive may be either the only object of a verb or one of two objects.
1. Verbs that take only one object are: to agree, to arrange, to attempt, to care (to like), to
choose, to claim, to consent, to decide, to deserve, to determine, to expect, to fail, to fear, to
forget, to hesitate, to hope, to intend, to learn, to like, to long, to love, to manage, to mean, to
neglect, to omit, to plan, to prefer, to pretend, to refuse, to regret, to remember, to swear, to
tend, etc.
She agreed to come at ten.
He planned to spend the day in town.
You’ll soon learn to read, sonny.
Among these verbs two groups can be distinguished:
a) the verbs to claim, to fail, to forget, to hate, to like, to omit, to regret, to remember, to
swear, with which the perfect infinitive denotes actions prior to those of the finite verbs. It can
be accounted for by the fact that semantically these verbs denote an action or state following or
resulting from that of the infinitive (you can regret only what was or has been done).
I regret to have said it to her.
I remembered to have met him once.
56
She claims to have seen him before.
b) The verbs to attempt, to expect, to hope, to intend, to mean, to plan, to try, when followed
by the perfect infinitive imply that the action of the infinitive was not fulfilled.
I hoped to have found him at home.
He intended to have reached the coast long before.
In this case the finite verb can be used only in the past tense.
Besides the above-mentioned verbs there are also some rather common phrases used with the
infinitive-object. They are the phrases can afford, can bear in the negative or interrogative and
such phrases as to make sure, to make up one’s mind, to take care, to take the trouble.
Can you afford to buy it yourself?
I can’t bear to hear of it again.
At last he made up his mind to answer Sibyl’s letter.
2. Verbs that take two objects, the first of which is a noun or a pronoun and the second an
infinitive. These are the verbs of inducement; they all have the general meaning to persuade, to
cause to do something.
to advise
to direct
to induce
to permit
to allow
to encourage
to instruct
to persuade
to ask
to forbid
to invite
to recommend
to beg
to force
to leave
to request
to cause
to have
to let
to require
to command
to impel
to make
to tell
to compel
to implore
to order
to urge
Tell him to hurry.
He asked her to keep an eye on the clock.
What would you recommend me to do?
With all these verbs, except to have, to let and to make, a “to”- infinitive is used. After the
verbs to have, to let and to make it loses the particle “to”.
She’ll have you do it at once.
Don’t let it bother you.
Soon she made me see where I was wrong.
The object, which is a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case, denotes a
person (or, very seldom, a non-person) who is to perform the required action expressed by the
infinitive.
The verb to help can be used either with one or with two objects:
She helped to pack.
57
She helped me to make up my mind.
In either case a “to”- infinitive or a bare infinitive can be used.
And she actually helped find it.
I’ll help you do it.
With some verbs the function of object may be performed by a conjunctive infinitive phrase.
These verbs are very few in number and fall into two groups:
a) Verbs that can take either an infinitive or a conjunctive infinitive phrase as their object.
These are: to advise, to decide, to forget, to learn, to remember.
They advised me to go on.
He advised me at last how to settle the matter.
He decided to begin at once.
He could not decide whether to come at all.
I forgot to tell you about the last incident.
I forgot how to do it.
b) Verbs that can take only a conjunctive infinitive phrase as their object: to know, to show, to
wonder.
She did not know what to say.
I know well enough where to stop.
Will you show me how to do it?
The infinitive can have the function of object after certain adjectives (adjectivized participles),
mostly used as predicatives. Semantically and structurally these fall into two groups.
1. The most frequent adjectives of the first group are: anxious, apt, bound, careful, curious,
determined, difficult, eager, easy, entitled, fit, free, hard, impatient, inclined, interested, keen,
liable, powerless, prepared, quick, ready, reluctant, resolved, set, slow, worthy.
She’s determined to go on.
I am powerless to do anything.
He’s fully prepared to meet them any time they choose.
I was so impatient to start.
When used with these adjectives, the infinitive denotes actions either simultaneous with, or
posterior to, the states expressed by the predicates, and cannot therefore be used in perfect forms.
2. The most frequent adjectives (adjectivized participles) of the second group are: amused,
annoyed, astonished, delighted, distressed, frightened, furious, glad, grateful, happy, horrified,
pleased, proud, puzzled, relieved, scared, sorry, surprised, thankful, touched.
He was amused to hear it.
I’m delighted to see you again, darling.
She is proud to have grown such a son.
Mother was furious to see them together again.
These adjectives and participles express certain psychological states which are the result of
the action expressed by the infinitive object, so the latter therefore always denotes an action
58
slightly preceding the state expressed by the predicate, and can have both non-perfect and perfect
forms. The non-perfect forms are used to express immediate priority, that is, an action
immediately preceding the state:
I’m glad to see you (I see you and that is why I am glad).
The perfect forms are used to show that there is a gap between the action and the resulting
state.
I am glad to have seen you (I saw/have seen you and that is why I am glad).
3. After certain statives denoting psychological states, such as afraid, agog, ashamed:
He was ashamed to tell us this.
In such cases the infinitive points out the source of the state expressed by the stative.
The infinitive as attribute
The English infinitive functioning as an attribute is far more frequent than the Russian
infinitive. This is because in Russian the infinitive attribute can combine with abstract nouns
only, while in English it is used with a much wider range of words. In this function the infinitive
always denotes a not yet fulfilled action, which is regarded as desirable, possible, advisable,
necessary, etc. The modal meaning of the infinitive attribute is generally rendered in Russian by
modal verbs or expressions, as is shown by the translations below.
The infinitive attribute can modify:
1. nouns, both abstract and concrete:
Because of his quarrel with his family he was in no position to get the news. (... не мог
получить известий)
2. indefinite, negative and universal pronouns in -body, thing, one (one):
Have you anything to offer me? (Вы можете мне что-нибудь предложить?)
Occasionally the infinitive can have the function of an attribute to personal negative and
reflexive pronouns or pronominal adverbs:
I’ve only you to look to.
3 . s u b s t a n t i v i z e d o r d i n a l n u m e r a l s (especially first),
s u b s t a n t i v i z e d a d j e c t i v e s (next and last).
Jack was the first to come.
4 . s u b s t a n t i v i z e d q u a n t i t a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s much, little, (no) more,
(no) less, little more, enough:
A man in your position has so much to lose.
5. the noun-substitute one:
I am not the one to run about and discuss my affairs with other people. (... кто может ...)
The infinitive as adverbial modifier
The infinitive can be used as an adverbial modifier of: purpose, subsequent events,
consequence, attendant circumstances, comparison, condition, exception, time, cause, or
59
motivation. In all these functions but that of the adverbial modifier of exception, a “to”- infinitive
is used.
1. The adverbial modifier of purpose. In this function the action denoted by the infinitive is
always a hypothetical one following the action denoted by the predicate. As such it can be
expressed only by non-perfect common aspect forms of the infinitive (both active and passive):
I think I will go to England to improve my English.
We stood in the rain and were taken out one at a time to be questioned and shot.
In this function a “to”- infinitive is used, but if there are two or more homogeneous adverbials
of purpose joined by and, usually, though not necessarily, only the first of them has the particle
to. Compare the following sentences:
Mary, looking pale and worried, left him to go down to the kitchen and start breakfast.
Then I went upstairs to say how-do-you-do to Emily, and into the kitchen to shake hands
with Mary-Ann, and out into the garden to see the gardener.
The position of the infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of purpose varies. It usually stands
after the predicate, though the position at the beginning of the sentence is also possible:
To occupy her mind, however, she took the job given her.
In both positions the infinitive may be preceded by the conjunction in order, so as or by
limiting particle (just, only):
I keep a diary in order to enter the wonderful secrets of my life.
2. The adverbial modifier of subsequent events. In this function the infinitive denotes an
action that follows the one denoted by the predicate. The position of this adverbial in the
sentence is fixed - it always follows the predicate. The only forms of the infinitive occurring in
this function are those of the non-perfect common aspect, usually active.
He arrived at three o’clock to hear that Fleur had gone out with the car at ten. (He arrived
and heard ...)
In this function the infinitive may be preceded by the particles only, merely, simply, which
change the meaning of the whole sentence: the action denoted by the infinitive preceded by these
particles makes the action denoted by the predicate pointless or irrelevant.
She returned to London in a few days, only to learn that Bess had gone to the continent.
(She returned ..., and learnt...)
3. As an adverbial modifier of consequence the infinitive depends on a) adjectives and
adverbs modified by too; b) adjectives, adverbs and nouns modified by enough; c) adjectives
modified by so, and nouns modified by such. In the last two cases the infinitive is introduced by
as:
a) Не was too tired to argue. (= He was so fired, that is why he couldn’t arque)
b) He’s old enough to learn this. (= He is old enough, so he can learn this)
c) She was so kind as to accept my proposal. (= She was so kind, therefore she accepted my
proposal)
60
In all these cases the infinitive denotes an action, which would become or became possible
(enough, so, such) or impossible (too) due to the degree of quality or quantity expressed in the
words it refers to.
The position of the infinitive is fixed, it always follows the words it modifies. The form of the
infinitive is non-perfect, common aspect, usually active.
.
4. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances shows what
other actions take place at the same time as the action of the predicate.
He left the house never to come back.
I am sorry to have raised your expectations only to disappoint you.
The infinitive thus used always follows the predicate verb it modifies. As to its form, it is a
non-perfect, common aspect, active voice form.
5. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of comparison refers to predicate groups
including adjectives or adverbs in the comparative degree. The infinitive itself is introduced by
than:
To give is more blessed than to receive.
Soon she realized, that it was much more pleasant to give than to be given.
Although the infinitive of comparison is generally used with to, it may also occur without it:
I was more inclined to see her safely married than go on watching over her.
6. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of condition denotes an action which preconditions the action expressed by the predicate.
To look at Montmorency you would imagine that he was an angel sent upon earth ... (If you
looked ..., you would imagine ...)
The position of this infinitive as can be seen from the examples above varies; it may either
precede or follow the predicate verb it modifies. The only possible form of the infinitive is the
non-perfect, common aspect, active voice form.
7. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of exception denotes the action which is the
only possible one in the situation. The infinitive is generally used without to and is introduced by
the prepositions but and except. It is found in negative and interrogative sentences:
I had nothing to do but wait.
8. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of time denotes an action which marks out
the moment of time up to which or at which the action of the predicate is performed. Very often
it has a secondary meaning of condition.
His father lived to be ninety. (lived till he was ...)
The position of the infinitive is fixed, it always follows the predicate it modifies. Its form is
non-perfect, common aspect, active.
61
9. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of cause or motivation refers to a compound
nominal predicate with the predicative expressed by an adjective, a noun, or a prepositional
phrase denoting someone's qualities (intellectual qualities, morals, etc.)
The infinitive denotes an action which serves as a cause or a motivation on which this or that
charaterisation is based.
What an idiot I was not to have thought of it before! (I had not thought of it before,
therefore I can justly be called an idiot.)
The infinitive in this function follows the predicate. All the forms of the infinitive are
possible.
The infinitive as parenthesis
The infinitive used as parenthesis is usually part of a collocation, as in: to begin with, to be
(quite) frank, to be sure, to make matters worse, to put it mildly, to say the least, to tell the truth,
needless to say, strange to say, so to speak, to make a long story short, to crown all, to be more
precise, to say nothing of ..., etc.
To begin with, you have been lying to me all the time.
To be quite frank, I don’t like him at all.
He was, strange to say, just an ordinary little chap.
Predicative constructions with the infinitive
The infinitive is used in predicative constructions of three types: the objective with the
infinitive construction, and the so-called for-to-infinitive construction*. Traditionally they are
called the complex subject, the complex object, and the for-to-infinitive complex.
* It is possible, however, to distinguish one more infinitive construction generally called the subjective infinitive construction or the
nominative infinitive construction. (See § 123 on the Subjective predicative construction).
In all these constructions the infinitive denotes an action ascribed to the person or non-person,
though grammatically this relationship is not expressed in form: the doer of the action may be
represented by a noun in the common case, a pronoun in the objective case (I saw him cross the
street, it is for him to decide this) and the verbal element which is not in a finite form. Still, due
to their semantics and because of the attached position the nominal and the verbal elements are
understood as forming a complex with subject-predicate relationship.
The for-to-infinitive construction
In the for-to-infinitive construction the infinitive (usually an infinitive phrase) is in predicate
relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case introduced by the
preposition for. The construction is used where the doer of the action (or the bearer of the state),
expressed by the infinitive, is different from that of the finite verb (the predicate):
The doer of the action of the finite verb and of the
infinitive is the same:
The doer of the action of the finite verb
and of the infinitive is not the same:
He longed to see the truth. -
He longed for me to see the truth.-
Он очень хотел узнать правду.
Он очень хотел, чтобы я узнал правду.
62
All I want is to get out of here for good. Единственное, чего я хочу, - это навсегда уехать
отсюда.
All I want is for Jack to get out of here
for good. - Единственное, чего я хочу, это чтобы Джек навсегда уехал
отсюда.
The for-to-infinitive construction has the same functions as a single infinitive, though with
some restrictions.
1. Subject. The for-to-infinitive construction in the function of the subject usually occurs in
sentences with the introductory it, though it is occasionally placed at the head of the sentence:
It was difficult for him to do anything else.
For me to hear him was disturbing.
2. Predicative. In this function the construction is mostly used with the link verb to be:
The best thing is for you to do it now.
3. Object. The construction functions as object of both verbs and adjectives:
a) She watched for the door to open.
b) His family were anxious for him to do something.
4. Attribute:
There was no need for him to be economical.
5. Adverbial modifier of purpose and consequence:
She paused for him to continue.
The objective with the infinitive construction
In the objective with the infinitive construction the infinitive (usually an infinitive phrase) is
in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case (hence the
name of the construction). The whole construction forms a complex object of some verbs. It is
rendered in Russian by an object clause.
The objective with the infinitive construction is used in the following cases:
1. After verbs of sense perception (to see, to hear, to feel, to watch, to observe, to notice and
some others). In this case t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e f o r m o f t h e i n f i n i t i v e i s
t h e n o n - p e r f e c t c o m m o n a s p e c t a c t i v e v o i c e f o r m , used without the
particle to:
No one has ever heard her cry.
I paused a moment and watched the tram-car stop.
The verb to listen to, though not a verb of sense perception, is used in the same way, with a
bare infinitive:
He was listening attentively to the chairman speak.
If the verb to see or to notice is used with the meaning to realize, or the verb to hear with the
meaning to learn, the objective with the infinitive construction cannot be used.
63
2. After verbs of mental activity (to think, to believe, to consider, to expect, to understand,
to suppose, to find and some others). Here the infinitive is used in any form, though the nonperfect forms are the most frequent (always with the particle to).
I know him to be an honest man.
3. After verbs of emotion (to like, to love, to hate, to dislike and some others). Here nonperfect, common aspect forms of the “to”- infinitive are the most usual.
I always liked him to sing.
4. After verbs of wish and intention (to want, to wish, to desire, to intend, to mean and some
others). After these verbs only non-perfect common aspect forms of the infinitive with the
particle to are used:
He only wished you to be near him.
I don’t want him to be punished.
5. After verbs of declaring (to declare, to pronounce):
I declare you to be out of your mind.
He reported the boat to have been seen not far away.
6. After verbs of inducement (to have, to make, to get, to order, to tell, to ask, etc.) of which
the first two take a bare infinitive. In the construction some of them acquire a different meaning:
make - заставить, get - добиться, have - заставить (сказать, чтобы ...)
I can’t get him to do it properly.
She made me obey her.
7. The objective with the infinitive construction also occurs after certain verbs requiring a
prepositional object, for example to count (up)on, to rely (up) on, to look for, to listen to, to
wait for:
I rely on you to come in time.
Can’t I count upon you to help me?
Literature.
1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского
языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических
институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.496с.
Theme 5. Annotation and Review Methods. Participle and Participle Constructions.
Tense and voice distinctions. Predicative constructions with the participle.
THE PARTICIPLE, part 1.
The present participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of
the verb with those of the adjective and adverb, serving as the qualifying-processual name. In
its outer form the present participle is wholly homonymous with the gerund, ending in the
suffix -ing and distinguishing the same grammatical categories of retrospective coordination
and voice.
64
Like all the verbids, the present participle has no categorial time distinctions, and the
attribute "present" in its conventional name is not immediately explanatory; it is used in this
book from force of tradition. Still, both terms "present participle" and "past participle" are not
altogether devoid of elucidative signification, if not in the categorial sense, then in the
derivational-etymological sense, and are none the worse in their quality than their doubletsubstitutes "participle I" and "participle II".
The present participle has its own place in the general paradigm of the verb, different from
that of the past participle, being distinguished by the corresponding set of characterisation
features.
Since it possesses some traits both of adjective and adverb, the present participle is not only
dual, but triple by its lexico-grammatical properties, which is displayed in its combinability, as
well as in its syntactic functions.
The verb-type combinability of the present participle is revealed, first, in its being
combined, in various uses, with nouns expressing the object of the action; second, with nouns
expressing the subject of the action (in semi-predicative complexes); third, with modifying
adverbs; fourth, with auxiliary finite verbs (word-morphemes) in the analytical forms of the
verb. The adjective-type combinability of the present participle is revealed in its association
with the modified nouns, as well as with some modifying adverbs, such as adverbs of degree.
The adverb-type combinability of the present participle is revealed in its association with the
modified verbs.
The self-positional present participle, in the proper syntactic arrangements, performs the
functions of the predicative (occasional use, and not with the pure link be), the attribute, the
adverbial modifier of various types. Cf.: The questions became more and more irritating.
(Present participle predicative position) She had thrust the crucifix on to the surviving baby.
(Present participle attributive front-position) Norman stood on the pavement like a man
watching his loved one go aboard an ocean liner. (Present participle attributive back-position)
He was no longer the cocky, pugnacious boy, always squaring up for a fight. (Present participle
attributive back-position, detached) She went up the steps, swinging her hips and tossing her
fur with bravado. (Present participle manner adverbial back-position) And having read in the
papers about truth drugs, of course Gladys would believe it absolutely. (Present participle cause
adverbial front-position)
The present participle, similar to the infinitive, can build up semi-predicative complexes of
objective and subjective types. The two groups of complexes, i.e. infinitival and present
participial, may exist in parallel (e.g. when used with some verbs of physical perceptions), the
difference between them lying in the aspective presentation of the process. Cf.: Nobody noticed
the scouts approach the enemy trench. — Nobody noticed the scouts approaching the enemy
trench with slow, cautious, expertly calculated movements. Suddenly a telephone was heard to
buzz, breaking the spell. — The telephone was heard vainly buzzing in the study.
A peculiar use of the present participle is seen in the absolute participial constructions of
various types, forming complexes of detached semi-predication. Cf.: The messenger waiting in
65
the hall, we had only a couple of minutes to make a decision. The dean sat at his desk, with an
electric fire glowing warmly behind the fender at the opposite wall.
These complexes of descriptive and narrative stylistic nature seem to be gaining ground in
present-day English.
The past participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the
verb with those of the adjective, serving as the qualifying-processual name. The past participle is
a single form, having no paradigm of its own. By way of the paradigmatic correlation with the
present participle, it conveys implicitly the categorial meaning of the perfect and the passive. As
different from the present participle, it has no distinct combinability features or syntactic
function features specially characteristic of the adverb. Thus, the main self-positional functions
of the past participle in the sentence are those of the attribute and the predicative. Cf.: Moyra's
softened look gave him a new hope. (Past participle attributive front-position) The cleverly
chosen timing of the attack determined the outcome of the battle. (Past participle attributive
front-position) It is a face devastated by passion. (Past participle attributive back-position) His
was a victory gained against all rules and predictions. (Past participle attributive back-position)
Looked upon in this light, the wording of the will didn't appear so odious. (Past participle
attributive detached position) The light is bright and inconveniently placed for reading. (Past
participle predicative position)
The past participle is included in the structural formation of the present participle (perfect,
passive), which, together with the other differential properties, vindicates the treatment of this
form as a separate verbid.
In the attributive use, the past participial meanings of the perfect and the passive are
expressed in dynamic correlation with the aspective lexico-grammatical character of the verb.
As a result of this correlation, the attributive past participle of limitive verbs in a neutral context
expresses priority, while the past participle of unlimitive verbs expresses simultaneity. E.g.: A
tree broken by the storm blocked the narrow passage between the cliffs and the water. (Priority
in the passive; the implication is "a tree that had been broken by the storm") I saw that the
picture admired by the general public hardly had a fair chance with the judges. (Simultaneity in
the passive; the implication is "the picture which was being admired by the public")
Like the present participle, the past participle is capable of making up semi-predicative
constructions of complex object, complex subject, as well as of absolute complex.
The past participial complex object is specifically characteristic with verbs of wish and
oblique causality (have, get). Cf.: I want the document prepared for signing by 4 p.m. Will you
have my coat brushed up, please?
Compare the use of the past; participial complex object and the complex subject as its
passive transform with a perception verb:
We could hear a shot or two fired from a field mortar. → Л shot or two could be heard fired
from a field mortar.
66
The complex subject of this type, whose participle is included in the double predicate of the
sentence, is used but occasionally. A more common type of the participial complex subject can
be seen with notional links of motion and position. Cf.: We sank down and for a while lay there
stretched out and exhausted.
The absolute past participial complex as a rule expresses priority in the correlation of two
events. Cf.: The preliminary talks completed, it became possible to concentrate on the central
point of the agenda.
The past participles of non-objective verbs are rarely used in independent sentence-part
positions; they are mostly included in phraseological or cliche combinations like faded
photographs, fallen leaves, a retired officer, a withered flower, dream come true, etc. In these
and similar cases the idea of pure quality rather than that of processual quality is expressed, the
modifying participles showing the features of adjectivisation.
As is known, the past participle is traditionally interpreted as being capable of adverbialrelated use (like the present participle), notably in detached syntactical positions, after the
introductory subordinative conjunctions. Cf.: Called up by the conservative minority, the
convention failed to pass a satisfactory resolution. Though welcomed heartily by his host,
Frederick felt at once that something was wrong.
Approached from the paradigmatic point of view in the constructional sense, this
interpretation is to be re-considered. As a matter of fact, past participial constructions of the
type in question display clear cases of syntactic compression. The true categorial nature of the
participial forms employed by them is exposed by the corresponding transformational
correlations ("back transformations") as being not of adverbial, but of definitely adjectival
relation. Cf.: ...→ The convention, which was called up by the conservative minority, failed to
pass a satisfactory resolution. ...→ Though he was welcomed heartily by his host, Frederick felt
at once that something was wrong.
Cf. a more radical diagnostic transformational change of the latter construction: ...→
Frederick, who was welcomed heartily by his host, nevertheless felt at once that something was
wrong.
As is seen from the analysis, the adjectival relation of the past participle in the quoted
examples is proved by the near-predicative function of the participle in the derived transforms,
be it even within the composition of the finite passive verb form. The adverbial uses of the
present participle react to similar tests in a different way. Cf.: Passing on to the library, he found
Mabel entertaining her guests. → As he passed on to the library, he found Mabel entertaining her
guests.
The adverbial force of the present participle in constructions like that is shown simply as
resulting from the absence of obligatory mediation of be between the participle and its subject
(in the derivationally underlying units).
As an additional proof of our point, we may take an adjectival construction for a similar
diagnostic testing. Cf.: Though red in the face, the boy kept denying his guilt. → Though he was
red in the face, the boy kept denying his guilt.
67
As we see, the word red, being used in the diagnostic concessive clause of complete
composition, does not change its adjectival quality for an adverbial quality. Being red in the face
would again present another categorial case. Being, as a present participial form, is in the
observed syntactic conditions neither solely adjectival-related, nor solely adverbial-related; it is
by nature adjectival-adverbial, the whole composite unity in question automatically belonging to
the same categorial class, i.e. the class of present participial constructions of different subtypes.
Literature.
1. Блох М. Я. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка: Учебник. Для студентов филол. фак.
ун-тов и фак. англ. яз. педвузов. — М.: Высш. школа, 1983.— с. 383 :
THE PARTICIPLE, part 2.
The participle is a non-finite form of the verb. There are two forms of the participle participle I and participle II.
Participle I
Participle I is a non-finite form of the verb with some adjectival and adverbial features. It is
formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb.*
* For rules of spelling and pronunciation see § 7. 138
The verbal character of participle I is manifested morphologically in the categories of voice
and perfect (see table VII) and syntactically in its combinability. Thus, like the other non-finites,
it may combine: a) with a noun or a pronoun as direct, indirect or prepositional object; b) with an
adverb or a prepositional phrase as an adverbial modifier; c) with a noun or adjective as a
predicative.
a) Seeing Jane, I rushed to greet her.
We didn’t utter a word while listening to the story.
b) Rising early, you’ll make your days longer.
Do you know the man sitting in the middle of the first row?
c) Being absent-minded, he went into the wrong room.
Participle I is used as a pure verb form in the formation of the continuous aspect forms.
The adjectival and adverbial features of participle I are manitested in its syntactical functions
as an attribute and an adverbial modifier.
Arriving at the station, she saw him at once, leaning agains the railing. (adverbial modifier
of time, detached attribute).
Non-perfect participle I active has synonymous adjectives formed from the same verb stem,
such as resulting - resultant, convulsing - convulsive, abounding - abundant, deceiving deceptive. Some participles border on adjectives when used as attributes or predicatives, and
have qualitative adjectives as synonyms; for example amusing - funny, boring - dull, deafening (very) loud. There are even some deverbal adjectives that have completely lost their verbal
meaning, for example interesting, charming.
68
When they lose their verbal character, participles may be modified by adverbs of degree used
with adjectives, such as very, so, too, as in very (greatly, exceedingly, etc.) amusing, too boring,
most exciting.
My job is with one of the ministers - too boring and distasteful to discuss.
Like an adjective, participle I forms adverbs with the suffix -ly: laughingly, jokingly,
surprisingly, admiringly, appealingly, feelingly.
You surprise me, she said feelingly.
The grammatical categories of participle I
Table VII
The category of perfect
The category of perfect in participle I finds its expression in the contrast of the non-perfect
and perfect forms.
The non-perfect form suggests that the action denoted by participle I is simultaneous with that
of the finite verb. Thus the time-reference of the action expressed by participle I can be
understood only from the context, that is it is not absolute, but relative.
you know your native tongue better.
Learning foreign languages
I used to begin my day with repeating new words.
you will learn a lot about your native tongue.
The perfect form of participle I indicates that the action denoted by the participle is prior to
that denoted by the finite verb.
I shall start upon French.
Having learnt the elements
our students start upon French or German.
of English
we started upon French.
The meaning of priority may be accompanied by the notion of completion or duration,
depending on whether the meaning of the verb is terminative or durative.
Dinny took the little packet, and having brought no bag, slipped it down her dress.
Like that of the other non-finites, the perfect form of participle I invariably expresses priority,
69
whereas non-perfect participle I varies in its meaning according to the context, expressing either
a prior or a simultaneous or a posterior action.
Non-perfect participle I regularly expresses immediate priority and denotes an instantaneous
action if it is formed from terminative verbs, such as verbs of motion (to come, to enter, to
arrive, to turn, to leave), of sense perception (to see, to hear, to find) and verbs of certain
specific actions associated with motion (to put, to put on, to take, to take off, to seize, to grasp, to
open).
Leaving the house, Andrew continued his round.
Taking off our shoes, we tiptoed into the nursery.
The perfect participle of the same verbs is used when there is a lapse of time between the two
actions, or when the action denoted by the participle is durative. Compare the following
examples:
Seeing Jane, I rushed to greet her. But: Having seen tine girl only once, I didn’t recognize
her.
Not having seen her for a long time, I didn’t recognize her.
Sometimes the perfect participle is used to emphasize priority. Compare these examples:
Her husband, finding the right key, fits it into the lock of the bureau.
Having found the place he sought, Bateman sent in his card to the manager.
Non-perfect participle I may denote a posterior action, immediately following the first action,
forming its part or being its result, as in:
Lizzy left the room, banging the door shut.
John fell, hurting his knee.
There may be a lapse of time between the first and the second (posterior) action. This is
evident from the context.
I then hired a car and went home, arriving just before twelve о'clock.
We left at dawn, returning late.
As seen from the above examples non-perfect participle I denoting a prior action usually
precedes the predicate verb. When it denotes a posterior action, it stands always after the
predicate verb. In both cases it corresponds to the Russian perfective adverbial participle
(деепричастие) (приехав, повернув, услышав, сняв, поднявшись, найдя, хлопнув,
вернувшись).
The category of voice
Participle I of transitive verbs, both non-perfect and perfect, has voice distinctions, which are
realized in the contrast of active and passive forms:
Translating from English into Russian, she should
know well both languages.
Being translated into many languages,
the novel is known all over the world.
Having translated the text into Russian, we handed it
Having been translated long ago, the
novel is likely to be re-translated.
70
to the teacher.
Participle I active denotes an action directed from the doer of the action, while participle I
passive denotes an action directed towards it.
The carrier of the action may coincide with the subject of the sentence, as in the above
examples. It may also be a noun modified by participle I used attributively, in whatever function
the noun is used:
Do you know the students translating the text?
Have you read the text being translated by the students?
The doer of the action may be expressed by the nominal element of a predicative construction:
I heard someone mentioning your name.
I heard your name being mentioned at the conference.
Non-perfect participle I active of transitive verbs can be contrasted not only with participle I
passive, but also with participle II:
taking
- being taken
- taken
mentioning
- being mentioned - mentioned
teaching
holding
- being taught
- taught
- being held
- held
According to the syntactical function of participle I and the aspectual character of the verb,
non-perfect participle I passive may denote process, as in:
Have you heard anything of the conference being held at the University? (of the conference
which is being held at the University)
The phrase The conference held at the University is ambiguous, because it might be
understood as The conference that has been held or -was held or is being held.
Syntactical functions of participle I
Participle I performs the syntactical functions characteristic of the adjective and the adverb,
and can therefore be used as attribute, predicative, or as adverbial modifier.
It may be used (a) alone or (b) as headword of a participial phrase, or else (c) as part of a
predicative construction:
a) Let sleeping dogs lie.
b) There are some other people waiting for you.
c) We found him working in the garden.
Participle I as attribute
This function is peculiar to non-perfect participle I in its main sense, that of a process
simultaneous with the action denoted by the main verb or with the moment of speech. It
corresponds to the Russian imperfective participle, usually active: leading - ведущий, asking 71
спрашивающий, sleeping - спящий. The passive participle I corresponds to the Russian
imperfective passive participle: being asked - спрашиваемый, being translated -переводимый,
being built - строящийся.
When a participial phrase is used as attribute it follows the modified noun. Its verbal character
is evident from its verbal combinability and sometimes from the passive form itself. A participial
phrase may be (a) non-detached or (b) detached:
a) We went along the street leading to the seashore.
b) Once a month Tommy, arriving separately, came in for a brief drink.
A detached participial phrase is set off from the modified noun by a comma (or commas) in
writing and by a pause (or pauses) in speech.
When a single participle is used as attribute, it generally functions as a premodifier. Here we
usually find only participle I active of intransitive verbs. Its verbal character is clear from the
processual meaning of the verb itself: living people, a sleeping dog.
Participle I as a premodifying attribute differs from the gerund in the same function. The noun
serves as the subject of the action expressed by the participle, as in a living man = a man who
lives, a burning house = a house that is burning, a dancing girl == a girl who is dancing (or
dances). The gerund suggests the destination of the object or a person’s occupation, as in writing
paper =paper for writing, dancing hall = a hall for dancing, a singing teacher = a teacher of
singing. Note also the difference in stress patterns. There are two stresses in the pattern with the
participle (a 'burning 'house), the second being the main stress, while in the pattern with the
gerund only the first (gerundial) element is stressed (a ' dancing hall); if there are two stresses,
the first component has the main stress, as in a 'speaking 'habit, a 'writing 'career.
When a prior action is meant no participle I can be used as attribute, only an attributive clause
is used. Thus when we translate sentences with the Russian perfective participle active with the
suffix-вш into English we must use an attributive clause: спросивший - who has asked,
переводивший (ранее) - who has translated or who has (had) been translating, уехавший -who
has gone, вернувшийся - who has (had) returned or who returned, depending on the context or
situation:
Я разговаривал со студентами, вернувшимися с практики. – I’ve just talked to the
students who have come back from their teaching practice.
Я разговаривал со студентами, вернувшимися с практики на прошлой неделе. – I’ve
talked to the students who came back from their school practice last week.
.
Participle I as adverbial modifier
All the four forms of participle I can function as adverbial modifiers of different semantic
types (time, reason, manner, attendant circumstances, and sometimes condition, concession,
comparison).
The semantic type of the adverbial modifier is clear from the context and the predicate group,
as in:
Being a newcomer, he felt ill at case. (adverbial modifier of reason)
In some cases, however, the functional meaning is not so obvious. For example, there may be
a combination of causal and temporal meaning as in:
72
Seeing her, he stopped (he stopped because he saw her, or when he saw her).
or of causal and conditional meaning:
Living alone, one becomes self-centred (as one lives alone, or if one lives alone).
Very often to make the semantical relationship clearer, certain conjunctions are employed,
such as: when, while, though, as if, as though, if.
1) Participle I as adverbial modifier of time may denote a simultaneous or a prior action.
Here it corresponds to the Russian adverbial participle (деепричастие).
Non-perfect participle I active, when used as an adverbial modifier of time, usually conveys
the meaning of the motion or state. Most often it is a participle of the verbs of motion (come,
walk, go), or position in space (sit, lie, stand).
Walking along the track, Bowen burst into song.
The notion of simultaneity may be expressed more explicitly by the conjunctions when and
while.
He felt horrible while saying this.
Participle I passive in this function usually denotes priority.
He enquired hurriedly whether Mrs. Forsyte was at home and being informed that she was
not, heaved a sigh of relief.
Perfect participle I as adverbial modifier of time, always denotes a prior action.
They wrote because they had to, and having written, thought only of what they were going
to write next.
2) Participle I as adverbial modifier of reason can be expressed by all the four forms. The
most frequently used non-perfect participles I are those of verbs denoting mental perception and
emotions, for example, knowing, realizing, remembering, expecting, hoping, fearing; also the
participles being and having.
Hoping to catch the train, we took a taxi.
He’s very conceited, you know, having parades and things all the time.
Having decided on this course of action some time ago, I was unable to stay at home.
Another characteristic feature of participles functioning as adverbials of reason consists in
their combinability with negation (no matter what it is expressed by).
I turned back, not knowing where to go.
Even then he hadn’t been able to watch her, not having eyes in the back of his head.
3) The adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances is one of the most characteristic of
participle I - it is considered to be the main grammatical meaning of non-perfect participle I. In
this case participle I denotes some action or event parallel to the action or state denoted by the
finite verb.
Deb was silent, fidgeting with the spoon in her saucer.
I laughed, and still laughing turned away eastward.
73
4) Participle I as an adverbial modifier of manner is akin to an adverbial modifier of
attendant circumstances. The difference consists in the fact that an adverbial modifier of manner
characterizes the action of the finite verb, whereas that of attendant circumstances denotes a
parallel action or event.
He came in carrying a big parcel.
5) Occasionally participle I occurs as an adverbial modifier of comparison, concession or
condition.
As an adverbial of comparison the participle is always preceded by the conjunction as if, as
though:
As if obeying him, I turned and stared into his face.
When participle I is used as an adverbial modifier of concession the conjunction is not
obligatory and then the idea of concession may be understood from the context. However the
conjunction though will make the semantic relationship clearer.
Somebody was waiting: a man who, though moving irregularly, was making quite a speed in
my direction.
In the same way participle I as an adverbial modifier of condition is recognized by its
syntactical surroundings. It is either the subjunctive mood or the future tense form which allows
a participial phrase to function as an adverbial modifier of condition:
She ought to be there and her absence might be resented, but being there she wouldn’t know
what to say (но, если бы она была там ... , ... но будучи там ...).
Well, we’ll be in Scotland afore we know where we are, going at this speed (... если будем
двигаться с такой скоростью).
Participle I as part of the compound verbal predicate
Non-perfect participle I can be part of a compound verbal predicate of double orientation.
Within this type of predicate participle I follows verbs of sense perception, such as to see, to
hear, to feel, to find, to catch, also some causative verbs, such as to keep, to leave in the passive
voice.
Jane was heard playing the piano.
I was kept waiting an hour or so.
In this type of predicate participle I active is generally used, though occasionally non-perfect
participle I passive is to be found.
He flicks the switch and “Roll Out the Barrel” is heard being whistled.
The predicate of double orientation consists of two parts: the first is oriented on somebody
implied, and the second refers semantically to the doer of the action expressed by the subject.
Thus the first example means that somebody heard that Jane was playing the piano.* Therefore
sentences with this type of predicate are translated into Russian by indefinite personal or
impersonal sentences, complex or simple, depending on the verb in the passive voice.
* See p. II Syntax, § 53 The compound verbal predicate of double orientation; also § 123 Predicative complexes (the subjective predicative
construction).
Слышали (слышно было), как Джейн играет на рояле.
74
Меня заставили ждать почти целый час.
Participle I as predicative
In the position of predicative only non-perfect participle I active occurs, its adjectival
character being predominant. Although keeping the form of the participle, it is treated as an
adjective, or a deverbal adjective.
The participle in this position gives the qualitative characterization to the person or thing used
as subject (or object, in the case of the objective predicative).
The story is amusing.
- I find the story amusing.
Your answer is surprising.
- I consider your answer surprising.
We found him dying
- We found that he was dying.
Participle I as predicative may be used with other linkverbs, in which case it may keep its
verbal character, as in:
Isadora remained standing.
Participle I as independent element (parenthesis)
Participle I as parenthesis forms the headword of a participial phrase, the meaning of which is
a comment upon the contents of the whole sentence or sometimes part of it. The comment may
take the form of a logical restriction or personal attitude. Here we find such participial phrases as
generally (properly, roughly, legally, strictly) speaking, putting it mildly, judging by (from),
allowing for, taking everything into consideration, etc.
Judging from what you say, he ought to succeed.
Strictly speaking, this is illegal.
Predicative constructions with participle I
Participle I may function as part of a predicative construction, entering into a predicative
relationship with some nominal element and forming a syntactical unit with it.
The objective participial construction
The objective participial construction consists of a noun in the common case or a pronoun in
the objective case and participle I forming a syntactical complex, the two main components of
which are in predicative relationship. Since the construction always follows transitive verbs, its
syntactical function is that of a complex object.* Thus in its meaning it corresponds to a
subordinate clause and is usually translated into Russian by a subordinate object clause:
* For details see p. II Syntax. The Predicative Constructions (The Complex Object).
I saw John playing tennis
- Я видел, как Джон играет в теннис.
I saw him playing tennis
- Я видел, как он играет в теннис.
We heard them singing
- Мы слышали, как они поют.
In many cases, however, the translation depends on the verb it reters to and on the
requirements of the Russian usage.
The nominal element usually refers to a person or a thing different from that denoted by the
subject of the sentence. If it refers to the same person as the subject, a reflexive pronoun is to be
used, as in:
75
He heard himself uttering the words.
The construction is generally used with non-perfect participle I active, and occasionally it
occurs with participle I passive:
I could see the books being taken away.
Some of the verbs followed by the objective participial construction occur also with the
objective infinitive construction (such as to see, to watch, to hear, to feel). The difference
between these two constructions concerns the meaning suggested by an infinitive or participle I;
the former emphasizes the fact of an action being completed, the latter its processual character,
as in:
I saw the car stop at the gate.
- Я видел, что машина, остановилась у ворот.
I saw the car stopping.
- Я видел, как машина остановилась
(останавливалась) у ворот.
If the homogeneous infinitives are used, they denote two actions in succession. If two
participles I are homogeneous, they suggest two simultaneous actions.
I heard him leave the room and lock the door.
Soames saw Bosinney watching her and smiling to
himself.
- Я слышал, как он вышел из комнаты и
запер ее.
- Соме увидел, что Босинни наблюдал
за ней и улыбался сам себе.
The objective participial construction is used:
a) with verbs of sense perception,
b)with various verbs of causative meaning, or inducement.
c) occasionally with verbs expressing wish.
a)
to see
to notice
to find
to hear
to observe
to catch
to feel
to perceive
to discover
to watch
to smell
to look (at)
b) to have
to listen (to)
to leave
to get
to start
to keep
to set
c) to want, to like
The nominative absolute participial construction.
This construction consists of two interdependent elements, nominal and verbal, which are in a
predicative relation. The nominal element is a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the
nominative case. The verbal element is participle I in any of its forms. The nominal and the
76
verbal elements make a syntactical complex functioning as a detached adverbial modifier. Unlike
the objective participial construction it does not depend on a verb:
John having left the room to ring for a taxi as arranged, Mary sat down again to wait for
him.
The difference between a participial phrase and a nominative absolute participial construction
may be illustrated as follows:
Having read the novel Jane (she) put it aside.
The novel having been read, Jane (she) put it aside.
In a participial phrase the subject of the sentence is as a rule related both to the predicate verb
and to the participle. In a sentence with a nominative absolute participial construction the subject
of the sentence is related only to the predicate verb, and the nominal element is related to the
participle.
The nominative absolute participial construction functions syntactically as an adverbial
modifier: an adverbial modifier of a) attendant circumstances, b) reason, c) occasionally
time.
a) Llewellyn looked through the window, his glance travelling towards the bridge.
A nominative absolute participial construction as an adverbial of attendant circumstances
usually stands in postposition, and is widely used in literature.
It is translated into Russian by a coordinate clause: Мы оба стояли у камина; она
любовалась веером из промокательной бумаги, а я глядел на нее.
b) But I was a little on edge, there being something to report.
c) The work being finished, the two girls went into the shop.
Sentences with a nominative absolute participial construction as an adverbial of reason or
time are translated by complex sentences with the corresponding subordinate clauses: Я
нервничал, так как было о чем сообщить... Когда работа была закончена, девушки вошли
в мастерскую.
As well as in sentences with participial phrases causal and temporal meanings may be
combined, as in:
Ice having thus been broken, the two former rivals grew still more affectionate.
Prepositional absolute participial construction with participle I
A prepositional absolute construction differs from a non-prepositional participial construction
in that it is introduced by the preposition with. Its nominal part is usually a noun in the common
case, or very rarely a personal pronoun in the objective case. It is not necessarily set off by a
comma:
Andrew went into the house with his heart beating fast.
The main syntactical function of the construction is an adverbial modifier of attendant
circumstances, as in:
77
The officer sat with his long fine hands lying on the table perfectly still.
The meaning of attendant circumstances may be combined with temporal or causal ones:
I won’t speak with him staring at me like that.
The construction is usually translated into Russian by a coordinate or a subordinate clause,
and sometimes by means of a prepositional phrase, or an adverbial participle (деепричастие).
(Когда) Эндрю вошел в дом, сердце его сильно билось (с бьющимся сердцем).
Participle I and the gerund compared
Participle I and the gerund are alike in their verbal characteristics, both morphological (the
categories of voice and perfect) and syntactical (verbal combinability).
The difference between the two lies in their non-verbal characteristics, that is in their
syntactical functions and non-verbal combinability. Participle I, unless substantivized, cannot be
used as subject or object, whereas such use is typical of the noun and therefore of the gerund.
When used as adverbial modifier or attribute, participle I like an adjective or an adverb is never
preceded by a preposition. On the other hand when the gerund is used as attribute or adverbial
modifier it is preceded by a preposition like a noun in these functions.
The difference between the two is also to be found in the nominal tendencies of the gerund
and the adjectival tendencies of participle I. This is most evident in their function of a predicative
and an attribute.
As predicative participle I gives qualitative characteristics to the subject, thus tending towards
an adjective, as in:
The sound of the thunder was deafening.
The gerund does not qualify the subject, it rather identifies the subject by revealing its
meaning, as in:
His favourite occupation is collecting stamps (or playing football or just football).
When a gerund or a participle is used as an attribute, the difference between them does not lie
only in the absence, or presence of the preposition, but also in their relationship to the modified
noun. (For details see § 132 on premodifying attributes). Participle I denotes an action that the
person or thing performs or experiences:
What is the name of the man talking with your sister?
Thus the modified noun denotes the doer of the action expressed by the participle.
The gerund usually reveals the meaning of the modified noun, which never denotes the
performer of the action.
What the use of crying so?
That was my last chance of seeing him.
When used as an adverbial modifier, the gerund is more varied in its application than the
participle because it is used with different prepositions.
78
The participle and the gerund are interchangeable when used as adverbials of time
characterizing the verb through simultaneous or prior events:
Discussing the plan
In discussing the plan
we heard a lot of helpfull suggestions.
Entering the room
On entering the room
he closed the door.
After discussing the plan
Having discussed the plan
we started carring it out.
Only the gerund is possible when the starting or the final point of the action is meant, as in:
He has never been at his native town since leaving it in 1964.
Yet there are a number of cases, especially among predicative constructions, where the -ing
form may be treated either as a participle or a gerund, the difference between them being
neutralized, as in:
I don’t count on him scaring easily.
Then he was aware of Toscato shaking the door of the box.
Participle II
Participle II is a non-finite form of the verb with verbal and adjectival features. Participle II
stands apart from the other non-finites in that it does not possess their morphological categories.
Nevertheless, being a verb form, it possesses the potential verbal meaning of voice, aspect and
correlation, which depend upon the meaning of the verb it is formed from and which are realized
in the context.
The main meanings of participle II are those of a state as a result of some action or an action
itself. One of the most essential characteristics of participle II is that when it is used as part of the
sentence, participle II of a transitive verb is passive in meaning, participle II of an intransitive
verb is active.
Thus the participles invited, told, taken are semantically passive and correspond to the
Russian passive participles приглашенный, рассказанный, взятый. The participles arrived,
gone, risen are semantically active and correspond to the Russian active participles прибывший,
ушедший, поднявшийся (взошедший).
The adjectival nature of participle II manifests itself in its function in the sentence, which is
usually that of either attribute or predicative. It may combine with adverbs of degree typical of
adjectives, such as very, too, slightly, so, much, more, as in:
I am very pleased with you.
Instead of the negation not, which we find with the other non-finites, participle II is often
negated with the prefix un-, as in unfinished, unanswered.
Participle II may turn into adjectives with qualitative meaning synonymous with other
adjectives, as in celebrated - famous, tired - weary.
79
Similar to adjectives and participle I, participle II may form adverbs with the help of the
suffix -ly: fixedly, unhurriedly, admittedly.
The adjectival nature of participle II is traced in adjectivized participles with a form different
from the verbal participle II. These forms occur as attributes in such phrases as on bended knees,
a drunken man, a lighted match (candle, torch), molten lava (lead, steel), roast meat, a rotten
apple, a shaven head, a well-shaven man, sodden clothes, sunken eyes, a swollen river. Some
forms are used predicatively: to be well-stricken in years, to be panic-stricken, poverty-stricken
(but thunder-struck, theatre-struck).
The verbal character of participle II is manifested in its combinability. Thus participle II of
transitive verbs easily combines with a by-object denoting the doer of the action as in Jane
entered the room followed by her brother.
Participles II of phrasal verbs retain their composite structure: a boy brought up in a teacher’s
family.
Participles II of prepositional transitive verbs are followed by the appropriate prepositions: a
book often asked for, the article referred to, a man much spoken of.
Ditransitive verbs keep their second object as in: That was the main question asked her at the
wedding.
Participle II may be accompanied by an adverbial modifier expressed by adverbs or phrases
combining with verbs: a house built two years before, man hidden in the bush, a play well acted,
a story long forgotten.
One of the main verbal features of participle II is revealed in its functioning as part of the
compound verb forms of the passive voice and the perfect.
Voice peculiarities of participle II
Participle II of t r a n s i t i v e verbs, when it is not part of a perfect form, is always passive
in meaning. Depending on the verb and the context it may correspond to any passive participle in
Russian: built -построенный, строившийся, строящийся; begun - начатый, начинаемый,
начинающийся; translated - переводящийся, переводившийся, переводимый,
переведенный.
Having a passive meaning participle II of transitive verbs is opposed to participle I active:
asking - asked, loving - loved, seeing - seen, writing -written, teaching - taught, watching watched, etc.
The doer of the action or state denoted by participle II is to be found in the subject or object of
the sentence, in the noun or pronoun modified by participle II, in the first (nominal) element of a
predicative construction.
The passive meaning of participle II may be of three types:
1) denoting an action directed towards the person or non-person expressed by the subject or
object. This is peculiar to durative (non-terminative) transitive verbs, such as to accompany, to
follow, to watch, to carry, to teach, to listen (to), to laugh (at), to look (at, for, on), to speak (of,
to), to love, to hate, as in:
Spanish is one of the foreign languages taught at our Institute.
I won’t have my friend laughed at.
80
2) denoting a state, which is the result of an action. This is typical of terminative transitive
verbs, such as to bring, to catch, to do, to find, to make, to put, to solve, to build, to realise, to
open, to close, etc.
The problem is solved. The door is shut.
Occasionally, in a certain context, participle II of the above-mentioned verbs may denote
action, as in: Brightman’s place was an old English farm-house, built two years before.
3) denoting a pure state. This is the case with verbs denoting psycological states and
emotions, such as to amuse, to annoy, to offend, to surprise, to please, to excite.
I felt annoyed when he refused to help me.
I’m very (much) pleased with what he has done.
Participle II of i n t r a n s i t i v e verbs is always active in meaning. The use of these
participles is restricted. Only participles II of verbs denoting motion or change of state can be
used as attributes. These are participles II of the verbs to arrive, to fall, to go, to rise, to depart,
to decease, to retire, to fade, to wither, to vanish, to decay and some others. Participles II of
these verbs correspond to the Russian active participle of the perfective aspect: arrived прибывший, vanished - исчезнувший, faded - увядший, decayed - сгнивший, as in arrived
guests, the risen moon, the vanisned civilisation, the fallen leaves, the retired president.
Among these participles we find some which can be used either transitively or intransitively,
such as hidden, increased, diminished, returned. They correspond to the Russian perfective
active participles with the suffix -ся (спрятавшийся, увеличившийся, вернувшийся): the man
hidden behind the tree, an increased population, a returned traveller.
The aspectual meaning of participle II and perfect
The original aspectual meaning of participle II is perfectivity. It is evident in terminative
verbs and verbs of double aspectual meaning.
In transitive
t e r m i n a t i v e verbs the passive meaning of participle II is
combined with perfectivity. Thus participle II can be opposed to participle I in their aspectual
meanings of perfectivity/imperfectivity: taking - taken, asking - asked, writing - written, telling told (берущий - взятый, спрашивающий - спрошенный, etc.).
The original meaning may be modified by the context, as can be seen by comparing the
following sentences: The story told by the hostess amused everybody (история, рассказанная
хозяйкой...). Why don’t we believe stories told by hunters and fishermen? (истории,
рассказываемые охотниками, т. е. которые рассказывают охотники)
There is a growing tendency in present-day English to use participle I passive as an attribute
to emphasize the processual character of the action. Thus we may paraphrase the last sentence,
saying, “Why don't we believe stories being told by hunters?”
Participle II of intransitive verbs or verbs used intransitively is always perfective in meaning
and can be opposed to non-perfect participle I: rising - risen, decaying - decayed, going - gone,
arriving - arrived, retiring -retired, as in: the rising moon - the risen moon, the retiring
director— the retired director. The same in the auctioneer’s formula: Going! Going! Gone!
(Продается! Продается! Продано!)
The meaning of perfectivity/imperfectivity results in the potential meaning of perfect. The
idea of priority and simultaneity is suggested by the aspectual character of the verb and is
realized in the given context.
81
In many cases, however, the ideas of priority and simultaneity become fused, since the action
is prior to, and the resulting state is simultaneous with, the action of the finite verb or the
moment of speech. Thus in the sentence First of all she went to the bombed building the action
of “bombing” is prior to the action of the finite verb “went”, but the resulting state of the action
is simultaneous with it.
Syntactical functions of participle II
As part of the sentence participle II may stand alone or be the headword of a participial
phrase. It may function as an attribute (close or detached), predicative, or as an adverbial
modifier.
Participle II as attribute
Participle II usually functions either as premodifier when it stands alone or forms a very short
participial phrase containing an adverb. The verbal character of the participle in the first case is
made clear only by its lexical meaning:
First of all she went to the bombed building.
Sometimes the preposition is kept:
The room even had a faint perfume about it which gave it a lived-in air.
As a postmodifier participle II manifests its verbal character more explicitly, even when it
stands alone. It may be accompanied by a preposition, by an agentive by-object, an adverb and
prepositional phrases as adverbial modifiers.
Things seen are mightier than things heard.
When participle II or a participial phrase is detached, its position is not fixed. It may occupy
the initial position, the mid-position or the final position in the sentence. Detached attributes are
separated from the noun by a comma (or commas) in writing and by a pause in speech. They are
confined to literary style only.
Greatly excited, the children followed her into the garden.
Participle II as predicative
In this function participle II denotes a state, as in:
The Fada road is finished, the great idea is realized.
You seem surprized.
Occasionally we come across a participle II with an active meaning used predicatively:
The sun is not risen.
Everybody is gone.
Participle II as adverbial modifier
The adverbial function and meaning of participle II can be seen only from the general
meaning of the sentence. In the vast majority of cases, when used adverbially, participle II is
preceded by a conjunction, which explicitly indicates the semantic type of the adverbial
modifier.
Participle II may serve as an adverbial modifier of:
time, usually with the conjunction when or until:
He is very affable when spoken to, but naturally silent.
82
He won’t stop arguing until interrupted.
reason:
Deprived of his wife and son by the Spanish adventure, Jolyon found the solitude at Robin
Hill intolerable.
condition, mostly with the conjunction if or unless:
I shall certainly give evidence on your behalf, if required.
concession, with the conjunction though or although:
Though asked in disarming sociability, Haldone’s question was loaded.
comparison, with the conjunction as if or as though:
“I get off the train,” he repeated as if hypnotized.
Predicative constructions with participle II
Participle II forms the second (verbal) element of the objective with the participle
construction and of the absolute participial construction in two variants: non-prepositional and
prepositional.
The objective participial construction with participle II.
The objective participial construction with participle II consists of a noun in the common case
or a personal pronoun in the objective case and participle II forming a syntactical complex, in
which the two components are in a preducative relationship.
The construction functions as a complex object to transitive verbs, mainly verbs (a) of
causative meaning, (b) of physical perception, (c) of wish:
a) to have, to get, to make
Besides the causative meaning suggesting inducement, sentences the verb to have may
occasionally express experience or possess participle II emphasizing the resulting state, as in:
The patient has an arm broken.
I have my task done.
If the action is emphasized, the perfect form is preferable:
The patient has broken an arm.
I have done my task.
Notice the difference in translation:
У больного сломана рука. Больной сломал руку.
Мое задание выполнено. Я выполнил задание.
b) to see, to hear, to feel, to find
c) to wish, to want, to like, to prefer
Sentences with causative verbs are usually translated into Russian by simple sentences, the
causative meaning being evident from the context or the situation. In other cases a complex
sentence with an object clause is preferable.
83
The nominative absolute participial construction with participle II.
The construction consists of the nominal element (a noun in the common case or a pronoun in
the nominative case) and participle II which form a syntactical complex, the nominal element
and the participle being in subject-predicate relation. The preparation completed, we started off.
The nominative absolute participial construction with participle being has the syntactical
function of a detached adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances (a), manner (b), time (c),
reason (d), condition (e).
a) The next day I observed you - myself unseen - for half an hour.
b) He sat on the sofa, his legs crossed.
c) The duster refolded and restored, he threw his legs across the saddle. “Give it to Harriet,
please,” was then the direction, “and she can put it away.” This said, he turned and fixed his
eyes on Mrs. Bretton.
d) We began to talk, but my attention distracted by my surroundings, I took small notice of
him.
e) He was a gentleman, but he was passionate, the cup once sipped, would he consent to put it
down?
The prepositional absolute construction with participle II.
This construction differs from the discussed above in that it is introduced by the preposition
with and its nominal element is hardly ever presented by a pronoun; it is more closely related to
the predicate verb and is seldom set off by a comma.
She went on reading with her eyes fixed on the pages of the book.
The main syntactical function of the construction is that of an adverbial modifier of manner or
attendant circumstances.
An additional idea of time, reason, or condition may be prompted by the context, as in: I can’t
walk with my leg broken (reason).
Literature.
1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского
языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических
институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.496
84
MODAL VERBS
Modal verbs, unlike other verbs, do not denote actions to states, but only show the attitude of
the speaker towards the action expressed by the infinitive in combination with which they form
compound modal predicates. Thus modal verbs may show that the action (or state, or process, or
quality) is viewed by the speaker as possible, obligatory, doubtful, certain, permissible,
advisable, requested, prohibited, ordered, etc. Modal verbs occur only with the infinitive. This
or that meaning is to a great degree determined by the comminicative type of the sentence and
the form of the infinitive.
There are 12 modal verbs in English. They are: can, may, must, should ought, shall, will,
would, need, dare, to be, to have (to have got). The latter two are modal only in one of their
meanings.
Ten of them (that is, all but to be and to have) are also called defective or anomalous verbs as
they lack some features characteristic of other verbs, that is:
1) they do not take -s in the third person singular;
2) they have no verbals, so they have no analytical forms;
3) they have (except for can and may) only one form and no past tense;
4) they are followed (except for ought) by a bare infinitive (that is by the infinitive without the
particle to);
5) they need no auxiliary to build up the interrogative and negative forms.
All modal verbs have 2 negative forms, full and contracted.
full form
contracted form
may not
mayn’t
must not
mustn’t
would not
wouldn’t
should not
shouldn’t
need not
needn’t
Can
This modal verb has two forms: can - for the present tense and could - for the past tense and
for the subjunctive mood.
I can’t dance now but I could when I was young.
I wish I could go with you.
I. Can followed by the non-perfect common aspect infinitive expresses:
1. Physical and mental ability or capacity.
The notion of ability is also expressed by “to be able to”.
Mary can speak English quite well but she can’t write it at all (can = to be able, to know
how to...).
85
The meaning of ability is expressed only by “to be able to” when the reference is to the
future, as can, having no infinitive, has no future tense form.
Soon he will be able to speak English quite fluently.
Can is interchangeable with to be able to when it denotes mere capacity,
I couldn’t/was not able to do that new job; it was too difficult.
But only to be able to is used to express attainment or achievement of something through
some capacity. Thus to be able to often combines the idea of “ability” and “achievement”. In this
case was able to means “managed to” or “succeeded in”, and could is impossible.
The fire brigade was able (succeeded in putting, managed) to put out the fire before it
destroyed the other buildings. Пожарные сумели, им удалось ...
2. Possibility.
a) possibility due to circumstances:
Anybody can make a mistake. Ошибаться может каждый.
b) possibility due to the existing rules of laws:
In old days a man could be sentenced to death for a small crime. В старые времена
можно было приговорить человека к смерти за небольшое преступление.
c) possibility of the idea (the so-called “theoretical” possibility):
The railways can be improved. (It is possible for the railways to be improved, as they
are not yet perfect.)
In general statements of possibility can has roughly the same meaning as “sometimes”.
The sea can be rough. = The sea is sometimes rough. Mope иногда бывает бурным.
Can is generally used in questions about possibility and in statements about impossibility.
Can this be true? (Is it possible that this is true?) Неужели это правда?
3. Permission.
Can we go home, Miss? Можно идти домой, мисс?
Can is now more common than may (or might) to express the idea permission.
4. Prohibition (it is found only with the negative form of the modal verb, as prohibition may
be understood as the negation of permission - not to be allowed to...). It corresponds to the
Russian нельзя, не надо.
You can’t cross the street here. Здесь нельзя переходить улицу.
5. Request.
Can you hold on a minute, please?
Could suggests a greater degree of politeness:
Could you come again tomorrow?
II. Can followed by any form of the infinitive may express:
86
1. Strong doubt, improbability, incredulity. This meaning occurs only with the negative
form of the modal verb + perfect infinitive, continuous infinitive, or be.
Could is used instead of can to express greater doubt. Thus the difference between can and
could is in the degree of expressiveness, could showing a greater degree of doubt or incredulity.
The time-reference is indicated not by the form of the verb but by that of the infinitive.
He
Can’t
be so old.
- He может быть, что он так стар.
Couldn’t
Не
Can’t
be telling the truth.
- не может быть, что он говорит правду.
Couldn’t
He
Can’t
have told the truth.
- не может быть, чтобы он сказал правду.
Couldn’t
2. Surprise, when can/could is used in questions. It corresponds to the Russian неужели ...
Can it be so late as all that? Неужели уже так поздно?
То refer the action to the past a perfect infinitive is used.
Could he have known her before? Неужели он знал ее раньше?
The verb can expressing surprise is not used in the negative form.
Therefore the Russian negative questions of the type - нeyжeли он не ... is translated into
English in different ways:
a) by complex sentences: Can if be that you haven’t seen him? Неужели вы не видели его?
b) by different lexical means: Can you have failed to see him? Неужели вы не видели его?
3. Reproach, implying that a person should have done something, or behaved in a certain
way, but didn’t do it. This meaning is found only with the form could.
You could at least have met me at the station, couldn’t you?
In this sense could is interchangeable with might.
4. Purpose. This meaning occurs only with the form could in clauses of purpose.
I wrote down the telephone number so that I could remember it.
Note some set expressions with the modal verb can:
Cannot/can’t help doing smth. - He могу не делать что-то
When I saw him I couldn’t help laughing. - Когда я увидел его, я не мог не засмеяться.
Cannot/can’t but do smth. - не могу не ...
I cannot but suggest... - Я не могу не предложить ...
One cannot but wonder - нельзя не задуматься
as can be - an intensifying expression
They are as pleased as can be. - Они очень (страшно) довольны.
87
May
This modal verb has two forms: may for the present tense and might for the past and as the
subjunctive mood form. Thus the form might is used:
a) in indirect speech according to the rules of the sequence of tenses (though the verb could is
preferable in this case).
He told me that I might go.
b) in some syntactical patterns requiring the subjunctive mood forms:
However hard he might (or may) try, he will never manage to do the same.
I. May followed by the non-perfect common infinitive expresses:
1. Permission. In this usage it expresses the meaning to have permission to, to be allowed to,
to be permitted to.
You may go now (you are allowed to go).
Can is now more common than may or might to express informally the idea of permission, but
may is often used when talking of ourselves.
May/might I help you?
When the action was permitted and performed the expression was allowed to is preferable.
When translating the story we were allowed to use a dictionary, so I took a Longman new
dictionary.
2. Possibility of the fact (the so-called “factual possibility”).This meaning occurs only in
affirmative sentences.
You may find all the books you want in the National Library. (It is possible that you will
find...)
3. Prohibition (only with the negative form of the modal verb).
You may not enter the room until I say so. - He смей...
The contracted form mayn’t is also very rare.
There are other ways of expressing the idea of prohibition which are more common. They are
mustn’t, can’t, and don’t. Mustn’t and can’t are often found in negative answers to express
prohibition instead of may not.
II. May (might) followed by any form of the infinitive denotes:
1. Supposition, uncertainty. May in this sense is synonymous with perhaps or maybe, and
occurs in affirmative and negative statements.
This news is so strange that you may not believe it. (Perhaps you won’t believe it.)
The non-perfect infinitive indicates reference to the present or future, that is, it expresses
supposition or uncertainty about a present or future action.
They may arrive tonight or tomorrow.
The perfect infinitive indicates reference to the past.
88
May (might) in the sense of supposition or uncertainty is not used in questions, instead some
other means are used: Is it (he) likely ... ? or Do you think ... ?
Is Mary likely to arrive tonight?
Can + negation in these sentences denotes doubt, incredulity on the part of the speaker,
whereas may expresses uncertainty about a negation of some fact.
2. Reproach. This meaning is found only in positive statements and only with the form might
as it is a reproach made about something that has not been done and thus implies some
unfulfilled action.
You might at least offer to help.
In combination with the perfect infinitive it renders irritation (annoyance) that the action
was not carried out.
You might have opened the door for me.
3. May/might partly loses its meaning when used in certain sentence patterns and is in such
cases a quasi-subjunctive auxiliary (see § 80):
a) in clauses of purpose: Sit here so that I may see your face more clearly.
b) in clauses of concession: Try as he may he will never be top of his class.
c) in object, predicative and appositive clauses after verbs or nouns expressing hope,
wish, fear: The doctor has fears that she may not live much longer.
Here are some expressions with the modal verb may/might:
I may/might as well + infinitive — is a very mild and unemphatic way of expressing an
intention.
I may as well take you with me.
It can be used with other persons to suggest or recommend an action.
You may as well give him the letter.
Might just as well means “it would be equally good to” and is used to suggest alternative
actions. Though the meaning is basically the same as in three previous sentences, “just” makes
the sentence more emphatic.
- I’ll go on Monday by a slow train.
- You might just as well wait till Tuesday and go by the fast one.
Must
The modal verb must has only one form for the present tense. It may also be used in reported
speech, after the verb in the past tense in the principal clause.
I knew I must go there too.
I. Must followed by the non-perfect common infinitive may express:
1. Immediate obligation or necessity, or an obligation referring to the future. This
meaning occurs in positive statements and questions.
We must begin before five, or we shan’t finish in time for our supper.
In this sense the verb must corresponds to the Russian надо, нужно, должен.
89
Do it if you must (если нужно, делайте).
Must expresses obligation or compulsion from the speaker’s viewpoint (unlike ‘have to’,
which involves some other authority than the speaker, such as official regulations, etc.).
You must be back at 2 o’clock. I want you to do some cooking.
Obligations expressed by must refer to the present or future, in reported speech they may refer
to the past.
James said we must invite the Stewarts to dinner.
Future obligations can be made more precise with the future indefinite of the verb have to.
I’ll have to read it again.
Since the negative form of must denotes a negative obligation or sometimes prohibition (sec
item 2), it cannot express absence of necessity which is expressed by needn’t.
- Must I go? - No, you needn’t, if you don’t want to.
Must is used interchangeably with to be to for instructions, notices, or orders.
Passangers must cross the lines by the footbridge (the railway company instructs them to).
With a 2nd person subject must expresses an obligation which has the same effect as a
command.
You must do as you are told.
2. Prohibition. Such sentences are sometimes negative commands, corresponding to the
Russian sentences with нельзя, не разрешается.
3. Invitations.
You must come and see me sometime. - Вы обязательно должны навестить меня какнибудь.
II. When combined with any form of the infinitive must expresses probability, near
certainty. It has the same meaning as the modal words probably, evidently. In this sense must
occurs only in positive statements and corresponds to the Russian modal words вероятно,
должно быть.
He must be mad (it seems certain that he is mad).
With verbs which admit of the continuous aspect, the continuous infinitive should be used for
reference to the present.
Where’s Nell? She must be sightseeing now (she is probably sightseeing).
The perfect infinitive indicates a past action.
Did you always live with your father? You must have led quite a busy social life (evidently
you led...).
The perfect continuous infinitive indicates the duration of the past action, a process in the
past.
It must have been raining when you left (evidently it was raining when you left).
Must expressing probability is not used:
a) with reference to the future. Instead of the modal verb the adverbs probably and evidently
are used.
He will probably feel lonely.
90
b) in negative and interrogative forms. There are several ways of expressing the negative
meaning of probability in such sentences: by negative affixes, or negative pronouns, or lexically.
1. You must have misunderstood me.
Besides the above mentioned shades of meaning, sometimes accompanied by emphasis, the
modal verb must may be used solely for the sake of emphasis. In this case must is not translated
into Russian, it merely emphasises some action or idea.
Just when we were ready to go away for the holidays, the baby must catch measles
(ребенок вдруг заболел корью, ребенок возьми и заболей корью).
To have to, have got to
As a modal verb to have to differs from the others in that it is not defective. It can have the
category of person and number and all tense-aspect forms, as well as verbals. It is followed by a
to-infinitive and combines only with the non-perfect form of it.
As there is no through train to our town we have to change in Moscow.
Have to builds up its interrogative and negative forms with the help of the auxiliary verb to
do.
Do you have to work so hard?
He doesn’t have to be here before Friday.
The modal verb to have to expresses:
I. Obligation or necessity arising out of circumstances. It is similar in its meaning to must
(1). It corresponds to the Russian приходится, вынужден.
She is usually short of time so she has to go by air (ей приходится лететь, она
вынуждена лететь).
In the past tense have to indicates a fulfilled obligation.
We had to do a lot of things during the week we stayed in the country (were obliged and
did it).
Have to replaces must where must cannot be used: a) to express past necessity or obligation,
b) to express absence of necessity (in the sense of needn’t), since must not means prohibition,
and c) to express a future obligation, since the future tense of the verb have to makes the
obligation more precise.
a) We had to do it again.
b) You don’t have to make another copy of the document, Miss Black; this copy will be
quite satisfactory.
c) You’ll have to take a taxi if you mean to catch the train.
Have got to has the same basic meaning as have to. The difference lies in that have to usually
denotes a habitual action and have got to denotes a particular action.
Do you have to get up early every morning?
To be to
To be to as a modal verb is used in the present and past indefinite tenses.
To be to expresses:
91
1. An obligation arising out of an arrangement or plan. It is found in statements and
questions.
We are to complete this work by tomorrow. (Somebody expects it.)
The last two sentences in which to be is in the past indefinite do not indicate whether the
action did or did not take place.
On the other hand this form is the only way to indicate a fulfilled action in the past.
I was to meet Mother at 11 (and I did).
To emphasize that the action did not take place the perfect infinitive is used after the past
indefinite of the verb to be to.
She was to have graduated in June, but unfortunately fell ill.
The present indefinite may signify an arrangement (especially official) for the future, or
referring to no particular time.
The German Chancellor is to visit France.
2. A strict order or an instruction given either by the speaker or (more usually) by some
official authority.
He is to return to Liverpool tomorrow (he has been given orders to return to Liverpool).
3. Strict prohibition (only in the negative form).
You are not to do that.
4. Something that is destined to happen or is unavoidable. It corresponds to the Russian
суждено, предстоит.
I didn’t know at the time that she was to be my wife (что ей суждено было стать моей
женой).
5. Impossibility. In negative sentences or in sentences containing words with negative
meaning the verb to be to implies impossibility. In this case the passive form of the non-perfect
infinitive is used, unless it is a question beginning with the interrogative adverbs how, where.
They are not to be trusted.
Nothing was to be done under the circumstances.
This meaning is similar to the meaning of can and may.
Need
The modal verb need may be either a defective or a regular verb. As a defective verb need has
only one form and combines with a bare infinitive. In reported speech it remains unchanged. As
a regular verb it has the past indefinite form needed and regular negative and interrogative forms.
There is a slight difference in the usage of regular and irregular forms. The regular form is
used mainly when the following infinitive denotes habitual action. The defective form is more
common when one particular occasion is referred to:
92
Need I do it?
You needn’t do it just now.
The defective form is mainly restricted to negative and interrogative sentences, whereas the
regular verb can be used in all types of sentences and is therefore more common.
Need expresses necessity. It is mainly used in questions and negative statements, where it is a
replacement for must or for have (got) to.
The negation is not always combined with the verb, but may be expressed by other parts of
the sentence.
I don't think we need mention him at all.
In questions need is used when there is a strong element of negation or doubt or when the
speaker expects a negative answer.
Need she go there? (hoping for a negative answer)
In negative statements need followed by a perfect infinitive indicates that the action expressed
by the infinitive was performed but was not necessary. It implies a waste of time or effort, and is
therefore translated by зря, незачем, не к чему было.
You needn’t have spent all the money. Now we've got nothing left. Зря ты потратил все
деньги, не к чему было тратить ... .
The difference between the two forms of need in negative sentences is as follows: the regular
verb indicates that the action was not done because it was unnecessary, whereas the defective
verb shows that the action, although unnecessary, was carried out. Compare the following
examples:
Didn’t need to do smth = It wasn’t necessary, so probably not done.
Needn’t have done smth. = It was not necessary, but done nonetheless.
Ought to
The modal verb ought has only one form. It is not changed in reported speech.
Ought combines with the to-infinitive. When followed by the non-perfect or continuous
infinitive it indicates reference to the present or future. In indirect speech it may also refer the
action to the past.
You ought to be ashamed of yourself.
Ought expresses:
1. Moral duty, moral obligation (which is not always fulfilled). It corresponds to the
Russian следует.
You ought to look after your children better (you don’t always do it). Вам следует больше
заботиться о детях.
When used with the perfect infinitive ought means that something right has not been done, a
desirable action has not been carried out, and it, therefore, implies reproach.
You ought to have helped him (but you didn’t). Вам следовало бы ему помочь.
93
Ought not + perfect infinitive means that something wrong has been done and it is now too
late to change it. It may also be viewed as a reproach.
She told him he ought not to have done it (but he had done it).
The opposite to ought to is needn’t used to mean that the action is unnecessary.
We ought to wash the dishes, but we needn’t dry them, because they will dry themselves.
2. Advisability (which is sometimes understood as desirability).
You ought to see a doctor.
3. Probability, something that can be naturally expected. It corresponds to the Russian
должно быть, наверное.
You ought to be hungry by now (you probably are, but I’m not certain). Вы, наверное,
уже проголодались.
Ought to + infinitive is used when describing something exciting, funny or beautiful in the
meaning of I wish you could.
You ought to hear the way he plays the piano!
Should
Historically should was the past form of shall and both the forms expressed obligation. But in
present-day English they have developed different meanings and are treated as two different
verbs.
Should followed by the non-perfect infinitive may be used with reference to the present and
future and is not changed in reported speech.
You should be more careful. Вам следует быть внимательнее.
Should is nearly always interchangeable with ought to, as their meanings coincide.
It expresses:
1. Moral obligation, moral duty, which may not be fulfilled. Should is found in this sense in
all kinds of sentences. However ought to is preferable in this sense:
All students should submit their work by present date (but some of them don’t).
Студенты должны сдать работу к сегодняшнему дню.
When used in the negative form should denotes a weakened prohibition, more like negative
advice.
He shouldn’t be so impatient.
When combined with the perfect infinitive should denotes criticism, faultfinding; the
statement indicates that something desirable has not been done.
Your shoes are wet. You should have stayed at home.
A negative statement indicates that something wrong has been done.
You shouldn’t have done that. It was stupid. (Вам не следовало это делать).
2. Advice, desirability. This meaning is more common with ought to than with should.
94
You should stay in bed. Вам нужно (следует) лежать в постели.
As is seen from the above examples, it is sometimes difficult to discriminate between the first
and the second meaning.
3. Probability, something naturally expected (only with reference to the present or future).
The effect of the tax should be felt in high prices (will probably be felt).
Shall
In present-day English shall is not a purely modal verb. It always combines its modal
meaning of obligation with the function of an auxiliary verb in the future tense.
As a modal verb shall is not translated into Russian, usually its meaning is rendered by
emphatic intonation.
Shall combined with only a non-perfect infinitive expresses:
1. Promise, oath, or strong intention. In this meaning shall is used with the 2nd or 3rd
person with a weak stress.
It shall be done as you wish.
2. Threat or warning (shall is used in this meaning in the 2nd and 3rd person).
That day shall come.
3. A suggestion or offer
It is used in questions (and offers) in the 1st person singular and plural. Such sentences are
translated into Russian by the infinitive.
“Shall I get you a chair?” – “Yes, please.” Принести вам стул? - Пожалуйста.
Will
Like shall, will is not a purely modal verb. It almost always combines its modal meaning with
its functioning as an auxiliary verb expressing futurity. Will has two forms: will for the present
tense and would for the past tense. Thus will and would are looked upon as forms of the same
verb, although in a few cases their meanings differ.
I. Will combined with the non-perfect infinitive expresses:
1. Willingness, intention, determination. It is often rendered into Russian by непременно,
обязательно, охотно. Would in this meaning shows reference to the past.
I will write as soon as I can. (Я непременно напишу, как только смогу.)
2. A polite request or an offer. This meaning occurs only in questions.
Will you pass the salt, please?
In comparison with will the form would renders a greater degree of politeness.
Would you please pass the salt?
95
It is still more polite to use the combinations: Would you mind (+ -ing form), Would you be so
kind as to...
Would you be so kind as to lend me your book?
3. A command (in military contexts it is a strict command).
Officers will report for duty at 06.00.
An impatient command can begin with will you.
Will you be quiet! - Замолчишь, ли ты наконец?
Will you in the tag after a negative command can tone down the command (and is pronounced
with the falling tone).
Don’t be late, will you?
But after a positive command will you has a rising intonation and expresses impatience.
Sit down, will you?
Would is never used in this meaning.
4. Insistence, resistence. Will and would are stressed when used in this sense.
He will try to mend it himself (he insists on mending it himself).
With reference to inanimate objects will and would show that a thing fails to perform its
function. It occurs in negative statements and corresponds to the Russian никак не.
The door will not open.
- Дверь никак не открывается.
The orange won’t peel.
- Апельсин никак не очистить.
The engine wouldn’t start.
- Мотор никак не заводился
The wound wouldn’t heal.
- Рана никак не заживала.
5. Inevitability, characteristic behaviour, quality, or something naturally expected.
What will be will be.
- Чему быть, того не миновать.
Accidents will happen.
- Несчастные случаи неизбежны (несчастный случай может
произойти с каждым).
Boys will be boys.
Truth will out.
- Мальчишки всегда остаются мальчишками.
- Истины не утаишь.
This sort of inevitability or prediction often occurs in sentences with conditional clauses.
If people study they will learn. (If people study they learn)
This meaning cannot be rendered in Russian by any analogous modal verb.
Oil will float on water.
96
6. Disapproval of something expected. In this meaning only would is used. It is found
mainly in responses. It corresponds to the Russian этого и следовало ожидать, на него
похоже.
“I know she attended the place.” “Oh, yes, she would.” - Конечно, что еще можно
ожидать.
II. Will/would combined with different forms of the infinitive can express prediction, a
certainty about the present or the future (in a similar way as must).
This will be just what she wants.
- Это, очевидно, то, чего она хочет.
That will be my wife.
- Это, конечно, моя жена.
This will be our train.
- Это, наверное, наш поезд.
That would be he!
- Это, наверное, он.
John will have arrived by now (by
tomorrow).
- Джон наверняка уже приедет к этому
времени (к завтрашнему дню).
In the latter case must is impossible as with a perfect infinitive it has a reference to the past.
That would be in 1910, I think.
-
Я думаю, это, наверное, было в 1910 году.
Why are you asking him?
-
Зачем вы его спрашиваете?
Вряд ли он что-либо об этом знает.
Вряд ли вы его знаете.
Не wouldn’t know anything about it.
Who is the man? You wouldn’t know him.
Dare
The modal verb dare may be defective or regular.
As a defective verb dare has two forms: dare for the present tense and dared for the past
tense. It is used chiefly in interrogative and negative sentences. It has the meaning - to have the
courage or independence to do something, to venture.
How dare he speak to you like that? (I wonder at such impudence.)
As a regular verb dare has a limited paradigm of finite forms and no verbals. It may have two
meanings:
1. To venture, to have the courage or impudence (like the defective dare). In this sense it is
used mainly in negative statements.
He didn’t dare to stop me (he didn’t have the courage).
2. To challenge, to defy.
I dared him to jump (I challenged him to do it).
Note the following combinations with the modal verb dare.
97
I dare say — I suppose, no doubt.
I dare say you are right. - Очень возможно, что вы правы.
I dare say he will come later. - Полагаю (пожалуй), он придет позже.
Literature.
1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского
языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических
институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.496с.
MODAL VERBS
There is a great variety of different modal verbs expressing the speaker's attitude towards the
action in the sentence. We find the following modal verbs in English: can, may, must, to have to,
to be to, ought to, should, need.
A modal verb in combination with the infinitive forms a compound modal predicate. Modal
verbs lack many forms characteristic of regular verbs: they have no -s in the third person singular
in the Simple Present, and no verbals, some of them lack the form of the past tense.
Modal verbs have the following peculiarities:
1. they are followed by the infinitive without the particle to (with the exception of ought to, to
have to and to be to);
2. their interrogative and negative forms are built up without the auxiliary verb (except the verb
to have to);
3. most of the modal verbs have more than one meaning. They all show that a certain action is
represented as necessary, possible, desirable, doubtful, obligatory from the point of view of the
speaker.
Modal verb can
I. The Modal verb can has two tense forms: can (the Simple Present) — could (the Simple Past).
II. Can is used to express:
1. ability (mental or physical).
Ex. He can read a little French.
I can walk very fast.
This meaning can also be expressed by the modal equivalent to be able to... . The phrase can be
used in all tense forms.
Ex. Don't worry! I am quite able to take care of myself.
I am happy I was able to help you.
No doubt they will be able to support us.
2. objective possibility due to circumstances (or absence of it).
Ex. You can get this dictionary from the library.
You can't cross the street here.
3. permission, request in affirmative and interrogative sentences. If it is negative sentences it
expresses prohibition.
Ex. — Can I go out? — Yes, you can go out if you like.
You can't go out. It is late.
Could expresses a more polite request.
Ex. Could you give us a clue?
Note: Remember the following set-phrases with the verb can:
Ex. He couldn't help laughing, (не мог удержаться чтобы)
I can't but ask him about it. (мне ничего не остается, как)
I can't possibly do it. (просто не могу сделать это)
98
Modal verb may
I. The modal verb may has two tense forms: may (the Simple Present) — might (the Simple
Past).
II. May can express the following meanings:
1. possibility due to circumstances (only in affirmative sentences with an indefinite infinitive).
Ex. You may order a ticket by telephone.
2. permission, request (more formal than can).
Ex. You may take the exam now.
— May I stay here? — No, you mustn't.
3. supposition implying uncertainty.
Ex. They may be at home. It may be true.
In this meaning may can be followed by different forms of the infinitive, depending on the time
reference expressed in the sentence.
Ex. He may be working.
She may have fallen ill.
He may have been waiting for us for an hour.
Modal verb must
I. The modal verb must has only one tense form — the Simple Present. It is used to refer an
action to the present or future and in combination with the perfect infinitive it refers an action to
the past.
Ex. You must do it tomorrow.
He must be still working.
He must have done it ages ago.
II. Must can express the following meanings:
1. obligation, duty, necessity.
Ex. You must do this work.
Must he do it himself?
2. prohibition (in negative sentences).
Ex. You must not come so late.
Note: Absence of necessity is expressed by other verbs (need or have to):
Ex. They needn't hurry. There is a lot of time.
You don't have to finish the work right now. It can wait.
3. emphatic advice.
Ex. You mustn't be so touchy. You must stop crying.
You really must have your hair cut.
4. supposition.
Ex. He must be thirty.
They must have missed the bus.
Modal verb to have to
The verb to have to serves to express obligation or necessity imposed by circumstances. It is
found in present, past and future tense contexts and is combined only with the simple infinitive.
The interrogative and negative forms of the modal verb to have to are built up with the help of
the auxiliary verb to do.
Ex. Do I have to do this? Did he have to do it?
You don't have to explain.
They didn't have to tell me what had happened.
Have you had to walk all that distance?
Modal verb to be to
I. The main meaning of this modal verb is that of pre-arranged necessity or mutual arrangement.
It is used in the present and past, never in the future (to have to is used in this case).
Ex. He is to come at exactly five.
She was to phone after dinner.
99
They'll have to meet in court.
Note: A perfect infinitive after the verb to be to shows that the action had been planned but
wasn't carried out.
Ex. He was to have come at seven and now it's already nine. (He didn't come)
Compare:
Ex. She was to do it. (Maybe she did it)
She was to have done it. (But she didn't do it)
II. To be to can also express a command.
Ex. You are to report to the Captain.
III. In negative sentences it expresses prohibition.
Ex. You are not to mix with these people under any circumstances.
IV. In questions to be to means asking for instructions.
Ex. What are we to do? Am I to follow you?
V. To be to can express something doomed, inevitable.
Ex. It was to happen.
She was to become his wife.
Modal verb should
It may be either auxiliary or modal.
I. When should is used as tense or mood auxiliary it is not translated since it has no lexical
meaning of its own.
Ex. She said we. should go there next year, (tense auxiliary)
It's necessary you should control yourself, (mood auxiliary)
If I had such a chance I should take it. (mood auxiliary)
II. As a modal verb should expresses duty, obligation often weakened to the meaning of advice,
reproach, rebuke.
Ex. You should cross the road here, (duty)
You should help him. (advice, recommendation)
You should do your best, (obligation, duty)
You should have given up this idea long ago. (reproach, rebuke)
Note: In emotional speech should can express indignation, astonishment, regret after the words
why, what, how, who(m), I'm sorry:
Ex. Why should I go there?
How should I know? (с какой стати?)
Different infinitives can follow.
Ex. You should be friendly to people. (the reference is made to the present, future or to no
particular time)
You should be working now, not polishing your nails! (the reference is made to the present
moment)
You should have done it. (but you didn't do it in the past)
The positive construction with a perfect infinitive after should shows that the action was
desirable but wasn't carried out.
Ex. You should have come, (but you didn't)
The negative construction with the perfect infinitive shows that the action which took place in
the past was not desirable.
Ex. You shouldn't have come, (but you did)
Modal verb ought to
It comes originally from the verb owe, and still carries the idea that we owe some moral
obligation to other people and to ourselves.
Ex. I really ought to go and have my eyes tested. (I owe it to myself, I haven't done my duty)
Ben really ought to see his parents more often, (he rarely sees them)
They ought to ban smoking in public places, (the obligation comes from outside)
100
I. It has only one form for the present tense and unlike all other modals is always followed by the
infinitive with the particle to. Time reference is expressed through the form of the infinitive.
Ex. You ought to do it. (present tense)
You ought to have done it. (past action which was desirable but wasn't carried out)
II. Like the modal verb should ought to expresses advice, social and moral responsibility.
Ex. You ought to see a doctor.
You ought not to smoke so much.
She ought to look after her children better.
You ought to ask for your money back.
III. Should and ought to are very close in meaning. Unlike must/have to, which express
obligation where you have no choice, should and ought to describe a sort of obligation where
you have a choice:
Ex. You shouldn't carry a lot of money with you.
You oughtn't to leave your bag unattended.
You should help old people.
You ought to take up a sport.
In the above illustrations, we are free to do or not to do what we are advised. Still there is some
very slight difference between them-. Should suggests an obligation more moral and binding
than ought to and therefore offers stronger advice and conveys greater certainty in prediction.
Ought to often suggests that the action is unlikely to be fulfilled.
Compare:
Ex. You should go. (this is absolutely necessary)
You ought to go. (but I know you don't want to)
Literature.
1. Английская грамматика = English Grammar / Е. А. Истомина, А. С. Саакян. — 5-е изд.,
испр. и доп. — М.: Айрис-пресс, 2007. — 272 с. — (Высшее образование).
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
§ 1. The Subjunctive Mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is
presented as a non-fact, as something imaginary or desired. The Subjunctive Mood is also used
to express an emotional attitude of the speaker, to real facts. (A detailed treatment of this use of
the Subjunctive Mood is given in § 16.)
In Modern English the Subjunctive Mood has synthetic and analytical forms.
“I wish I were ten years older,” I said. (Braine)
«Хотел бы я быть на десять лет старше», — сказал я.
I wish you would speak rationally. (E. Bronte)
Я хотел бы, чтобы вы говорили разумно.
§ 2. The synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood can be traced to the Old English
period when the Subjunctive Mood was chiefly expressed by synthetic, forms. In Old English the
Subjunctive Mood had a special set of inflections, different from those of the Indicative.
101
In course of time most of the inflections were lost and the difference between the forms of
the Subjunctive and those of the Indicative has almost disappeared. However, in Modern English
there are a few synthetic forms of the Subjunctive which have survived; they are as follows: the
Present Subjunctive of all the verbs and the Past Subjunctive only of the verb to be.
The Present Subjunctive
to be
to have, to know, to speak, etc.
I be
I have, know, speak
he, she, it be
he, she, it have, know, speak
we be
we have, know, speak
you be
you have, know, speak
they be
they have, know, speak
The Past Subjunctive
to be
to have, to know, to speak, etc.
I were
_
he, she, it were
we were
you were
they were
I. T h e P r e s e n t S u b j u n c t i v e. In the Present Subjunctive the verb to be has the
form be for all the persons singular and plural, which differs from the corresponding forms of
the. Indicative Mood (the Present Indefinite). In all other verbs the forms of the Present
Subjunctive differ from the corresponding forms of the Indicative Mood only in the third person
singular, which in the Present Subjunctive has no ending -s.
The Present Subjunctive denotes an action referring to the present or future. This form is
seldom used in Modern English. It may be found in poetry and in elevated prose, where these
forms are archaisms used with a certain stylistic aim. It is also used in scientific language and in
the language of official documents, where it is a living form.
102
Wretched is the infant’s lot,
Born within the straw-roof’d cot;
Be he generous, wise or brave,
He must only be a slave. (Southey)
Печальна судьба ребенка,
Родившегося в хижине с соломенной крышей;
Как бы великодушен, умен и храбр он ни был,
Он все равно будет рабом.
Though all the world be false, still will I be true. (Trollope)
Даже если весь мир будет лживым, все же я буду правдива.
The Present Subjunctive also occurs in some set expressions.
Be it so!
Пусть будет так! Да будет так!
Suffice it to say that he soon came back.
Достаточно сказать, что он скоро вернулся.
God forbid!
Боже упаси! Сохрани бог!
Far be it from me to contradict you.
У меня и в мыслях не было противоречить вам.
In American English the Present Subjunctive is used not only in the above mentioned cases
but also in colloquial language.
Yates called the hospital and insisted that one of the doctors come to the phone. (Heym)
Йейтс позвонил в госпиталь и потребовал, чтобы кто-нибудь из врачей подошел к
телефону.
II. T h e P a s t S u b j u n c t i v e. In the Past Subjunctive the verb to be has the form
were for all the persons singular and plural, which in the singular differs from the corresponding
form of the Indicative Mood (the Past Indefinite).
I know I am affectionate. I wouldn’t say it, if I wasn’t certain that I am. (Dickens)
103
The Past Subjunctive is widely used in Modern English and occurs not only in literature
but also in colloquial language.
The term ‘Past Subjunctive’ is merely traditional as in Modern English it does not
necessarily express a past action. In adverbial clauses of condition it denotes an unreal condition
referring to the present or future. In other types of subordinate clauses it denotes an action
simultaneous with the action expressed in the principal clause; thus it may refer to the present
and to the past.
If I were ill I should like to be nursed by you. (Bennett)
Если бы я был болен, я бы хотел, чтобы за мной ухаживали вы.
I want to go everywhere, I wish I were a gipsy. (Galsworthy)
Мне хочется всюду побывать. Я хотела бы быть цыганкой.
I wished he were less remote. (Du Maurler)
Я хотела бы, чтобы он не был таким отчужденным.
§ 3. The analytical forms of the Subjunctive Mood consist of the mood auxiliaries
should, would, may (might) or shall (which is seldom used) and the infinitive of the notional
verb.
Mr. Barkis... proposed that my pocket-handkerchief should be spread upon the horse’s
back to dry. (Dickens)
Мистер Баркис предложил положить мой носовой платок на спину лошади, чтобы он
просох.
Yates wished Bing would stop thanking him, but Bing went on. (Heym)
Йейтсу хотелось, чтобы Бинг перестал благодарить его, но Бинг все благодарил.
Whoever you may be, Sir, I am deeply grateful to you. (Dickens)
Кто бы вы ни были, сэр, я вам глубоко признателен.
She lowered the blind and closed the shutters that he might not see the sun set. (Voynich)
Она спустила шторы и закрыла ставни, чтобы он не видел, как заходит солнце.
I propose that you shall come along with me. (Dickens)
Я предлагаю вам пойти со мной.
Mood auxiliaries have developed from modal verbs, which have lost their modality and
serve to form the analytical Subjunctive. Still there are cases when mood auxiliaries retain a
shade of modality, for instance the verb might in adverbial clauses of purpose.
Lizzie stood upon the causeway that her father might see her. (Dickens)
104
Лиззи стояла на дамбе, чтобы отец увидел ее (мог увидеть ее).
§ 4. In modern English the same meaning as is expressed by the Subjunctive Mood may
also be rendered by the forms of the Indicative Mood — the Past Indefinite, the Past Perfect
and occasionally the Past Continuous and the Past Perfect Continuous.
In adverbial clauses of condition the Past Indefinite denotes an unreal condition referring to
the present or future; the Past Perfect denotes an unreal condition referring to the past.
The room is so low that the head of the tallest of the visitors would touch the blackened
ceiling if he stood upright. (Dickens)
Комната такая низкая, что голова самого высокого из посетителей коснулась бы
закопченного потолка, если бы он выпрямился.
The noise about her was frightful, so deafening that if she had shouted aloud she would
not have heard her own voice. (Cronin)
Шум вокруг нее был ужасный, такой оглушительный, что если бы она громко
закричала, она не услышала бы своего собственного голоса.
In other types of subordinate clauses the Past Indefinite denotes an action simultaneous
with the action expressed in the principal clause; the Past Perfect denotes an action prior to that
of the principal clause.
He (Mr. Barkis) sat looking at the horse’s ears as if he saw something new there. (Dickens)
Мистер Варкие сидел, глядя на уши лошади, как будто он видел там что-то новое.
I felt as if the visit had diminished the separation between Ada and me. (Dickens)
У меня было такое чувство, как будто этот визит сблизил нас с Адой.
The Past Continuous and the Past Perfect Continuous are less frequently used.
They looked as if they were fighting for their life. (Eliot)
Они выглядели так, как будто они боролись за свою жизнь.
The mother’s delicate eyelids were pink, as if she had been crying half the night. (Eliot)
Нежные веки матери покраснели, как будто бы она проплакала половину ночи.
THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
I. SIMPLE SENTENCES
§ 5. In simple sentences the synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood are more trequent
than the analytical forms.
In simple sentences the Subjunctive Mood is used:
(1) to express wish (пожелание):
105
Long live the Soviet Army!
Да здравствует Советская Армия!
Success attend you!
Да сопутствует вам успех!
То express wish the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may is also used.
May success attend you!
Да сопутствует вам успех!
May you live long and die happy!
Желаю вам долго жить и быть счастливым до конца своих дней.
(2) to express an unreal wish:
If only he were free! (Galsworthy)
Если бы только он был свободен!
(3) in oaths and imprecations:
Manners be hanged!
К черту всякие церемонии!
Confound these flies!
Будь они прокляты, эти мухи!
(4) in some expressions:
Suffice it to say that...
Be it so!
God forbid!
Far be it from me.
(See the translation of these examples, § 2.)
The Subjunctive Mood in simple sentences is characteristic of literary style, except in oaths
and imprecations, which belong to low colloquial style.
II. COMPLEX SENTENCES
§ 6. The Subjunctive Mood is, used in conditional sentences to express an unreal
condition (in the subordinate clause) and an unreal consequence (in the principal clause).
106
In sentences of unreal condition referring to the present or future the Past Subjunctive of
the verb to be is used in the subordinate clause; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed
by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood. In the principal clause we find the analytical
subjunctive consisting of the mood auxiliary should or would and the Indefinite Infinitive.
Should is used with the first person singular and plural, would is used with the second and third
persons singular and plural.
The world would be healthier if every chemist’s shop in England were demolished. (Shaw)
Человечество было бы здоровее, если бы все аптеки в Англии были уничтожены.
I should kill myself today if I didn’t believe that tyranny and injustice must end.
(Galsworthy)
Я бы сегодня же покончила с собой, если бы не верила, что тирании и
несправедливости придет конец.
An unreal condition referring to the future can also be expressed by the Past Subjunctive of
the verb to be + Infinitive of the notional verb or the analytical Subjunctive with the mood
auxiliary should for all the persons. Such sentences are often translated by means of ‘Если бы
случилось так...’, ‘Случись так...’.
If I were to offer my home... my station... my affections... to any one among the young
women engaged in my calling, they would probably be accepted. Even readily accepted.
(Dickens)
Если бы случилось так, что я предложил бы свой дом, свое положение в обществе,
свою любовь любой молодой женщине моей профессии, все это, вероятно, было бы
принято. Даже охотно принято.
Well, Major, if you should send me to a difficult spot — with this man alone, I’d feel
secure. (Heym)
Знаете, майор, если бы случилось так, что вы послали бы меня в опасное место
только с одним этим человеком, я бы чувствовал себя в безопасности.
If in the subordinate clause the mood auxiliary should is used, we often find the Indicative
or Imperative Mood in the principal clause.
If any of your family should come to my house, I shall be delighted to welcome them...
(Trollope)
Если кому-нибудь из членов вашей семьи случится прийти в мой дом, я буду рад
принять его.
If he should come, ask him to wait.
В случае, если он придет, попросите его подождать.
In sentences of unreal condition referring to the past the Past Perfect of the Indicative
Mood is used in the subordinate clause; in the principal clause we find the analytical subjunctive
107
consisting of the mood auxiliary should (with the first person) or would (with the second and
third persons) and the Perfect Infinitive.
If I had consulted my own interests, I should never have come here. (Galsworthy)
Если бы я думал только о себе, я бы никогда сюда не пришел.
There are two mixed types of sentences of unreal condition. In the first of these the
condition refers to the past and the consequence refers to the present or future.
If you had taken your medicine yesterday, you would be well now.
Если бы вы вчера приняли лекарство, теперь вы были бы здоровы.
No, by my word and truth, I never despised you; if I had I should not love you now!
(Hardy)
Нет, клянусь вам, я вас никогда не презирал; если бы я вас когда-нибудь презирал, я
не любил бы вас теперь.
In the second type the condition refers to no particular time and the consequence to the
past.
If he were not so absent-minded, he would not have mistaken you for your sister.
Если бы он не был такой рассеянный, он не принял бы вас за вашу сестру.
Still Beatrice had taken the trouble to go up to London and to buy the books for me. She
would not have done that if she disliked me. (Du Marnier)
Все-таки Беатриса взяла на себя труд съездить в Лондон и купить мне эти книги. Она
бы этого не сделала, если бы не любила меня.
N o t e. — Unreal conditions may also be expressed in the following ways:
(a) But for the rain, we should go down to the country.
Если бы не дождь, мы бы поехали за город.
His fleshless face would have looked like the face of a mummy, but for the restless
brightness of his little black eyes. (Collins)
Его изможденное лицо было бы похоже на лицо мумии, если бы не беспокойный
блеск маленьких черных глаз.
(b) If it were not for your help, I should not be able to finish my work in time.
Если бы не ваша помощь, я не смог бы вовремя закончить работу.
If it hadn’t been for me, his own brother would have shut him up for life. If it hadn’t been
for me, his own brother would have shut him up for life. (Dickens)
108
Если бы не я, его собственный брат засадил бы его (в сумасшедший дом) на всю
жизнь.
In sentences of unreal condition the modal verbs might and could are often used; they fully
retain their modal meaning and therefore they do not form the analytical subjunctive.
Here we have the group ‘modal verb + Infinitive’ which forms a compound verbal modal
predicate, whereas the analytical subjunctive forms a simple predicate.
If she were still waiting, she might be restless, feverish, but surely she would not look like
this. (Galsworthy)
Если бы она все еще ждала, она, возможно, нервничала бы, но, безусловно, она не
выглядела бы так.
I could have done very well if I had been without the Murdstones. (Dickens)
Я мог бы очень хорошо учиться, если бы не Мердстоны.
Would, when used in the subordinate clause of a sentence of unreal condition, is also a
modal verb forming with the infinitive a compound verbal modal predicate.
If you would come and see us... mother would be as proud of your company as I should be.
(Dickens)
Если бы вы пожелали навестить нас... моя матушка была бы так же польщена этим,
как и я.
N o t e. — In conditional sentences of real condition naturally the Indicative and not the
Subjunctive Mood is used. Such sentences can refer to the present, future or past.
But I can bear anything gladly if you are happy. (Eliot)
If you make this disgusting match, you will never see Hector again. (Shaw)
The whole thing was on his conscience — for if Jon had anything, he had a conscience.
(Galsworthy)
The conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of condition are: if, in case, provided,
suppose, unless and some others. If is the most common conjunction used in sentences of real
and unreal condition.
In case and provided are chiefly used in sentences of real condition.
In case I don’t find her at home, I shall leave her a note.
В случае, если я не застану ее дома, я оставлю ей записку.
I shall go there provided you consent to accompany me. (Ch. Bronte)
Я пойду туда при условии, что вы согласитесь пойти со мной.
Suppose is more common in sentences of unreal condition.
109
Suppose he wrote to you, would you answer?
Предположим, он написал бы вам, вы бы ответили?
Unless is used in sentences of real and unreal condition.
I shall come in time unless I am detained at the Institute.
Я приду вовремя, если меня не задержат в институте. .
Isabel would not have engaged herself to Mr. Hardyman unless she had been fond of
him. (Collins)
Изабелла не согласилась бы выйти за мистера Хардимена, если бы не любила его.
N o t e. — Unless has a negative meaning; it corresponds to the Russian если не. There are
cases, however, when the Russian если не cannot be rendered in English by unless; only if not is
possible.
Осторожно переходите улицу, если не хотите попасть под машину.
Cross the street carefully if you don’t want to be run over.
In this sentence unless would sound ironically (разве что тебе захочется попасть под
машину).
Adverbial clauses of condition containing the verbs had, were, could and should are often
introduced without any conjunction. In these cases we find inversion.
Had the wanderer remained awake for another half-hour, a strange sight would have met
his eyes. (Conan Doyle)
Если бы путешественник продолжал бодрствовать еще в течение получаса, его
глазам представилось бы странное зрелище.
I should be myself were I once again among the heather in those hills. (E. Bronte)
Я стала бы такой, как прежде, если бы вновь очутилась на этих холмах, поросших
вереском.
Mary would indeed have been grateful, to Miss Dunstable, could she have known all that
lady did for her. (Trollope)
Мэри и в самом деле была бы очень благодарна мисс Данстэбл, если бы она могла
знать все, что эта дама для нее сделала.
Should he come this way, I will speak to him. (Ch. Bronte)
Если ему случится быть здесь, я поговорю с ним.
110
The Subjunctive Mood is used in sentences expressing what may be understood as an
unreal consequence, the condition of which is not expressed as such.
I suppose you are a stranger in these parts, or you would have heard what happened last
autumn. (Ch. Bronte)
Наверно, вы приезжая, иначе вы бы знали о том, что случилось здесь осенью.
There was no piano... because it would have taken up much room. (Galsworthy)
Рояля не было... так как он занял бы много места.
§ 7. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of purpose. When a clause of
purpose is introduced by the conjunctions that, so that, in order that, we find the analytical
subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may (might) if the principal clause refers to the present or
future; if the principal clause refers to the past, only the form might is used.
As has already been, stated (see § 3), the mood auxiliary may (might) retains in this case a
shade of modality.
She opens (will open) the window that she may (might) get a breath of fresh air.
She opened the window that she might get a breath of fresh air.
Order a conveyance to be at the door to-morrow evening, rather earlier than is absolutely
necessary, in order that we may be in good time. (Dickens)
Прикажите подать экипаж завтра вечером пораньше, чтобы мы приехали
заблаговременно (чтобы мы могли приехать заблаговременно).
Mr. Micawber impressed the names of streets upon me that I might find my way back
easily. (Dickens)
Мистер Микобер заставил меня запомнить названия улиц, чтобы я легко нашел
дорогу обратно (чтобы я мог легко найти дорогу обратно).
Не got up, cautiously, so that he might not wake the sleeping boy. (Cronin)
Он тихо поднялся, чтобы не разбудить спящего мальчика.
Occasionally the mood auxiliary should is used.
I made shorthand notes of all that she said, however, so that there should be no possibility
of a mistake. (Conan Doyle)
Я сделал стенографическую запись всего, что она говорила, чтобы исключить
возможность ошибки.
If a clause of purpose is introduced by lest the mood auxiliary should (for all persons) is
generally used.
111
Lest has a negative meaning (чтобы не).
She opens (opened, will open) the window lest it should be stuffy in the room.
She... looked steadily at her coffee lest she also should begin to cry, as Anna was doing
already. (Eliot)
Она не поднимала глаз от чашки кофе, чтобы не заплакать, как уже плакала Анна.
§ 8. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of concession. Adverbial clauses
of concession are introduced by the conjunctions and connectives though, although, however, no
matter, whatever, whoever, etc. The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may (might)
is generally used.
Though he may (might) be tired
Tired though he may (might) be
No matter how tired he may (might) be
However tired he may (might) be } he will go to the concert.
Как бы он ни был утомлен, он пойдет на концерт.
Whatever obstacles may arise, we shall not give in.
Какие бы препятствия ни, встали на нашем пути, они нас не остановят.
You’re my daughter, Alice. Although you may never admit it, you’re like me. (Gow and
D’Usseau)
Ты моя дочь, Алиса. Хотя бы ты с этим и не соглашалась, ты похожа на меня.
Remember, the truth, however ashamed of it you may be, is better than any lie. (Dreiser)
Помните, что правда, как бы вы ни, стыдились ее, лучше, чем любая ложь.
I must return to the city, no matter what dangers may lurk there. (Dreiser)
Я должен вернуться в город, какие бы опасности ни поджидали меня там.
...I should like to do some good to you and your husband, whoever he may be. (Hardy)
Я хотел бы быть полезным вам и вашему мужу, кто бы он ни был.
If the action of the subordinate clause is prior to, that, of, the principal clause the Perfect
Infinitive is generally used.
However badly he may have behaved to you in the past he is still your brother. (Wilde)
Как бы плохо он ни вел себя по отношению к вам в прошлом, он все же ваш брат.
N o t e. — The Indicative Mood is used in adverbial clauses of concession when the action or
state is considered as an actual fact and not as something supposed.
112
C o m p a r e:
Cold though it may be, we shall go to the skating-rink (Subjunctive Mood).
Как бы ни было холодно, мы пойдем на каток.
Cold as it is, we shall go to the skating-rink (Indicative Mood).
Как ни холодно, мы пойдем на каток.
§ 9. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of time and place after the conjunctions
whenever and wherever; in these cases the clauses have an additional concessive meaning.
Whenever you may (might) come, you are welcome.
Когда бы вы ни пришли, мы вам всегда рады.
Wherever she may (might) live, she will always find friends.
Где бы она ни жила, она всегда найдет друзей.
Of course, I shall come for your marriage, whenever that may be fixed. (Trollope)
Конечно, я приеду на вашу свадьбу, когда бы ее ни назначили.
§ 10. The Subjunctive Mood is used in adverbial clauses of comparison (or manner)
introduced by the conjunctions as if and as though (the latter is more literary).
If the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause the
Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the
Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.
She speaks (spoke) about him as if she knew him well.
Она говорит (говорила) о нем так, как будто она его хорошо знает (знала).
She greeted him as if he were her brother. (Galsworthy)
Она поздоровалась с ним так, как будто он был ее братом. Не speaks as if he knew
you! (Collins)
Он говорит так, как будто он вас знает!
Rex got from his seat, as if he held the conference to be at an end. (Eliot)
Рекс поднялся с места, как будто он считал совещание оконченным.
If the action of the subordinate clause is prior to that of the principal clause the Past Perfect
of the Indicative Mood is used.
She speaks (spoke) about him as if she had known him for years.
Она говорит (говорила) о нем так, как будто знает (знала) его много лет.
113
She flushes as though he had struck her. (Shaw)
Она заливается краской, как будто он ее ударил.
She shook hands with him as though they had known each other all their lives... (Trollope)
Они пожали друг другу руки, как будто были знакомы всю жизнь.
§ 11. The Subjunctive Mood is used in predicative clauses:
(a) introduced by the conjunctions, as if, as though, when we find the link verbs to be, to
feel, to look, to seem, etc. in the principal clause.
If the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause the
Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the
Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.
If the action of the subordinate, clause is prior to that of the principal clause the Past
Perfect of the Indicative Mood is used.
I feel as if we were back seven years, Jon. (Galsworthy)
У меня такое чувство, как будто мы вернулись на семь лет назад, Джон.
...now I feel as if you had never been away. (Shaw)
Теперь у меня такое чувство, как будто вы и не уезжали.
Не looked as if he knew it to be true. (Austen)
У него был такой вид, точно он знал, что это правда.
The house looked as though it had been deserted for weeks. (Wells)
У дома был такой вид, точно в нем уже много недель никто не жил.
It was as if she were angry with him. (Lawrence).
Похоже было, что она сердится на него.
Karel felt a bitter taste in his mouth. It was as if he had done something wrong. (Heym)
Карел почувствовал неприятный вкус во рту. У него было такое чувство, точно он
сделал что-то дурное.
(b) when the subject of the principal clause is expressed by an abstract noun such as wish,
suggestion, aim, idea, etc. In this case the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should
(for all persons) is used:
Mary’s wish was that... our mother should come and live with her. (A. Bronte)
Мэри хотелось, чтобы наша мать переехала к ней жить.
...his arrangement with them had been that they should meet him at Plymouth. (Hardy)
114
Он условился с ними, что они встретят его в Плимуте.
One of the conditions was that I should go abroad. (Swinnerton)
Одно из условий заключалось в том, чтобы я поехал за границу.
§ 12. The Subjunctive Mood is used in subject clauses after a principal clause of the type
It is necessary, It is important, etc. The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should is
used for all persons.
It is (was) necessary
It is (was) important
It is (was) right
It is (was) requested
It is (was) recommended
It is (was) obligatory
It is (was) better (best)
It is (was) desirable
It is (was) of vital importance } that he should come
It was necessary that the child’s history should be known to none. (Trollope)
Надо было, чтобы историю этого ребенка никто не узнал.
It was desirable that she... should marry this earnest, well-to-do and respectable man.
(Hardy)
Было желательно, чтобы она вышла замуж за этого серьезного, состоятельного и
солидного человека.
It is better for these young men... that they should not remain here. (Dickens)
Для этих молодых людей... лучше, чтобы они не оставались здесь.
It was imperative that she should go home. (Hardy)
Было совершенно необходимо, чтобы она поехала домой.
§ 13. The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses:
(a) When the predicate of the principal clause is expressed by the verb to wish. If the action
expressed in the object clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause the Past
Subjunctive of the verb to be is used; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past
Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.
I wish I were a girl again. (E. Bronte)
115
Я хотела бы быть снова девочкой.
She wished she were free and could follow them. (Ch. Bronte)
Она жалела, что не свободна и не может поехать с ними.
I wish she felt as I do. (E. Bronte)
Я бы хотела, чтобы она чувствовала то же, что и я.
Не wished he had someone to talk to... (Wilson)
Он хотел, чтобы у него был кто-нибудь, с кем можно было бы поговорить.
If the action expressed in the object clause is prior to that of the principal clause the Past
Perfect of the Indicative Mood is used.
Auntie, I wish I had not done it. (Twain)
Тетя, мне очень жаль, что, я это сделал.
The moment Aileen had said this she wished she had not. (Dreiser)
Как только Эйлин это сказала, она пожалела об этом.
The above examples show that such sentences are often translated by means of как жаль,
мне жаль.
The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary would (for all persons) is also used in
object clauses after the verb to wish. This form is used only in sentences referring to the present
or future; it is possible only if the subject of the principal clause is not the same as the subject of
the object clause. It is chiefly used in sentences expressing request or annoyance.
I wish you would stay with me for a while. (Voynich)
Я бы хотел, чтобы вы побыли немного со мной.
I wish the honourable district attorney would mind his own business. (Dreiser)
Я бы хотел, чтобы почтенный адвокат не вмешивался в чужие дела.
With the verb to be this form is hardly ever used.
(b) The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses introduced by the conjunction lest if in
the principal clause the predicate is expressed by a verb denoting fear.
The mood auxiliary should is used for all persons.
She fears (feared) lest she should be blamed.
Она боится (боялась), как бы ее не осудили.
Не trembled lest his secret should be discovered.
116
Он дрожал при мысли, что его тайна будет раскрыта.
I dreaded lest any stranger should notice me and speak to me. (Eliot)
Я боялась, что какой-нибудь незнакомый человек заметит меня и заговорит со мной.
After verbs denoting fear object clauses are often introduced by the conjunction that, in
which case the Indicative Mood is used, often with the modal verb may (might).
She fears (feared) that she will (would) be blamed.
She fears (feared) that she may (might) be blamed.
(c) The Subjunctive Mood is used in object clauses when we find verbs and word-groups
denoting order, suggestion, advice, desire, etc. fn the principal clause. The analytical subjunctive
with the mood auxiliary should (for all persons) is used.
He orders (ordered)
He suggests (suggested)
He proposes (proposed)
He demands (demanded)
He desires (desired)
He insists (insisted)
He is anxious (was anxious)
He will see (he saw) to it } that everything should be ready by 5.
Mrs. Linton insisted that Isabella should go to bed. (E. Bronte)
Миссис Линтон настаивала на том, чтобы Изабелла легла спать.
She (Agnes) proposed to my aunt that we should go upstairs and see my room. (Dickens)
Она предложила моей тетушке, чтобы мы пошли наверх и посмотрели мою комнату.
Mr. Micawber was very anxious that I should stay to dinner. (Dickens)
Мистеру Микоберу очень хотелось, чтобы я остался обедать.
In American English we often find the Present Subjunctive in this case.
...she insisted that they open a bottle of wine and toast his success. (Stone)
Она настаивала, чтобы они откупорили бутылку вина и выпили за его успех.
The people demand that the resignation be accepted. (Heym)
Народ требует, чтобы отставка была принята.
117
§ 14. The Subjunctive Mood is used in attributive appositive clauses modifying the nouns
wish, suggestion, aim, idea, etc. The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should (for
all persons) is used.
His wish (suggestion) that everybody should take part in the work was reasonable.
She had been enormously flattered by his request that she should temporarily keep his
house. (Bennett)
Она была чрезвычайно польщена его просьбой временно вести его хозяйство.
§ 15. The Subjunctive Mood is also used in attributive clauses modifying the noun time in
the principal clause It is time, It is high time. In this case the Past Subjunctive of the verb to be is
used; with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative
Mood.
It is time we went home.
Нам пора идти домой.
It is high time we went home.
Нам давно пора идти домой.
It is time we were off.
Нам пора идти.
It’s time you learned you’re in the army. (Heym)
Вам пора усвоить, что вы в армии.
Now then, children. It’s high time you were washed and dressed. (Mansfield)
Ну, дети, давно пора умываться и одеваться.
The analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should is also possible, though less
common.
It is time we should go home.
It was indeed high time that some one... should come to the aid of the old
farmer and his adopted daughter. (Conan Doyle)
Уже давно было пора кому-нибудь прийти на помощь старому фермеру и его
приемной дочери.
§ 16. As has already been stated the Subjunctive Mood may be used to express an
emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts (see § 1). Here we always find the analytical
118
subjunctive with the mood auxiliary should, which in this case is often called the ‘emotional
should’. If priority is expressed the Perfect Infinitive is used.
In this case the Subjunctive Mood is rendered in Russian by the Indicative Mood.
The emotional should occurs in different kinds of subordinate clauses; the principal clause
in such cases contains:
(a) An adjective expressing astonishment, incredulity, regret, joy, such as strange,
wonderful, unnatural, impossible, fortunate, unfortunate, etc.
It is strange I should never have heard him even mention your name. (Austen)
Странно, что я никогда даже не слышала, чтобы он упоминал ваше имя.
It is impossible that she should have said it.
He может быть (невозможно), чтобы она это сказала (не могла она это сказать).
(b) A noun with the same meaning: wonder, pity, shame, etc.
He is such a charming man that it is quite a pity he should be so grave and so dull.
(Austen)
Он такой чудесный человек; как жаль, что он такой серьезный и скучный.
(c) The principal clause may be of the following type: I am sorry, glad, pleased, vexed, etc.
I am sorry you should take such needless trouble. (Ch. Bronte)
Мне очень жаль, что вы берете на себя такие ненужные заботы.
Against my will I felt pleased that he should have considered my remark interesting...
(Bralne)
Невольно я обрадовался тому, что он нашел мое замечание интересным.
I am so vexed... that such a thing should have been discussed before that child. (Reade)
Мне так досадно, что подобный вопрос обсуждался при ребенке.
I forgive you; but I am so grieved, Davy, that you should have such bad passions in your
heart. (Dickens)
Я тебя прощаю, но я так огорчена, Дэви, что в твоем сердце гнездится столько
дурного.
The Subjunctive Mood with the emotional should may also occur in such sentences as:
Why should you and I talk about it? (Dickens)
К чему нам с вами говорить об этом?
То think this should have come upon us in our old age! (Hardy)
119
Подумать только, что на старости лет с нами случилось такое!
I was still busy, when who should come in but Caddy! (Dickens)
Я была еще занята, как вдруг вошла — кто бы вы думали? — Кэдди!
In sentences of this kind the Indicative Mood is also possible.
Oh! It is strange he never mentioned to me that he had a ward. (Wilde)
It is only wonderful we have seen no living creature there before. (Collins)
...to think that I have been so blind! (Dickens)
§ 17. Ways of rendering the Subjunctive Mood in Russian.
The Subjunctive Mood in English often corresponds to the same mood in Russian.
I wish you’d come oftener to see us. (Dreiser)
Я хотела бы, чтобы вы почаще заходили к нам.
I wonder sometimes, when I think of it, what they would have done, if I had been taken
with an illness. (Dickens)
Я иногда думаю о том, как бы они поступили, если бы я заболел.
However, this is not the only way of rendering the Subjunctive Mood in Russian: it is often
rendered by the Indicative Mood; sometimes the infinitive is used.
Barsiny received them as if he had known them for years. (Heytn)
Барсини принял их так, как будто он знал их много лет.
In the first place, he showed him Mary’s letter. “If your heart be not made of stone it will
be softened by that,” he said. (Trollope)
Прежде всего он показал ему письмо Мэри. «Если у вас сердце не каменное, это
письмо тронет вас», — сказал он.
I regret extremely Mr. Helstone should have thought it necessary to trouble you. (Ch.
Bronte)
Я очень сожалею, что мистер Хелстоун счел необходимым побеспокоить вас.
I proposed to Ada, that morning, that we should go and see Richard. (Dickens)
Утром я предложила Аде пойти навестить Ричарда.
And he again took her hand that he might encourage her. (Trollope)
И он опять взял ее за руку, чтобы подбодрить.
Literature.
120
1. В. Л. КАУШАНСКАЯ, Р. Л. КОВНЕР, О. Н. КОЖЕВНИКОВА,Е. В. ПРОКОФЬЕВА, 3.
М. РАЙНЕС, С. Е. СКВИРСКАЯ, Ф. Я. ЦЫРЛИНА ГРАММАТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО
ЯЗЫКА, ПОСОБИЕ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ ИНСТИТУТОВ,
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ
УЧЕБНО-ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОЕ
ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО
МИНИСТЕРСТВА ПРОСВЕЩЕНИЯ РСФСР ЛЕНИНГРАДСКОЕ ОТДЕЛЕНИЕ,
Ленинград 1963
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
§ 76. The subjunctive mood is the category of the verb which is used to express non-facts:
unreal or hypothetical actions or states. A hypothetical action or state may be viewed upon as
desired, necessary, possible, supposed, imaginary, or contradicting reality.
Different forms of the verb are employed for this purpose.
The synthetic forms
§ 77. In Old English the subjunctive mood was expressed by a special system of forms with a
special set of inflections, different from those of the indicative. In the course of time, however,
most of the inflections were lost, and the difference between the forms of the subjunctive and
those of the indicative has almost disappeared. In Modern English there remain only two
synthetic forms of the old regular system of the subjunctive, which differ from the forms of the
indicative. Although their meaning and use have changed considerably, they are often called by
their old names: the present subjunctive and the past subjunctive.
I. The present subjunctive coincides with the plain verb stem (be, go, see) for all persons
in both the singular and the plural. It denotes a hypothetical action referring to the present or
future. Of these surviving forms only be is always distinct from the indicative forms and is
therefore rather current.
I
he
she
be, take, resent, etc.
it
we
you
they
He required that all be kept secret.
Other verbs are rarely used in the subjunctive in informal style, because their subjunctive
forms coincide with the indicative except in the 3rd person singular. They are confined mainly to
formal style and formulaic expressions - prayers, wishes, which should be memorized as wholes.
It is natural enough the enemy resent it.
Heaven forbid! The devil take him!
121
Long live freedom! God save the king!
II. The past subjunctive is even more restricted in its usage; it exists in Modern English only
in the form were, which is used for all persons both in the singular and plural. It refers the
hypothetical action to the present or future and shows that it contradicts reality.
If I were you!
If you were there!
If it were true!
The modem tendency, however, is to use was and were in accordance with the rules of
agreement (he was, they were).
The subjunctive mood and the tense category
§ 80. The category of tense in the subjunctive mood is different from that in the indicative
mood: unlike the indicative mood system in which there are three distinct time-spheres (past,
present, future), time-reference in the subjunctive mood is closely connected with the idea of
unreality and is based on the following opposition in meaning:
Imagined, but still possible
imagined, no longer possible
(referring to the present or future indiscriminately)
(referring to the past)
The difference in meaning is expressed by means of the following contrasting forms:
1) The common or continuous non-perfect infinitive as contrasted with the perfect common or
continuous infinitive in the analytical forms with should, would, and quasi-subjunctive forms
with may (might).
Referring to the Present or Future
Referring to the Past
I fear lest he should escape.
I fear lest he should have escaped.
He would phone you.
I suppose he should be working in the library.
He would have phoned you.
I suppose he should have been working
in the library.
2) The forms of the non-factual past indefinite and past continuous contrast with the forms of
the non-factual past perfect and past perfect continuous in time reference:
Referring to the Present or Future
Referring to the Past
If I knew.
If I had known.
I wish I were warned when the time-table is changed.
I wish I had been warned.
In case these forms are used in subordinate clauses (as is usually the case) their time-reference
is always relative. The non-factual past indefinite and past continuous indicate that the
hypothetical action is regarded as simultaneous with the action expressed in the principal clause;
122
the non-factual past perfect and past perfect continuous indicate actions prior to the action
expressed in the principal clause.
We did things and talked to the people as if we were walking in our sleep.
His face was haggard as if he had been working the whole night.
The opposition of the non-perfect continuous infinitive and the perfect continuous infinitive is
less distinct, as these forms are not so common: an imaginary action is usually presented as
devoid of any aspective characteristics.
The old synthetic forms (he be, he come, he were) have no corresponding oppositions in timereference.
Structurally determined use of subjunctive mood forms
§ 81. In Modern English the choice of the subjunctive mood form is determined by the
structure of the sentence or clause even more than by the attitude of the speaker or writer to what
is said or written. There exist strict rules of the use of the forms in different patterns of sentences
and clauses.
The subjunctive mood in subject clauses
§ 82. 1. The use of the subjunctive mood forms in subject clauses in complex sentences of
the type It is necessary that you should come.
Subject clauses follow the principal clause, which is either formal or has no subject
(exclamatory). The predicate of the principal clause expresses some kind of modality, estimate,
or some motive for performing the action denoted by the predicate in the subordinate clause.
This close connection between the two predicates accounts for the nature of the subordinate
clause, which completes, or rather gives meaning to general situation described in the principal
clause.
Should + infinitive or present subjunctive is generally used in this pattern in the subject clause.
It is (was) necessary
It is (was) important
It is (was) only right
It is (was) curious
It is (was) funny
It is (was) good (better, best)
It is (was) cruel
It is (was) shameful
that he should say so.
It is (was) a happy coincidence
(that he say so).
It is (was) considered strange
123
It is (was) recomended
It becomes (became) a custom
It seems (seemed) to me prophetic
How wonderful
What a shame
How strange
etc.
It is sad that you should have heard of it on the day of your wedding.
It is a happy coincidence that we should meet here.
It shocked him that he should have been so blind.
It was suggested that somebody should inform the police.
It was more important that he should care for her enough.
In American English the present subjunctive is predominant in this sentence pattern:
It is sad that you be here.
In exclamatory complex sentences:
How wonderful that she should have such a feeling for you!
What a scandal that Palmer and Antonia should go to the opera together!
If the principal clause expresses possibility (it is probable, possible, likely) may (might) +
non-perfect infinitive is used, because the action is referred to the future (Возможно, что...;
похоже, что...; видимо...)
It is likely the weather may change.
It is possible the key may be lost.
In negative and interrogative sentences, however, should + infinitive is used:
It is not possible that he should have guessed it.
Невероятно, чтобы...
Is it possible that he should refuse to come?
Возможно ли, чтобы...
2. After the principal clause expressing time - it is time, it is high time -the past subjunctive
or non-factual forms are used.
It is time you went to bed.
It is high time he were more serious.
It was hight time he had come to a decision.
The subjunctive mood in object clauses
§ 83. The choice of the subjunctive mood form in object clauses depends on the meaning of
the verb standing before the object clause.
124
1. In object clauses after verbs expressing order (to order, to command, to give orders, to
give instructions, to demand, to urge, to insist, to require), request (to request, to appeal, to
beg), suggestion (to suggest, to recommend, to propose, to move, to advise) either should +
infinitive or the present subjunctive is used, the first form being more common than the second.
We urged that in future these relations should be more friendly.
Mr. Nupkins commanded that the lady should be shown in.
In American English the present subjunctive in this sentence pattern is predominant.
People don’t demand that a thing be reasonable if their emotions are touched.
I suggested that she give up driving, but she looked too miserable.
The same form is used after the predicative adjectives sorry, glad, pleased, vexed, eager,
anxious, determined, etc., if the action is regarded as an imagined one.
I am sorry she should take such needless trouble.
His brother’s suggestion was absurd. He was vexed his relatives should interfere into his
private matters.
2. In object clauses after the verb wish and phrases expressing the same idea I had better, I
would rather, or the contracted form I’d rather -different forms may be used, depending on the
time-reference of the action in the object clause. If the action refers to the present or future, or is
simultaneous with the action expressed in the principal clause, the non-factual past indefinite,
past continuous, or past subjunctive is used. After I’d rather the present subjunctive is also
possible.
I wish I knew something of veterinary medicine. There’s a feeling of helplessness with a
sick animal.
I wish you came here more often. I hardly ever see you.
I would rather you went now.
I’d rather you didn’t help me, actually.
If the action refers to the past or is prior to the moment it is desired the non-factual past
perfect or past perfect continuous is used, no matter in what tense the verb in the principal clause
is. Thus in both the sentences I wish I hadn’t come and I wished I hadn’t come the non-factual
past perfect denotes a prior imaginary action, contradicting reality.
We wished we hadn’t left everything to the last minute.
I wish I had been taught music in my childhood.
If the desired action refers to the future the following subjunctive forms may be used:
would + infinitive (only when the subject of the subordinate clause and that of the principal
clause do not denote the same thing or person). It denotes a kind of request.
could + infinitive
may (might) + infinitive
The form would + infinitive is used when the fulfilment of the wish depends on the will of the
person denoted by the subject of the subordinate clause. If the fulfilment of the wish depends
more on the circumstances, the quasi-subjunctive form may (might) + infinitive is preferable, to
show that the realization of the action is very unlikely.
125
I wish you would treat me better.
I wish I could help you.
I wish he might have helped me.
When rendering wish-clauses into Russian it is possible to use a clause with the opposite
meaning, introduced by the impersonal «жаль», «как жаль», «какая жалость» or by the finite
form of the verb «сожалеть».
I wish I knew it.
- Жаль, что я этого не знаю.
I wish I didn’t know it!
- Какая жалость, что я это знаю!
I wish I had known about it!
- Жаль, что я не знал об этом!
3. In object clauses after verbs expressing fear, apprehension, worry (to fear, to be afraid, to
be terrified, to be anxious, to worry, to be fearful, to be troubled, to be in terror, to tremble, to
dread, etc.) two forms are used, depending on the conjunction introducing the clause:
a) after the conjunction that or if the clause is joined asyndetically, the quasi-subjunctive
may/might + infinitive is used. The choice of either may or might depends on the tense of
the verb in the main clause.
They trembled (that) they might be discovered. Они дрожали, что их могут обнаружить.
I fear (that) he may forget about it.
Боюсь, как бы он не забыл об этом.
b) after the conjunction lest the form should + infinitive is used.
Пассажиров охватил ужас, как бы
The passengers were terrified lest the ship
корабль не загорелся.
should catch fire.
The indicative forms are also possible in clauses of this type if the action is regarded as a real
one:
She was afraid that he had changed his mind.
4. In object clauses after verbs and phrases expressing doubt (to doubt, to disbelieve, to have
doubts, to greet with scepticism, etc.) and after some other verbs in the negative form the past
subjunctive may be used. The subordinate clause is introduced by if or whether.
We had doubts if it were possible to cross the river at this time of the year.
I doubted she had even been there.
5. In object clauses referring to the formal it + objective predicative, expressing opinion of
some situation, the choice of the form depends on the general meaning of the principal clause:
We found it strange that he should speak so calmly after the events (the principal clause
expresses the idea of disbelief, hence the form should speak is used).
We regard it as highly probable that he may return soon (the principal clause expresses the
idea of probability, hence the form may return is used).
The subjunctive mood in appositive and predicative clauses
§ 84. The choice of the form in these clauses is determined by the lexical meaning of the
words these clauses follow or refer to.
The order that we should come surprised me. (appositive clause)
126
The order was that we should come. (predicative clause)
His suggestion that we stop and have a look round the castle was rather sudden.
(appositive clause)
His suggestion was that we stop and have a look round the castle. (predicative clause)
1. The forms should + infinitive or the present subjunctive are used after nouns expressing
wish, advice, desire, proposal, doubt, hesitation, fear, apprehension, etc. After the last two
nouns the conjunction lest is used.
Mary’s wish was that we should stay at her place as long as possible. (predicative clause)
Your advice that he wait till next week is reasonable. (appositive clause)
Our fear lest he should give away our secret was great. (appositive clause)
Our fear was lest we should get lost in the forest. (predicative clause)
2. In predicative clauses joined by the link verbs to be, to seem, to look, to feel, to taste, to
smell, etc. the past subjunctive or non-factual tense forms are used. In this case the clause has a
comparative meaning and is accordingly introduced by the comparative conjunctions as if, as
though. If the action in the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the action in the principal
clause the past subjunctive or non-factual past indefinite is used. If the action is prior to that in
the principal clause, the non-factual past perfect is used.
He looked as if he were ill (his being ill is simultaneous with the time when his looks are
commented upon).
He looked as if he had been ill (his being ill was prior to the time his looks are commented
upon).
The house looked as if it had been deserted for years.
I felt as though I were talking to a child.
It was as if I were being attacked by an invisible enemy.
The subjunctive mood in complex sentences with adverbial clauses of condition
§ 85. Complex sentences may include conditional clauses expressing real condition and unreal
condition. In the first case the indicative mood is used, in the second the subjunctive. Both
conditions may refer to the past, present or future.
In sentences with real condition any form of the indicative may be used.
If she heard it, she gave no sign.
Why did he send us matches, If he knew there was no gas?
If I have offended you, I am very sorry.
You may go away if it bothers you.
Now it was serious. If I had laughed about it before, I wasn’t laughing now.
If he was lying, he was a good actor.
Since the majority of conditional clauses are introduced by if they are often called if-clauses.
Other conjunctions used to introduce conditional clauses are unless, in case, supposing (that),
suppose (that), providing (that), provided (that), on condition (that). Each of them expresses a
conditional relation with a certain shade of meaning, and their use is restricted either for
semantic or stylistic reasons. Thus unless has a negative meaning, although it is not identical
127
with if not. Clauses introduced by unless indicate the only condition which may prevent the
realization of the action in the main clause. Unless can be rendered in Russian by 'если только
не'.
He is ruined unless he can get a million to pay off his debts.
The Russian conjunction with negation «если не» cannot be rendered by unless if the
negation refers only to the part of the compound predicate. In this case if not should be used.
Оденься теплее, если не хочешь заболеть.
Put on a warm coat, if you don’t want to catch cold.
The conjunction in case has a specific shade of meaning, combining condition and purpose
and may be translated into Russian as ‘на тот случай если'.
Take an umbrella in case if rains.
The conjunctions suppose (that) and supposing (that) retain their original meaning of
supposition. The conjunctions provided (that) and providing (that) imply that the supposed
condition is favourable or desirable.
Suppose you get lost in the city, what will you do?
Providing (that) there is no opposition we will hold the meeting here.
These conjunctions may also introduce clauses of unreal condition.
In complex sentences containing an unreal condition the subjunctive mood is used in both the
conditional clause and in the principal clause, because the action expressed in the principal
clause depends on the unreal condition and cannot be realized either. The choice of forms
depends on the time-reference of the actions.
1. If the unreal actions in both the if-clause and the main clause refer to the present or future
the non-factual past indefinite, or past continuous, or the past subjunctive is used in the
subordinate clause and should/would + non-perfect common or continuous infinitive in the main
clause.
If I were a young man now, you wouldn’t be looking for a porter.
You wouldn’t be talking that way unless you were hurt.
I shouldn’t speak to you unless I were determined.
2. If both actions refer to the past and contradict reality the non-factual past perfect or past
perfect continuous is used in the if-clause and should/would + perfect or perfect continuous
infinitive in the main clause.
If he had not insisted upon her going there, nothing would ever have happened.
Unless he had been grinning happily at us, I should have sworn he was mortally wounded.
Clauses of unreal condition with the verb in the non-factual past perfect, past perfect
continuous, past subjunctive (also should + infinitive and could + infinitive, see below) may be
introduced asyndetically. In this case inversion serves as a means of subordination.
Had the world been watching, it would have been startled.
128
Were you in my place you would behave in the same way.
§ 86. The actions in the main and subordinate clauses may have different time-reference, if
the sense of the clauses requires it. Sentences of this kind are said to have split condition. The
unreal condition may refer to the past and the consequence - to the present or future.
If we hadn’t been such fools we should all still be together.
How much better I should write now if in my youth I had had the advantage of sensible
advice!
I shouldn’t be bothering you like this if they hadn’t told me downtown that he was coming
up this way.
Split condition is possible for sentences with real condition as well:
If you saw him yesterday you know all the news.
If you live in this part of the city you knew of the accident yesterday.
The condition may refer to no particular time, and the consequence may refer to the past.
She wouldn’t have told me her story if she disliked me.
John wouldn’t have lost the key unless he were so absent-minded.
§ 87. There are three more types of conditional clauses with reference to the future.
1. In the first type should + infinitive for all the persons is used in the conditional clause and
the future indefinite indicative or the imperative mood in the principal clause.
If you should meet him, give him my best regards.
If you should find another way out, will you inform me?
Conditional clauses of this type are sometimes joined to the main clause asyndetically, by
means of inversion.
Should he ask for references, tell him to apply to me.
Should anything change, you will return home.
In these sentences the action in the conditional clause is presented as possible, but very
unlikely. Such clauses are called clauses of problematic condition. They may be rendered in
Russian as «случись так, что... », «если случайно...», «если так случится, что...», «вдруг
что-нибудь», etc.
2. In the second type would + infinitive for all the persons in the singular and plural is used in
the conditional clause and should/would + infinitive or the indicative mood in the main clause.
Would retains its original meaning of willingness or consent (если бы вы согласились,
изъявили желание, захотели бы).
If you would only come to our place, we’ll be very glad (we should be very glad).
3. In the third type the past subjunctive of the modal verb to be + (to) infinitive is used in the
conditional clause and should/would + infinitive or the imperative mood in the principal clause.
Both actions have future or present time-reference.
If you were to undertake it, everything would be different (if by chance you undertook it).
129
If I were to tell you everything, you would be amazed. - Если бы мне пришлось
рассказать вам все, вы бы удивились.
The form were + to implies greater remoteness and improbability of the action, but does not
imply a rejection of it.
The subjunctive mood in adverbial clauses of comparison
§ 90. Several forms of subjunctive are used in clauses of comparison depending on the timereference.
1. If the action in the comparative clause is simultaneous with that in the main clause, the nonfactual past indefinite or past subjunctive is used.
2. If the action in the comparative clause is prior to that in the main clause, the non-factual
past perfect is used.
The usual conjunctions introducing comparative clauses are as if and as though.
His eyes wandered as if he were at a loss.
He paid no attention to us, as though we did not exist.
Miss Handforth was holding a tea-pot as if it were a hand grenade.
3. If the action in the subordinate clause is presented as following the action in the main
clause would + infinitive is used.
He was whistling gaily as if his heart would break for joy.
The subjunctive mood in adverbial clauses of purpose
§ 91. In clauses of purpose the form used depends on the conjunction introducing the clause.
1. After the conjunctions that, so that, in order that, so the quasi-subjunctive forms may
(might) + infinitive or can (could) + infinitive are used. Only might and could are used if the
action in the subordinate clause, though following the action in the main clause, refers to the
past. But when the action refers to the present or future, both forms of each verb are possible
(may or might, can or could).
I tell you this so that you may understand the situation.
She left the lamp on the window-sill, so that he might see it from afar.
She gave him the book that he might have something to read on the journey.
2. After the negative conjunction lest (чтобы не) should + infinitive is generally used.
The girl whispered these words lest somebody should overhear her.
He was afraid to look behind lest he should see something there which ought not to be
there.
The subjunctive mood in adverbial clauses of concession
§ 92. Concessive clauses may either be joined to the main clause asyndetically, or else be
introduced by a connective (however, whoever, whatever, whenever), a conjunction (though,
although, even if, even though); also by a phrase, such as no matter how, no matter when.
130
If the action refers to the present or future the quasi-subjunctive form may + infinitive or
present subjunctive is used in the subordinate clause. If the action refers to the past may +
perfect infinitive or perfect continuous infinitive, or might + infinitive is used. Forms with
should + infinitive, would + infinitive, and non-factual tense forms are also possible, though less
typical.
He can be right, no matter whether his arguments be convincing or not.
Tired as he may be he will always help me.
Though he might have been suspicious he gave no sign.
No matter how he might try he couldn’t do it.
Much as I would like to help, I didn’t dare to interfere.
When a concessive clause is joined asyndetically, there is usually inversion. The front
position is occupied by the part, that states the circumstance despite which the action in the main
clause is carried out. Thus it lends a concessive meaning to the clause. In the following sentences
the concessive meaning is focused on the part of the predicate:
Come what may, we shall remain here.
- Чтобы ни случилось ...
Cost what it may, I’ll give you the sum you ask.
- Сколько бы это ни стоило...
Tired as he might be, he continued his way.
- Как бы он ни устал ...
The focus of the concessive meaning may fall on the nominal or adverbial part of the
clause.
Whoever he may be, he has no right to be rude.
- Кто бы он ни был ...
Whatever you may say, our decision remains unchanged.
- Чтобы ты ни говорил ...
Whichever of the two roads we may take, the distance is great.
- По какой бы из двух дорог
мы ни пошли ...
Wherever we might go, we found the same gloomy sight.
Whenever I may ask him a question, he always has a ready answer.
Не will not convince us however hard he should try.
- Куда бы мы ни пошли ...
- Когда бы я ни задал ему
вопрос ...
- ... как бы сильно он ни
пытался.
Concessive clauses introduced by even if, even though are built up on the same pattern as
conditional clauses and the same subjunctive mood forms are used in the subordinate clause.
Even if it were true, he couldn’t say so.
Even though he had proposed, nothing has changed since that day.
Concessive meaning may be rendered by the indicative mood in the same patterns of clauses,
if the fact despite which the action is carried out is a real one.
Cold as it is, we shall go out. (it is really cold)
Tired as he was, he continued his work.
131
Though he was 36, he looked very old.
It was not meant to offend you, no matter how ironic it sounded.
The subjunctive mood in simple sentences
§ 93. Besides cases when the subjunctive mood forms are used in simple sentences to express
an unreal action as a consequence of an implied condition (see § 88), these forms are also used in
simple sentences of the following kind:
1. In exclamatory sentences beginning with if only to express a wish. They follow the same
pattern as conditional clauses, and would + infinitive, past subjunctive, non-factual tense forms
are used.
If only it were true!
If only I knew what to do!
If only I had listened to my parents!
If only it would stop raining!
If only we could have stopped him!
2. In exclamatory sentences to express an emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts
(surprise and disbelief). Here should + infinitive is used.
And this should happen just on this day!
That it should be you of all people!
3. In questions expressing astonishment or indignation the analytical form should + infinitive
is used:
Why should you and I talk about it?
How should I know?
Why should you suspect me?
Why should you not do it?
The traditional use of the subjunctive mood in formulaic expressions
§ 94. These forms remained as survivals of old usage and they are used as wholes, in which
no element of structure can be omitted or replaced.
Most of them have a religious origin and express a wish or a prayer: God bless you! (Bless
you!) God save the king! Heaven forbid! The Devil take him!
In many cases, however, formulaic expressions may be expanded by variable elements (parts
of the sentence or clauses), thus making productive patterns in Modern English. They vary in
their meaning, although mostly express a wish. Among them are:
1. Forms used in slogans: Long live the Army! Long live patriotism! Long live the fighters
for peace! Long live heroes!;
132
2. Forms used in oaths, curses, and imprecations: Manners be hanged! Confound your
ideas! Confound the politics!
Far be it from me to spoil the fan!
- Чтобы я хотел испортить вам настроение!
Far be it from me to conceal the truth!
- Чтобы я скрывал правду!
Far be it from me to argue with you!
- Чтобы я стал спорить!
Far be it from me to talk back!
- Чтобы я грубил!
Forms with may + infinitive, unlike modern forms with the same verb, retain the old word
order:
May success attend you! May you be happy! May he win!
The subjunctive mood forms with had better, had best, would rather, would sooner are used
in sentences denoting wish, admonition, preference, advice. Very often they are used in a
contracted form: You’d better go at once. You had best take note of my direction if you wish to
make sure of it.
Formulaic expressions with concessive meaning are used in complex sentences as concessive
clauses:
Happen what may,
Come what will,
we shall not yield.
Come what may,
Cost what it may,
The formulaic expression as it were (так сказать) is used as parenthesis, emphasizing that the
content of the sentence is highly figurative or non-real:
... there is, as it were, a transparent barrier between myself and strong emotion.
Literature.
1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского
языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических
институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.496с.
Theme 8. Translation as a means of realization of professional activity; the bases of
comparative analysis. Direct and Indirect Speech.
INDIRECT SPEECH
§ 1. In contrast to direct speech, in which the exact words of the speaker are given, indirect
speech is a form of utterance in which these words are reported.
133
§ 2. When direct speech is converted into indirect speech the following changes are
introduced:
1. The quotation marks and the comma (or colon) are omitted.
2. If the speaker reports somebody else’s words the pronouns of the 1st person are replaced
by those of the 3rd person; the pronouns of the 2nd by those of the 1st or 3rd.
He said, “I am ready.”
He said he was ready.
If the speaker reports his or her own words, the pronouns are naturally not changed:
I said, “I am ready.”
I said I was ready.
3. If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, demonstrative pronouns and
adverbials expressing nearness are replaced by words expressing distance:
Here is replaced by there.
This by that, these by those.
Now by then, at that time (moment), or no adverb is used at all.
To-day is replaced by that day.
Yesterday by the day before or on the previous day.
Ago by before.
A year ago by a year before.
Last night by the previous night.
DIRECT SPEECH
INDIRECT SPEECH
She said, “We have been here for a week.”
She said they had been there for a week.
She said, “I met them yesterday.”
She said she had met them the day before.
She said, “We can’t settle anything now.”
She said they could not settle anything at that
moment (then).
If the speaker speaks in the same place and at the same time as the speaker whose words
are reported, the demonstrative pronouns and adverbs are not changed.
An hour ago he said he would come here tonight.
I told him I wouldn’t give him an answer till tomorrow. (Wilde)
134
4. If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, the tenses are changed according to
the rule of the sequence of tenses.
DIRECT SPEECH
INDIRECT SPEECH
The Present Indefinite is replaced by the Past Indefinite.
She said, “We often write letters.”
She said they often wrote letters.
The Present Continuous is replaced by the Past Continuous.
She said, “We are writing a letter.”
She said they were writing a letter.
The Present Perfect is replaced by the Past Perfect.
She said, “We have just written a letter.”
She said they had just written a letter.
The Present Perfect Continuous is replaced by the Past Perfect Continuous.
She said, “We have been writing
She said they had been writing
for an hour.”
for an hour.
The Past Indefinite is replaced by the Past Perfect.
She said, “We wrote a letter last night.”
She said they had written a letter on the
previous night.
The Past Continuous generally remains unchanged, or is replaced by the Past Perfect
Continuous.
She said, “I was writing at 5 o’clock.”
She said she was (had been) writing at 5
o’clock.
The Past Perfect remains unchanged.
She said, “We had written the letter by 5 She said they had written the letter by 5
o’clock.”
o’clock.
The Past Perfect Continuous remains unchanged.
She said, “We had been writing for an hour She said they had been writing for an hour by
by 5 o’clock.”
5 o’clock.
The Future Indefinite is replaced by the Future Indefinite in the Past.
She said, “We’ll write a letter to-morrow.”
She said they would write a letter the next
day.
The Future Continuous is replaced by the Future Continuous in the Past.
She said, “We’ll be writing at 5 o’clock.”
She said they would be writing at 5 o’clock.
135
The Future Perfect is replaced by the Future Perfect in the Past.
She said, “We’ll have written the letter by 5 She said they would have written the letter by
o’clock.”
5 o’clock.
The Future Perfect Continuous is replaced by the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past.
She said, “We’ll have been writing for 2 She said they would have been writing for 2
hours by 5 o’clock.”
hours by 5 o’clock.
If the Past Indefinite in direct speech denotes an action taking place at a definite moment, it
remains unchanged in indirect speech.
She said, “I had left home before the telegram She said she had left home before the telegram
came.”
came.
The Past Indefinite after since generally remains unchanged.
She said, “I have been writing since I came.”
She said she had been writing since she came.
5. When sentences containing the Subjunctive Mood are converted into indirect speech the
form of the verb usually remains unchanged.
However, there is a case when, the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed: if we have
the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may, may is changed into might if the verb in
the principal clause stands in a past tense.
DIRECT SPEECH
INDIRECT SPEECH
I should be discharged if I were seen She said that she would be discharged if she
speaking to you. (Shaw)
were seen speaking to him.
It is true I drink, but I shouldn’t have taken to He admitted that he drank, but said he would
that if things had gone differently. (Maugham) not have taken to that if things had gone
differently.
I think cheerfulness is a fortune in itself. I wish She thought cheerfulness was a fortune in
I had it. (Eliot)
itself. She wished she had it.
Oh, how I wish I had never seen him! (Hardy)
She said she wished she had never seen him.
The boys will think none the worse of you He said that the boys would think none the
whatever you may have done. (Conan Doyle) worse of him whatever he might have done.
6. The verb introducing direct speech is replaced by another verb which shows whether the
indirect speech is a statement, a question, an order (request) or an exclamation.
She said, “I’ve never seen the like of it.”
She declared she had never seen the like of it.
She said to him, “Do you know them?”
She asked him if he knew them.
136
She said to him, “Come here at once!”
She told him to come at once.
She said, “Why, I never expected he would do She exclaimed she had never expected he
such a thing.”
would do such a thing.
7. It should be borne in mind that there is a great difference between the style of direct and
that of indirect speech.
Direct speech is characterized by a certain looseness of structure and is more emotional
than indirect speech.
Indirect speech, on the contrary, is characterized by rigid logic of structure and terseness.
Accordingly, if, for instance, no conjunctions expressing causal relations are to be found in
direct speech, they must be introduced into indirect speech.
She said, “I am so tired! I’ve been writing for She said she was very tired as she had been
five hours.”
writing for five hours.
If certain words and phrases are repeated in direct speech, they must not be reproduced in
indirect speech.
She said to him, “It’s very kind of you to offer She said it was very kind of him to offer to
to help me, very kind indeed.”
help her.
So and such are replaced by very, exceedingly etc. in exclamatory sentences.
She said, “Jane plays the piano so well!”
She said Jane played the piano very well.
She said, “Jane is such a good pianist!”
She said Jane was an exceedingly (very) good
pianist.
Interjections must be replaced by suitable adverbial modifiers.
She said, “Alas! I’ll never be happy again!”
She exclaimed in despair she would never be
happy again.
8. Must, as a rule, remains unchanged in indirect speech if it expresses advice (order) or a
supposition bordering on assurance (должно быть).
She said to him, “You must be more careful.” She told him he must be more careful.
(advice)
She said, “You must be very fond of music if She said he must be very fond of music if he
137
you go to concerts so often.” (supposition)
went to concerts so often.
She was informed that she must never again walk much. (Hardy)
He said he was afraid you must think him ungrateful. (Marryat)
Mr. Brownlow smiled and said that Mr. Grimwig was an old friend of his and he must not
mind his being a little rough in his manners. (Dickens)
Must is generally replaced by had to if it expresses necessity arising out of circumstances.
She said, “I must get up early every morning.”
She said she had to get up early every
morning.
Must is generally replaced by was to if it expresses arrangement or a kind of order.
She said, “I must ring him up at two o’clock.”
She said she was to ring him up at two o’clock.
§ 3. Indirect statements.
Indirect statements are generally introduced by the verbs to say, to tell, to announce and in
official style by the verb to inform.
With the verbs to tell and to inform the person addressed is always mentioned. With the
verbs to say and to announce the person addressed may or may not be mentioned. If it is
mentioned, the preposition to is used.
She said (to us), “There are interesting She said (she told us) that there were
magazines in the reading-hall.”
interesting magazines in the reading-hall.
She said (to us), “I am leaving for good.”
She announced to us that she was leaving for
good.
The monitor said to us, “There will be a The monitor informed us that there would be a
meeting to-night.”
meeting that night.
The verb to say is used to introduce both direct and indirect speech if the person addressed
is not mentioned. If the person is mentioned, the verb to tell is preferable; if the verb to say is
used, the preposition to is necessary.
She said, “I’ll be back directly.”
She said she would be back directly.
You said that you would give me back my letter, didn’t you? (Wilde)
138
The Miller said to his wife that he would go down and see Little Hans. (Wilde)
The verb to tell is used to introduce indirect speech only; the person addressed must be
mentioned.
She said to us, “I’ve received an interesting She told us she had received an interesting
letter.”
letter.
N o t e 1. — The verb to tell is used without the person addressed being mentioned in sentences
as The book tells of the life of Negroes, also in the expressions to tell a lie, to tell the truth, to tell
a story.
N o t e 2. — The verb to speak never introduces indirect speech because it is never followed by
an object clause (it can only be followed by an object clause with a preposition). Therefore the
sentence ‘Он говорил, что любит музыку’ should be rendered in the following way: He said he
was fond of music.
N o t e 3. — It should be noted that the verb to speak cannot take a direct object, unless it is the
name of a language or the noun truth in the expression to speak the truth. ‘Он говорил много
интересного’ should be rendered in the following way: He said many interesting things.
An emphatic statement tinged with emotion is often introduced by the verb to declare.
She said, “It’s the dullest book I’ve ever read.”
She declared it was the dullest book she had
ever read.
Other verbs are also used to introduce statements. According to the character of the
statement, the verbs to promise, to remark, to remind, to assure, to admit, to deny etc. are
frequently used.
He said to me, “ I hope you have not forgotten He reminded me that there would be a
that there will be a meeting to-night.”
meeting that night.
He said, “The text is rather difficult.”
He remarked that the text was rather difficult.
He said, “I did speak to her about that.”
He admitted having spoken to her about that.
He said, “I never spoke to her.”
He denied having spoken to her.
The child said to his mother, “I’ll never The child promised his mother never to
disobey you again.”
disobey her again.
She said to them, “I’ll certainly come in time.”
She assured them that she would come in
time.
§ 4. Indirect questions.
139
Word order in an indirect question is the same as in a statement. An indirect general
question is introduced by the conjunction if or whether.
I said to her, “Have you lived here long?”
I asked her if she had lived there long.
An indirect special question is introduced by the same adverb or pronoun that introduces
a direct question.
I said to her, “Where do you live?”
I asked her where she lived.
If a direct question to the subject contains the link verb to be, the direct order of words is
not always strictly observed.
He asked, “Who is that man?”
He asked
{who the man was
who was the man.
The direct question What is the matter? can be converted in two ways:
He asked what was the matter.
He asked what the matter was.
Indirect questions are generally introduced by the verb to ask. In more official style the
verb to inquire is used.
She called at the office and said, “When does She called at the office and inquired when the
the secretary usually come?”
secretary usually came.
If the person addressed is mentioned, the verb to inquire is used with the preposition of.
This occurs in bookish style only.
She said to him, “Where does Mrs. Brown She inquired of him where Mrs. Brown lived.
live?”
In rendering answers the verbs to answer and to reply are generally used.
Occasionally, answers are rendered in the following way: His reply (answer) was that.., He
said in reply... This is not colloquial.
§ 5. Indirect orders and requests.
An order or a request in indirect speech is expressed by an infinitive:
She said to him, “Open the window (do not She told him to open the window (not to open
open the window).”
the window).
She said to him, “Please, open the window (do She asked him to open the window (not to
not open the window).”
open the window).
140
The choice of the verb is determined by the character of the order (request).
The verb most commonly used to introduce indirect orders is the verb to tell; the verb to
order is frequently used, occasionally also the verb to command.
The verb to tell corresponds to the Russian сказать, чтобы and велеть; to order and to
command correspond to приказать.
Mr. Bumble said to Oliver, “Bow to the Mr. Bumble ordered Oliver to bow to the
board.”
board.
The officer said to the soldiers, “Stop!”
The officer commanded the soldiers to stop.
The verb to request is used in official style, chiefly in the Passive Voice. It is best rendered
in Russian by предложить.
The verb to request introduces rather a veiled order than a request.
The ticket collector said to the passenger, The ticket collector requested (предложил)
“Produce your ticket.”
the passenger to produce his ticket.
or:
The passenger was requested to produce his
ticket.
Unemotional requests are usually introduced by the verb to ask.
He said to a passer-by, “Will you show me the He asked a passer-by to show him the way to
way to the theatre?”
the theatre.
The verb to beg introduces a request somewhat more emotional.
The child said to his mother, “Do take me to The child begged his mother to take him to the
the circus!”
circus.
Very often, however, it is used in the same meaning as the verb to ask, only it is more
polite:
He said to the visitor, “Will you walk in?”
He begged the visitor to walk in.
Emotional (emphatic) requests are introduced by the verbs to implore to entreat to
beseech (умолять).
Eliza said to the stranger, “Do save my child!”
Eliza implored the stranger to save her child.
The verb to urge introduces a request made with great insistence.
It corresponds to the Russian настаивать, уговаривать.
The mother said to her son, “Do take care of The mother urged her son to take care of
141
yourself!”
himself.
As is seen from the above examples, in converting requests beginning with the emphatic
do, we use the verbs to implore, to entreat, to beseech, to urge.
§ 6. Indirect offers, suggestions, and advice.
When converting offers and suggestions into indirect speech, we use the verbs to offer and
to suggest. There is a difference between these two verbs, though both are rendered in Russian
by ‘предложить’: the person who makes an offer intends to do the action himself, and the action
is an act of kindness. A suggestion may also be an act of kindness, but not necessarily; the
person who makes a suggestion may or may not intend to do the action himself.
He said to her, “Shall I fetch you a glass of He offered to fetch her a glass of water and
water?” She said, “Do, please.” (“No, don’t she accepted the offer (declined the offer).
trouble.”)
He said to her, “Suppose we go there He suggested that they should go there
together?” She said, “Very well.” (“No, I together and she consented (refused).
would rather you went alone.”)
N o t e. — If the verb to suggest is followed by a subordinate clause. The predicate of the
subordinate clause is expressed by a verb in the analytical form of the Subjunctive Mood with
the auxiliary should.
Sentences expressing advice are converted into indirect speech by means of the verb to
advise.
He said to them, “You had better take a taxi, He advised them to take a taxi, as otherwise
you may be late.”
they might be late.
§ 7. Indirect exclamations.
When exclamations are converted into indirect speech, it is not so much the verb as the
adverbial modifier which shows the character of the exclamation — whether it expresses joy,
sorrow, surprise, etc.
She said, “How pleasant! Jane is going to She cried joyfully (with joy, delightedly) that
spend a week with us!”
Jane was going to spend a week with them.
She said, “I am so sorry! Jane is leaving us!”
She said sadly (with deep sadness,
sorrowfully) that Jane was leaving them.
She said, “I am sure we’ll never meet again.”
She said regretfully she was sure they would
never meet again.
She said to them, “I’m sure you’ll soon forget She said with bitterness that she knew (was
me.”
sure) they would soon forget her.
She said to him, “You are telling a lie!”
She cried indignantly (with indignation) that
142
he was telling a lie.
She said to him, “Do you mean to say you’ve She asked in surprise if he had really read all
already read all the books?”
the books.
She said to him, “Excuse me for disturbing She apologized (to him) for disturbing him.
you.”
She said to him, “Beg your pardon, I’ve She begged his pardon for having forgotten to
forgotten to bring you the book.”
bring the book.
She said to him, “Do forgive me for what I’ve She begged his forgiveness (implored him to
done.”
forgive her) for what she had done.
She said to them, “Thank you for your help.”
She thanked them (expressed her gratitude to
them) for their help.
§ 8. Greetings and leave-taking in indirect speech.
When converting greetings and leave-taking into indirect speech, we use such verbs as to
greet, to welcome, etc.
She said to them, “How do you do?”
She greeted them.
He said to them, “Happy to see you at my He welcomed them.
place.”
He said to them, “Good-bye!”
He bade them good-bye.
He said to them, “Good night!”
He wished them good night.
Literature.
1. В. Л. КАУШАНСКАЯ, Р. Л. КОВНЕР, О. Н. КОЖЕВНИКОВА,Е. В. ПРОКОФЬЕВА, 3.
М. РАЙНЕС, С. Е. СКВИРСКАЯ, Ф. Я. ЦЫРЛИНА ГРАММАТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО
ЯЗЫКА, ПОСОБИЕ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ ИНСТИТУТОВ,
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ
УЧЕБНО-ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОЕ
ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО
МИНИСТЕРСТВА ПРОСВЕЩЕНИЯ РСФСР ЛЕНИНГРАДСКОЕ ОТДЕЛЕНИЕ,
Ленинград 1963
INDIRECT SPEECH
Indirect speech does not reproduce the exact words of the speaker, but only reports them. The
grammatical form in which the speaker's words are reported is a subordinate object clause (for
statements and questions) or an infinitive object (for orders and requests) dependent on a verb of
saying or a verb or expression implying the idea of saying. The most frequent verbs of saying are
the verbs to say and to tell for reported statements, to ask for reported questions, to tell and to ask
for reported orders and requests. The subordinate clauses are joined to their principal ones by
means of conjunctions, conjunctive pronouns or adverbs, or asyndetically.
143
The word order in these clauses is always direct, irrespective of the communicative type of
the sentence in direct speech, that is, whether it is a declarative or an interrogative sentence
(imperative sentences are reported by means of an infinitive object).
He says he has all the proof.
He asks what you are going to do.
When direct speech is replaced by indirect speech, the forms of personal, possessive and
reflexive pronouns may be changed or not, depending on the general sense, that is, on their
actual correlation with the participants of the act of speaking and the situation described in that
particular unit of speech, in the same way as in Russian.
“I don’t know anything about
The girl says that she does not
him,” says the girl.
know anything about him
«Я ничего о нем не знаю», -
Девочка говорит, что она ничего
говорит девочка.
о нем не знает.
“I can do it myself,” say I.
I say that I can do it myself.
«Я вполне могу сделать это
Я говорю, что (я) вполне могу
сам», - говорю я.
сделать это сам.
“What are you going to do about
She asks what I am going to do about
my picture?” she asks.
her picture.
«Что вы собираетесь делать с
Она спрашивает, что я собираюсь
моей картиной?” - спрашивает она.
делать с ее картиной.
The tense form of the predicate of the object clause with reported speech is predetermined by
the general rules of sequence of tenses.
If the predicate of the object clause in which direct speech is reported is to be changed into
one of the past tenses, the change may affect the use of certain adverbs and demonstrative
pronouns. That is, depending on the actual correlation between the place and time of the act of
speaking and those of the content of the direct speech, there may arise the necessity to replace
the adverbs and demonstrative pronouns implying near reference in time or space by those
denoting distant reference. In such cases the following changes take place:
this → that
these → those
here → there
now → then, at that time
today → that day
tonight → that night
144
tomorrow → the following day, (the) next day
yesterday → the day before, the previous day
ago → before
last week (month, year) → the previous week (month, year)
“But I am really very busy today,”
Hans said that he was really very
said Hans.
busy that day.
“Well, there’s no use in standing
She said that there was no use in
here arguing about it,” she said.
standing there arguing about it.
If the sentence in direct speech is declarative, the object clause reporting it in indirect speech
is joined to the principal clause by means of the conjunction that or asyndetically. The predicate
of the principal clause is usually expressed by the verbs to say or to tell; to say is used when the
person to whom the direct speech is addressed is not mentioned in the sentence with indirect
speech, whereas to tell is used when the person is mentioned.
If the direct speech is a pronominal question, the object clause reporting it in indirect speech
is joined to the principal clause by the same pronominal word (pronoun or adverb) as used in
direct speech. In this case it is treated as a conjunctive word. The word order in the object clause
becomes direct. The predicate of the principal clause is the verb to ask or one of its synonyms to
want to know, to wonder, etc.
“Who is it?” she asked.
She asked who it was.
“Why didn’t he come?” said she.
She wanted to know why he had not come.
The person to whom the direct speech is addressed is usually mentioned either in the sentence
itself, or in a broader context, or else is understood from the situation. In indirect speech it is
expressed in the object to the verb introducing indirect speech.
“Where have you come from?” she asked the boy.
She asked the boy where he had come from.
She began to put on her gloves.
She began to put on her gloves.
“What are you going to do?” he asked.
He asked her what she was going to do.
If the direct speech is a general question, the object clause reporting it in indirect speech is
joined to the principal clause by means of the conjunctions if or whether. The word order in the
object clause is direct. The predicate of the principal clause is the verb to ask or one of its
synonyms.
“Did you tell Frank?” he asked me.
“Won’t your husband forgive you?” he said after a
while.
He asked me if (whether) I had told
Frank.
After a while he asked (her) if (whether)
her husband would not forgive her.
145
If direct speech is an imperative sentence, the following changes take place when reporting it
in indirect speech: the predicate of the sentence takes the form of the infinitive and becomes an
object to the verb introducing indirect speech; one more object, a noun or a pronoun denoting the
person to whom the order or request is addressed, is supplied. Note that this object is an
obligatory component of the sentence structure. If the person to whom the order or request is
addressed is not indicated in direct speech, it is to be supplied from the previous context or from
the speech situation.
Orders, requests, etc., in indirect speech are introduced by the verbs of inducement to tell, to
order, to ask, to beg, etc.
I said, “Say hello to the family for me, Mr. Hunt.”
“Get me out of here, baby. Get me out of here.
Please.”
I asked Mr. Hunt to say hello to the
family for me.
He begged me to get him out of there.
The tall boy did not stop. “Shut up, you fool,” cried
she.
The tall boy did not stop, and she ordered
him to shut up.
One of the boys turned away.
One of the boys turned away,
“Look me full in the face,” said the woman.
but the woman told him to look her full in
the face.
If the predicate of the imperative sentence is negative, the negation not is placed before the
infinitive in indirect speech.
“Don’t go,” said he.
He asked her not to go.
“Don't stop!” cried he and ran after them.
He ordered them not to stop and ran after them.
Literature.
1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского
языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических
институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.496с.
WORD ORDER IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. THE WORD ORDER OF
EMPHATIC CONSTRUCTIONS.
The words in an English sentence are arranged in a certain order, which is fixed for every type
of the sentence, and is therefore meaningful. We find several principles determining word order
in a sentence, so that word order fulfils several functions - grammatical, emphatic, or
communicative, and linking. These functions are manifested in different arrangements of the
parts of the sentence.
146
The grammatical function of word order
The main function of word order is t o e x p r e s s g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s
a n d d e t e r m i n e t h e g r a m m a t i c a l s t a t u s o f a w o r d by fixing its
position in the sentence. There exist two ways of arranging words - direct word order and
inverted word order.
Direct word order
The most common pattern for the arrangement of the main parts in a declarative sentence is
Subject - Predicate - (Object), which is called direct word order. Direct word order is also
employed in pronominal questions to the subject or to its attribute.
Direct word order allows of only few variations in the fixed pattern, and then only for the
secondary parts. Thus if there are two objects, the indirect one precedes the direct one, or the
prepositional follows the direct one. Thus the pattern has the following form:
Subject - Predicate -
Indirect object - Direct object
Direct object - Prepositional object
The birds have come.
Ann has seen this film.
As to other secondary parts of the sentence, such as attributes and adverbial modifiers, their
position is less fixed. Usually those words that are closely connected tend to be placed together.
Accordingly secondary parts referring to their headwords are placed close to them, or are
incorporated into, or else frame them up. Thus attributes either premodify or postmodify or
frame up their headwords: a bright morning, the problems involved, the scene familiar to us, the
happiest man alive, the best skier in the world.
Adverbials and different form words seem to be the most movable parts in the sentence. Their
mobility is partly accounted for by their varied reference to different parts of the sentence.
The place of adverbials
When referring to a verb adverbials may be placed in:
1.F r o n t p o s i t i o n .
Again he was late.
2. C o n t a c t p r e p o s i t i o n .
He often said it. He occasionally sees them.
3. I n t e r p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e e l e m e n t s o f a c o m p o s i t e
verbal part.
He has never seen her.
The latter position is occupied mainly by adverbs of indefinite time and degree: already,
always, sometimes, often, hardly, still, just.
147
In case the predicate includes more than one auxiliary or a modal verb and an auxiliary, the
adverbial is usually placed after the first one, although it may also occur after the second one.
This principle must constantly be borne in mind.
Adverbials may sometimes separate the particle to from the infinitive. This construction is
called the split infinitive.
I don’t expect you to thoroughly understand it.
4. C o n t a c t p o s t - p o s i t i o n .
They are never on time.
5. E n d p o s i t i o n .
Are you married yet?
Positions 1, 4 and 5 are usually occupied by adverbials of place, time (definite time adverbs)
and attendant circumstances.
He left the stage amid thunderous applause.
When adverbials refer to adjectives, adverbs, nouns, numerals, or pronouns they are usually
placed close to these words, generally preceding them.
He is quite a hero.
Mother was much upset about it.
For adverbials allowing of different reference (to a verb, to an adjective, etc.) any change of
position may result in a change of meaning. Compare the following sentences:
Nearly all died. (They died with few exceptions.)
All nearly died. (Everybody was on the verge of dying.)
The place of prepositions
The usual place of a preposition is between the words the relation of which it denotes.
However, in some cases it may be placed at the end of the sentence. These cases are:
1. W h e n t h e p r e p o s i t i o n a l o b j e c t ( a w o r d o r a c l a u s e ) i s i n
front position.
This I can dispense with.
2. W h e n t h e p r e p o s i t i o n a l o b j e c t i s m a d e t h e s u b j e c t o f a
passive construction.
He was much laughed at.
3. I n q u e s t i o n s a n d e x c l a m a t i o n s , w h e n t h e o b j e c t i s p l a c e d
in front position.
Who are you speaking to?
148
4. I n c o n t a c t a t t r i b u t i v e c l a u s e s i n w h i c h t h e o b j e c t t o t h e
predicate belongs to the main clause or is only implied.
It is the very thing I've always dreamed of.
It appeared better than we dared to hope for.
Inverted word order
Another common pattern of word order is the inverted one (or inversion). We distinguish
f u l l i n v e r s i o n (when the predicate precedes the subject, as in Here comes the lady of the
house) and p a r t i a l i n v e r s i o n (when only part of the predicate precedes the subject, as
in Happy may you be!). Some grammarians also distinguish d o u b l e i n v e r s i o n (when
parts of the predicate are placed separately before the subject, as in Hanging on the wall was a
picture).
In some cases inversion may be taken as a normal order of words in constructions with special
communicative value, and is thus devoid of any special colouring. In other cases inversion is a
sort of reordering for stylistic effect or for emphasis. First we enumerate those cases where
inversion is a normal word order.
1. Inversion is used to distinguish between the communicative types of sentences. With
this function it is employed in:
a) G e n e r a l q u e s t i o n s , p o l i t e r e q u e s t s a n d i n t a g
questions.
Is it really true?
Won’t you have a cup of tea?
b) P r o n o m i n a l q u e s t i o n s , e x c e p t q u e s t i o n s t o t h e s u b j e c t
and its attribute, where direct word order is used.
What are the police after?
c) T h e r e - s e n t e n c e s w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y n o n - l o c a l t h e r e ,
followed by one of the verbs denoting existence,
movement, or change of the situation .
There has been an accident.
There is nothing in it.
d) E x c l a m a t o r y s e n t e n c e s e x p r e s s i n g wish, despair, indignation, or
other strong emotions.
Long live the king!
Come what may!
e) E x c l a m a t o r y s e n t e n c e s w h i c h a r e n e g a t i v e i n f o r m b u t
positive in meaning.
Have I not watched them! (= I have watched them.)
Wouldn’t that be fun! (= It would be fun.)
149
f) N e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e s e n t e n c e s .
Don’t you do it.
2. Inversion is used as a grammatical means of subordination in some complex sentences
joined without connectors:
a) I n c o n d i t i o n a l c l a u s e s .
Were you sure of it, you wouldn’t hesitate.
b) I n c o n c e s s i v e c l a u s e s .
Proud as he was, he had to consent to our proposal.
c) I n t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f a s e n t e n c e o f p r o p o r t i o n a l
agreement
(although inversion is not obligatory in this case).
The more he thought of it, the less clear was the matter.
3. Inversion is used in sentences beginning with adverbs denoting place. This usage is
traditional, going back to OE norms.
Here is another example.
There goes another bus (туда идет еще один автобус, еще автобус идет).
4. Inversion is used in stage directions, although this use is limited to certain verbs.
Enter the King, the Queen.
5. Inversion may be used in sentences indicating whose words or thoughts are given as
direct or indirect speech. These sentences may introduce, interrupt, or follow the words in
direct or indirect speech, or may be given in parenthesis.
“That’s him,” said Tom (Tom said).
Direct word order can also be used here.
6. Inversion is used in statements showing that the remark applies equally to someone or
something else.
I am tired. - So am I.
He isn’t ready. - Neither is she.
The emphatic and communicative functions of word order
The second function of word order is t o m a k e p r o m i n e n t o r e m p h a t i c that
part of the sentence which is more important or informative in the speaker’s opinion. These two
functions (to express prominence or information focus, and emphasis) are different in their
purpose, but in many cases they go together or overlap, and are difficult to differentiate.
Prominence and emphasis are achieved by placing the word in an unusual position: words
normally placed at the beginning of the sentence (such as the subject) are placed towards the end,
whereas words usually occupying positions closer to the end of the sentence (such as objects and
predicatives) are shifted to the beginning.
150
End position is always emphatic for the subject. Very often this reordering results in the
detachment of the subject.
Must have cost a pretty penny, this dress of yours!
Fronting of an object or a predicative is also often accompanied by detachment.
Horrible these women are, ugly, dirty.
If the object is prepositional, the preposition may be put after the verb or verb-group, or else
after the whole sentence.
This nowadays one hears not of.
However, front position of an object does not always mean that this part is emphasized. In
some cases this sort of reordering is employed to get the predicate (or what is left of it)
emphasized. Talent Mr. Macowber has, capital Mr. Macowber has not.
Front position is emphatic for adverbials (of time, manner, degree) usually attached to the
predicate. It is often accompanied by inversion.
Many a time has he given me good advice.
With words functioning now as adverbs, now as postpositions, front position reveals their
adverbial nature most distinctly, as postpositions are never placed here. With this reordering the
emphasis is thrown upon the predicate.
Up they rushed.
For attributes emphasis may be achieved by putting them after their headword. In this way
the modifier becomes the focus and has the principal stress of the word-group.
The day following was to decide our fate.
However, the fixed patterns in English limit the opportunities to shift prominence or emphasis
from one part of the sentence to another, especially for main parts. Therefore prominence and
emphasis are generally achieved not by reordering, but by using special constructions. One such
construction used for emphasizing the subject is the introductory non-local there + verb + noun,
followed by an attributive clause.
There was a girl whom he loved.
Another device for shifting emphasis is the construction with the introductory it, the main
information being supplied by the subordinate clause. By means of this construction emphasis
may be thrown upon any part of the sentence, except the predicate. Such sentences are called
cleft sentences. This can be illustrated by the following:
It was she who opened the door.
Special emphasis on words functioning as direct or indirect object may be achieved by the use
of the passive construction, in which the words to be emphasized are moved either to front
position or closer to the end.
Compare the sentences:
The teacher gave the children an easy task.
151
The children were given an easy task by the teacher.
An easy task was given to the children by the teacher.
The linking function of word order
The third function of word order is to e x p r e s s c o n t i n u i t y o f t h o u g h t in
sentences (or clauses) following one another. This continuity is often supported by demonstrative
pronouns and adverbs.
They must sow their wild oats. Such was his theory.
Similarly, for purposes of enumeration, a word (or words) marking continuity is sometimes
placed at the beginning of the sentence, with the verb immediately following.
Literature.
1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского
языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических
институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.496с.
Theme 10. The words-substitutes for nouns (one/ones, the former… the latter) and verbs
(the verb do, the first helping verb). Conditional sentences.
NON-FINITE VERBS (VERBIDS)
Verbids are the forms of the verb intermediary in many of their lexico-grammatical features
between the verb and the non-processual parts of speech. The mixed features of these forms are
revealed in the principal spheres of the part-of-speech characterisation, i.e. in their meaning,
structural marking, combinability, and syntactic functions. The processual meaning is exposed
by them in a substantive or adjectival-adverbial interpretation: they render processes as peculiar
kinds of substances and properties. They are formed by special morphemic elements which do
not express either grammatical time or mood (the most specific finite verb categories). They can
be combined with verbs like non-processual lexemes (performing non-verbal functions in the
sentence), and they can be combined with non-processual lexemes like verbs (performing verbal
functions in the sentence).
From these characteristics, one might call in question the very justification of including the
verbids in the system of the verb. As a matter of fact, one can ask oneself whether it wouldn't
stand to reason to consider the verbids as a special lexemic class, a separate part of speech,
rather than an inherent component of the class of verbs.
On closer consideration, however, we can't but see that such an approach would be utterly
ungrounded. The verbids do betray intermediary features. Still, their fundamental grammatical
meaning is processual (though modified in accord with the nature of the inter-class reference of
each verbid). Their essential syntactic functions, directed by this relational semantics,
unquestionably reveal the property which may be called, in a manner of explanation, "verbality",
and the statement of which is corroborated by the peculiar combinability character of verbid
collocations, namely, by the ability of verbids to take adjuncts expressing the immediate
recipients, attendants, and addressees of the process inherently conveyed by each verbid
denotation.
152
One might likewise ask oneself, granted the verbids are part of the system of the verb,
whether they do not constitute within this system a special subsystem of purely lexemic nature,
i.e. form some sort of a specific verbal subclass. This counter-approach, though, would evidently
be devoid of any substantiality, since a subclass of a lexemic class, by definition, should share
the essential categorial structure, as well as primary syntactic functions with other subclasses,
and in case of verbids the situation is altogether different. In fact, it is every verb stem (except a
few defective verbs) that by means of morphemic change takes both finite and non-finite forms,
the functions of the two sets being strictly differentiated: while the finite forms serve in the
sentence only one syntactic function, namely, that of the finite predicate, the non-finite forms
serve various syntactic functions other than that of the finite predicate.
The strict, unintersecting division of functions (the functions themselves being of a
fundamental nature in terms of the grammatical structure of language as a whole) clearly shows
that the opposition between the finite and non-finite forms of the verb creates a special
grammatical category. The differential feature of the opposition is constituted by the expression
of verbal time and mood: while the time-mood grammatical signification characterises the finite
verb in a way that it underlies its finite predicative function, the verbid has no immediate means
of expressing time-mood categorial semantics and therefore presents the weak member of the
opposition. The category expressed by this opposition can be called the category of "finitude"
[Strang, 143; Бархударов, (2), 106]. The syntactic content of the category of finitude is the
expression of predication (more precisely, the expression' of verbal predication).
As is known, the verbids, unable to express the predicative meanings of time and mood, still
do express the so-called "secondary" or "potential" predication, forming syntactic complexes
directly related to certain types of subordinate clauses. Cf.: Have you ever had anything caught
in your head? Have you ever had anything that was caught in your head? — He said it half
under his breath for the others not to hear it. — He said it half under his breath, so that the
others couldn't hear it.
The verbid complexes anything caught in your head, or for the others not to hear it, or the
like, while expressing secondary predication, are not self-dependent in a predicative sense.
They normally exist only as part of sentences built up by genuine, primary predicative
constructions that have a finite verb as their core. And it is through the reference to the finite
verb-predicate that these complexes set up the situations denoted by them in the corresponding
time and mood perspective.
In other words, we may say that the opposition of the finite verbs and the verbids is based
on the expression of the functions of full predication and semi-predication. While the finite
verbs express predication in its genuine and complete form, the function of the verbids is to
express semi-predication, building up semi-predicative complexes within different sentence
constructions. The English verbids include four forms distinctly differing from one another
within the general verbid system: the infinitive, the gerund, the present participle, and the past
participle. In compliance with this difference, the verbid semi-predicative complexes are
distinguished by the corresponding differential properties both in form and in syntacticcontextual function.
The Gerund
153
The gerund is the non-finite form of the verb which, like the infinitive, combines the
properties of the verb with those of the noun. Similar to the infinitive, the gerund serves as the
verbal name of a process, but its substantive quality is more strongly pronounced than that of the
infinitive. Namely, as different from the infinitive, and similar to the noun, the gerund can be
modified by a noun in the possessive case or its pronominal equivalents (expressing the subject
of the verbal process), and it can be used with prepositions.
Since the gerund, like the infinitive, is an abstract name of the process denoted by the verbal
lexeme, a question might arise, why the infinitive, and not the gerund is taken as the head-form
of the verbal lexeme as a whole, its accepted representative in the lexicon.
As a matter of fact, the gerund cannot perform the function of the paradigmatic verbal headform for a number of reasons. In the first place, it is more detached from the finite verb than the
infinitive semantically, tending to be a far more substantival unit categorially. Then, as different
from the infinitive, it does not join in the conjugation of the finite verb. Unlike the infinitive, it is
a suffixal form, which makes it less generalised than the infinitive in terms of the formal
properties of the verbal lexeme (although it is more abstract in the purely semantic sense).
Finally, it is less definite than the infinitive from the lexico-grammatical point of view, being
subject to easy neutralisations in its opposition with the verbal noun in -ing, as well as with the
present participle. Hence, the gerund is no rival of the infinitive in the paradigmatic head-form
function.
The general combinability of the gerund, like that of the infinitive, is dual, sharing some
features with the verb, and some features with the noun. The verb-type combinability of the
gerund is displayed in its combining, first, with nouns expressing the object of the action;
second, with modifying adverbs; third, with certain semi-functional predicator verbs, but other
than modal. Of the noun-type is the combinability of the gerund, first, with finite notional verbs
as the object of the action; second, with finite notional verbs as the prepositional adjunct of
various functions; third, with finite notional verbs as the subject of the action; fourth, with nouns
as the prepositional adjunct of various functions.
The gerund, in the corresponding positional patterns, performs the functions of all the types
of notional sentence-parts, i.e. the subject, the object, the predicative, the attribute, the adverbial
modifier. Cf.: Repeating your accusations over and over again doesn't make them more
convincing. (Gerund subject position) No wonder he delayed breaking the news to Uncle Jim.
(Gerund direct object position) She could not give her mind to pressing wild flowers in Pauline's
botany book. (Gerund addressee object position) Joe felt annoyed at being shied by his
roommates. (Gerund prepositional object position) You know what luck is? Luck is believing
you're lucky. (Gerund predicative position) Fancy the pleasant prospect of listening to all the
gossip they've in store for you! (Gerund attributive position) He could not push against the
furniture without bringing the whole lot down. (Gerund adverbial of manner position)
One of the specific gerund patterns is its combination with the noun in the possessive case or
its possessive pronominal equivalent expressing the subject of the action. This gerundial
construction is used in cases when the subject of the gerundial process differs from the subject of
the governing sentence-situation, i.e. when the gerundial sentence-part has its own, separate
subject. E.g.: Powell's being rude like that was disgusting. How can she know about the
154
Morions' being connected with this unaccountable affair? Will he ever excuse our having
interfered?
The possessive with the gerund displays one of the distinctive categorial properties of the
gerund as such, establishing it in the English lexemic system as the form of the verb with
nounal characteristics. As a matter of fact, from the point of view of the inner semantic
relations, this combination is of a verbal type, while from the point of view of the formal
categorial features, this combination is of a nounal type. It can be clearly demonstrated by the
appropriate transformations, i.e. verb-related and noun-related re-constructions. Cf.: I can't
stand his criticising artistic works that are beyond his competence. (T-verbal →He is criticising
artistic works. T-nounal→ His criticism of artistic works.)
Besides combining with the possessive noun-subject, the verbal ing-form con also combine
with the noun-subject in the common case or its objective pronominal equivalent. E.g.: I read in
yesterday's paper about the hostages having been released.
This gerundial use as presenting very peculiar features of categorial mediality will be
discussed after the treatment of the participle.
The formal sign of the gerund is wholly homonymous with that of the present participle: it
is the suffix -ing added to its grammatically (categorially) leading element.
Like the infinitive, the gerund is a categorially changeable (variable, demutative) form; it
distinguishes the two grammatical categories, sharing them with the finite verb and the present
participle, namely, the aspective category of retrospective coordination (perfect in opposition),
and the category of voice (passive in opposition). Consequently, the categorial paradigm of the
gerund of the objective verb includes four forms: the simple active, the perfect active; the
simple passive, the perfect passive. E.g.: taking — having taken — being taken — having been
taken.
The gerundial paradigm of the non-objective verb, correspondingly, includes two forms. E.g.:
going — having gone. The perfect forms of the gerund are used, as a rule, only in semantically
strong positions, laying special emphasis on the meaningful categorial content of the form.
Litertaure.
1. Блох М. Я. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка: Учебник. Для студентов филол. фак.
ун-тов и фак. англ. яз. педвузов. — М.: Высш. школа, 1983.— с. 383.
THE PASSIVE VOICE
§ 1. The formation of the Passive Voice.
The Passive Voice is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required form and
Participle II of the notional verb.
(a) The Present, Past and Future Indefinite Passive are formed by means of the Present,
Past and Future Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle II of the notional verb.
155
Present Indefinite
Past Indefinite
Future Indefinite
Passive
Passive
Passive
I am invited
I was invited
I shall be invited
He is invited
He was invited
He will be invited
She is invited
She was invited
She will be invited
We are invited
We were invited
We shall be invited
You are invited
You were invited
You will be invited
They are invited
They were invited
They will be invited
(b) The Present, Past and Future Perfect Passive are formed by means of the Present, Past
and Future Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle II of the notional verb.
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Future Perfect
Passive
Passive
Passive
I have been invited
I had been invited
I shall have been invited
He has been invited
He had been invited
He will have been invited
She has been invited
She had been invited
She will have been invited
We have been invited
We had been invited
We shall have been invited
You have been invited
You had been invited
You will have been invited
They have been invited
They had been invited
They will have been invited
(c) The Present Continuous and the Past Continuous Passive are formed by means of the
Present Continuous and the Past Continuous of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle II of the
notional verb.
Present Continuous Passive
Past Continuous Passive
I am being invited
I was being invited
He is being invited
He was being invited
She is being invited
She was being invited
We are being invited
We were being invited
You are being invited
You were being invited
156
They are being invited
They were being invited
The Future Continuous, the Present Perfect Continuous, the Past Perfect Continuous and
the Future Perfect Continuous are not found in the Passive Voice.
§ 2. The use of the Passive Voice.
The Passive Voice can be used:
(a) without the doer of the action being mentioned (the usual case). In this case the doer is
either unknown or unimportant.
In silence the soup was finished — excellent, if a little thick; and fish was brought. In
silence it was handed. (Galsworthy)
Tom Tusher was sent off early, however, to a school in London. (Thackeray)
(b) with the doer of the action being mentioned. This occurs only when the doer of the
action is to some extent emphasized.
The noun or pronoun denoting the doer of the action is introduced by the preposition by.
He was wrenched from his blank wretchedness by the sound of the door opening from his
mother’s room. (Galsworthy)
They were thus introduced by Holly. (Galsworthy)
This room was dimly lighted from the ceiling by a single electric lamp. (Bennett)
§ 3. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice.
The uses of tenses in the Active and in the Passive Voice are the same.
INDEFINITE:
PERFECT:
CONTINUOUS:
Present
New schools are built every year.
Past
This school was built a month ago.
Future
A new school will be built in our village in spring.
Present
The school has been built this month.
Past
The school had been built by the 1st of September.
Future
I am sure the school will have been built by the 1st of
September.
Present
A new school is being built in our street.
Past
When I returned to town, the school was still being built.
157
All Forsytes have shells... in other words, they are never seen, or if seen would not be
recognized. (Galsworthy)
The news was brought that the little boy at the “Three Castles” was ill. (Thackeray)
Further meetings will be held tonight and tomorrow night. (Daily Worker)
You have been told three times this week that she is coming home for a year for her
health. (Shaw)
I have been very unhappy since she died. I have been slighted and taught nothing, and
thrown upon myself, and put to work not fit for me. (Dickens)
By 12 o’clock a jury reasonably satisfactory to both sides had been chosen. (Dreiser)
Don’t you disturb him. He is working at his wonderful poem. An immortal work of art is
being created. (Marryat)
When Mills got to the stables, a horse was being saddled. (Eliot)
To express an action going on at a definite moment in the future only the Future
Continuous Active is possible. Thus the Russian sentence ‘Когда вы придете в лабораторию,
опыт уже будет производиться’ must be translated in the following way:
When you come to the laboratory, we shall already be making the experiment.
To denote an action which began before a definite moment in the present, past or future,
and continued up to that moment, the Present, Past and Future Perfect Continuous Active are
generally used.
Уже два часа как правят корректуру.
They have been reading the proofs for two hours.
Когда пришел главный редактор, корректуру правили уже два часа.
When the editor-in-chief came, they had been reading the proofs for two hours.
The Present Perfect Inclusive Passive and the Past Perfect Inclusive Passive are found with
verbs not used in the Continuous form, in negative sentences and with some non-terminative
verbs (see Chapter VII, Tenses, § 18, 21).
She has always been admired.
The dictionary has not been used for months.
§ 4. Ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian.
There are three ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian:
158
(a) by the verb быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога. In the Present
the verb быть is not used.
(b) by verbs in -ся.
(c) by means of indefinite-personal constructions (неопределенно-личные предложения).
The last way of translating is possible only if the doer of the action is not mentioned.
Houses are built of stone.
Дома строятся из камня.
Дома строят из камня.
The house was built in 1932.
Дом (был) построен в 1932 году.
Дом построили в 1932 году.
The experiment was made by a famous scientist.
Опыт был произведен знаменитым ученым.
Опыт производился знаменитым ученым.
§ 5. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.
There are cases when the use of the Passive Voice seems to Russian students very peculiar
because we find no analogous constructions in Russian. These cases are as follows:
1. The verbs to accord, to advise, to allow, to ask, to award, to deny, to envy, to forbid
(rare), to forgive, to give, to grant, to offer, to order, to pay, to prescribe, to promise, to refuse, to
show, to teach, to tell are used in the Passive Voice. These verbs always take an object expressed
by a noun or an infinitive. The action expressed by the Passive Predicate passes on to the subject
and the object. The subject corresponds to the Russian indirect object.
He was granted a ten days’ leave.
Has he been, shown the documents?
The patient was prescribed a strict diet.
He was ordered a change of scene.
We were told to wait.
N o t e. — These verbs admit of another type of passive construction if the object is expressed by
a noun. Thus we can say not only I was given a book, He was shown a book, but also A book was
given to me, A book was shown to him. The choice of the construction depends on the logical
stress: in I was given a book, He was shown a book the thing given is emphasized, which occurs
oftener; in The book was given to me, The book was shown to him the person is emphasized.
159
2. The Passive Voice is possible with intransitive verbs used with prepositions: to account
for, to agree upon, to allude to, to arrive at (a conclusion, agreement, decision), to call for, to
call upon, to comment upon, to count upon, to depend on (upon), to dispose of, to fire at, to hear
of, to insist on (upon), to interfere with, to laugh at, to listen to, to look after, to look at, to look
down upon (смотреть на кого-либо сверху вниз), to look up to (смотреть на кого-либо снизу
вверх), to provide for, to put up at (остановиться), to put up with (примириться), to read to, to
refer to, to rely on, to run over, to send for, to speak about (of), to stare at, to talk about (to,
over).
At last an agreement was arrived at.
Her strange behaviour was largely commented upon.
He can be depended upon to keep strict silence.
This is certainly a great inconvenience, but it must be put up with.
The article is often referred to.
Steerforth was looked up to by all the boys.
The composite verb to do away with the preposition with can be used in the Passive Voice.
In our country illiteracy was done away with many years ago.
N o t e. — To send for can be used only in connection with people.
The doctor was sent for.
The secretary will be sent for.
‘Послать за лекарством (книгой)’ should be translated in the following way: to send
somebody to fetch the medicine (the book). But we can say: A car (a cab, a taxi) was sent for.
3. The following verbal phraseological units can be used in the Passive Voice: to find fault
with (придираться, находить недостатки), to lose sight of (терять из виду), to make fun of, to
make use of (использовать), to pay attention to, to put an end to (положить конец), to set fire
to, to take notice of, to take care of.
The poor child was always being found fault with.
Soon the boat was lost sight of.
He was exceedingly absent-minded and was always made fun of.
His remarks were taken no notice of.
The discussion was put an end to by his sudden arrival.
160
4. Quite peculiar is the case when the subject of the passive predicate corresponds to the
Russian adverbial modifier. This is the case with the intransitive verbs to live and to sleep with
the preposition in.
The bed was not slept in.
The room is not lived in.
5. There are a number of transitive verbs in English which correspond to intransitive verbs
in Russian. They are: to affect, to answer, to assist, to attend, to follow, to help, to influence, to
join, to watch. These verbs naturally admit of the passive construction while their Russian
equivalents cannot be used in the Passive Voice.
She was greatly affected by the scene.
The report was followed by a discussion.
Walter Scott’s poetry was strongly influenced by the popular ballads.
Such sentences are rendered in Russian by indefinite-personal sentences (неопределенноличные предложения) unless the doer of the action is mentioned. In the latter case either the
Active Voice is used, which occurs rather seldom, or the Passive Voice (consisting of the verb
быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога).
Не was granted ten days’ leave.
Ему дали десятидневный отпуск.
At last an agreement was arrived at.
Наконец пришли к соглашению.
The bed was not slept in.
В постели не спали.
The poor child was always being found fault with.
К бедному ребенку всегда придирались.
Steerforth was looked up to by all the boys.
Все мальчики смотрели на Стирфорта снизу вверх.
§ 6. The verb to be + Participle II.
The combination to be + Participle II can denote an action, in which case it is a simple
predicate expressed by a verb in the Passive Voice. It can also denote a state, then it is a
compound nominal predicate consisting of a link’ verb and a predicative.
As the director was ill, the documents were signed by his assistant. (Were signed denotes
an action.)
161
When I came, the papers were signed and lay on the secretary’s table. (Were signed
denotes a state.)
The compound nominal predicate expressed by the verb to be and Participle II can be
translated only by the verb быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога. In the
Present the verb быть is not used.
The statue is broken.
Статуя разбита.
When I came, the papers were signed and lay on the secretary’s table.
Когда я пришел, документы были подписаны и лежали на столе у секретаря.
The use of tenses is closely connected with these meanings of the combination to be +
Participle II.
When I came up to the gate, it was already locked.
Когда я подошел к воротам, они уже были заперты.
(The predicate indicates the state of the gate at a given moment.)
When I came up to the gate, it had already been locked.
Когда я подошел к воротам, их уже заперли.
(The predicate indicates an action completed before a definite moment in the past.)
Don’t try to open the gate. It is locked. (state)
He пытайтесь открыть ворота. Они заперты.
It has just been locked. (action)
Их только что заперли.
It is sometimes difficult to discriminate between the verb to be + Participle II as a simple
predicate and as a compound nominal predicate.
1. We have the Passive Voice (simple predicate) in the following cases:
(a) when the doer of the action is indicated (as a rule).
They were thus introduced by Holly. (Galsworthy)
(b) when there is an adverbial modifier of place, frequency and, as a rule, of time.
Pravda is published in Moscow.
Good books are quickly sold.
The documents were signed a few minutes ago.
162
(c) when the verb is used in the Continuous or in the Perfect form.
Some efforts were even then being made to cut this portion of the wreck away. (Dickens)
Ever since that, the cannon business has always been left to an adopted foundling named
Andrew Undershaft. (Shaw)
2. We have a compound nominal predicate in the following cases:
(a) usually when the verb to be is in the Present or Past Perfect Inclusive and the notional
verb admits of the Continuous form.
Why don’t you go and take the documents? They are ready. They have been typed these
two hours.
Документы готовы. Уже два часа как они напечатаны.
Our things had been packed for two hours and we were impatiently pacing up and down
the room when at last we heard the sound of wheels.
Вещи уже два часа как были упакованы, и мы в нетерпении ходили взад и вперед
по комнате, когда наконец услышали стук колес.
(b) when Participle II denotes a state of mind. In this case the predicate is compound even
if there is an object introduced by the preposition by. This object does not denote the doer of an
action but the cause of the state.
He was frightened by the remark.
He was oppressed by a sense of loneliness.
When these criteria cannot be applied the context itself helps to decide whether the
predicate is a simple or a compound nominal one.
Litertaure.
1. В. Л. КАУШАНСКАЯ, Р. Л. КОВНЕР, О. Н. КОЖЕВНИКОВА,Е. В. ПРОКОФЬЕВА, 3.
М. РАЙНЕС, С. Е. СКВИРСКАЯ, Ф. Я. ЦЫРЛИНА ГРАММАТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО
ЯЗЫКА, ПОСОБИЕ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ ИНСТИТУТОВ,
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ
УЧЕБНО-ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОЕ
ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО
МИНИСТЕРСТВА ПРОСВЕЩЕНИЯ РСФСР ЛЕНИНГРАДСКОЕ ОТДЕЛЕНИЕ,
Ленинград 1963.
THE PASSIVE VOICE
Formation and the system of forms in the passive voice
§ 65. The active voice has no special means of formation. It is recognized by contrast with the
passive voice, which is composed of the auxiliary verb to be and participle II. Thus the passive
verb forms are analytical, the tense of the auxiliary verb to be varies according to the sense. The
163
notional verb (participle II) remains unchanged and provides the whole analytical form with its
passive meaning.
The category of voice applies to the whole system of English verb forms, both finite and nonfinite.
Table II
The voice forms of the verb
Perfect
Tense
Aspect
Common
Non-perfect Continuous
Perfect
Present
takes
The active voice
Past
Future
took
will take
is taking
was taking
Common
has taken
had taken
Continuous
has been
taking
had been
taking
Present
is taken
The Passive Voice
Past
Future
was taken
will be taken
will be taking is being
taken
will have
has been
taken
taken
will have
been taking
-------------
was being
taken
had been
taken
-----------
----------will have
been taken
-----------
The use of tense, aspect and perfect forms in the passive voice
§ 67. As seen from table II, verbs in the passive voice may acquire almost all the aspect, tense
and perfect forms that occur in the active voice, except for the future continuous and perfect
continuous forms.
The examples below illustrate the use of the passive voice in different aspect, tense and
perfect forms.
Common aspect, non-perfect
Students are examined twice a year.
They were examined in June.
They will be examined next Friday.
Continuous aspect, non-perfect
Don’t be noisy! Students are being examined.
The students were being examined when the Professor came.
Common aspect, perfect
Our students have already been examined.
They had been examined by 2 o’clock.
Everybody will have been examined by 3 o’clock.
The passive voice of different verbs
§ 68. The passive voice in English may be found with different types of verbs (mostly
transitive) in various verb phrases; monotransitive (non-prepositional and prepositional) and
ditransitive. The subject of the passive construction may correspond to a direct, an indirect
object, or to a prepositional object in the active construction. Accordingly we discriminate a
164
direct passive construction, an indirect passive construction, and a prepositional passive
construction.
Monotransitive verbs are numerous and almost all of them can form a direct passive
construction. These are the verbs: to take, to do, to make, to build, to discuss, to translate, to
hate, to love, to meet and a lot of others.
A new railway is being built near our town.
“A Farewell to Arms” was published in 1929.
You will be met at the station.
Phrasal transitive verbs, that is, such verbs as to blow up, to bring in, to bring up, to carry out,
to put on, to see off, to turn down, etc. are also often used in the passive voice.
The plan was successfully carried out.
The boats are being brought in.
Originally intransitive verbs may form a direct passive construction, as in these examples:
This distance has never been run in five minutes before.
He thought of the lives, that had been lived here for nearly two centuries.
In the vast majority of cases, English transitive verb + object corresponds to the same type in
Russian. There are a number of transitive verbs in English, however, which correspond to
Russian verbs followed by an indirect or a prepositional object, or sometimes an adverbial
modifier. These verbs are:
To answer
to follow
To approach
to help
To assist
to influence
To address
to join
To admire
to need
To affect
to obey
To attend
to speak
To believe
to succeed
To contradict
to threaten
To enjoy
to trust
To enter
to watch
Sentences with these verbs are rendered in Russian by means of the indefinite personal
constructions with the verb in the active voice, or if the doer of the action is mentioned of a
personal construction with the verb in the active voice.
We are not trusted, David, but who cares if we are not
innocent.
Нам не доверяют...
165
The British bicycle was much admired.
Этим английским велосипедом восхищались.
In the spring of 1925 Hemingway was approached by
two Americans.
Весной 1925 года к Хемингуэю подошли два
американца.
A direct passive construction is used in the sentences of the type:
1. J. F. Kennedy was elected president in 1960.
The woman was called Brome.
We were kept busy most of the time.
The walls were painted blue.
2. He is said (believed, known, reported) to be in town.
He was seen to enter the museum.
He was seen leaving the museum.
3. The direct passive of verbs of speech, mental activity, and perception is used in complex
sentences with the formal subject it.
It was suggested
that he was still in town.
It was reported
It was said
It was believed
that we should meet once more.
It was known
It was settled
Restrictions to the use of the passive voice
1. Though in many cases there is an evident correspondence of the active and the passive
voice construction it is by no means a one-to-one correspondence. There is a certain group of
monotransitive verbs which are never used in the passive voice at all, or in some of their
meanings; they are: to have, to lack, to become, to fit, to suit, to resemble.
There are semantic reasons for this constraint, as these verbs denote not an action or process,
but a state or relation.
John resembles his father. (John looks like his father.)
He lacks confidence. (There is no confidence in him.)
Will this suit you? (Will it be suitable for you?)
The verb to hold can be used in the passive voice only with reference to human activity; for
example: The conference was held in April. However, in a sentence like The auditorium holds
166
5000 people the verb does not denote human activity. The sentence means There can be 5000
people in this auditorium.
2. No passive construction is possible, if the object is a that-clause, an infinitive or a gerund.
John said that everything was all right.
John enjoyed seeing his native town.
Passive constructions with ditransitive verbs
§ 69. Ditransitive verbs take two objects, usually one indirect and one direct. Accordingly
they admit of two passive constructions.
The referee gave Mary the first prize .
Mary was given the first prize by the referee.
The first prize was given to Mary by the referee.
The subject of the first passive construction (Mary) corresponds to the indirect object of the
active construction, and the construction is therefore called the indirect passive construction. The
direct object (the first prize) is retained unchanged after the passive verb and therefore, is called
the retained object.
The subject of the second passive construction corresponds to the direct object of the active
construction. In this case the indirect object becomes a prepositional one. The preposition to may
be omitted.
The agentive by-object corresponding to the subject of the active construction is very rarely
used in either type of construction. Of the two passive constructions the indirect passive is by far
the most common. As there is no indirect passive construction in Russian, sentences with this
construction are translated into Russian by means of the indefinite personal construction with the
indirect object in the front position.
You will be given another ticket.
Вам дадут другой билет.
I was allowed an hour’s rest.
Мне разрешили отдохнуть один час.
The indirect passive construction gives greater prominence to the direct object, whereas the
direct passive construction emphasizes the indirect object: The first prize was given to Mary
implies that it was not given to anybody else. The construction may be translated in two ways, by
an indefinite personal active construction or by a passive construction: Первую премию дали
Мэри or Первая премия была дана (присуждена) Мэри.
The presence of the by-object makes it of great communicative value.
I was given this watch by my father.
Часы эти мне подарил мои отец.
The watch was given (to) me by mу father.
Ditransitive verbs used in the passive construction
167
I
II
to allow
to ask
to give
to answer
to grant
to envy
to lend
to forgive
to offer
to refuse
to pay
to promise
to teach
to tell
Verbs in group I follow the usage explained in the previous part of this section. The same
refers to group II with the difference that all the verbs of this group are followed by two direct
objects, though in the passive the difference is not so distinct.
I was asked a lot of questions.
Restrictions on the use of the passive of ditransitive verbs
1. The indirect passive is impossible with verbs of benefaction, when the action is performed
for the benefit of somebody.
They bought a dictionary for me.
They bought me a dictionary.
A dictionary was bought for me.
The corresponding direct passive is:
2. The same applies to the verbs with the obligatory to of the type to explain something to
somebody (to describe, to dictate, to suggest, etc.). With these only the direct passive is possible:
The rule was explained to them once more.
3. In verb-phrases containing a non-prepositional and a prepositional object only the nonprepositional passive is possible.
I was told about their victory.
Oliver was accused of theft.
4. The infinitive cannot be used as the subject of the passive construction with a ditransitive
verb.
§ 70. Passive constructions with prepositional monotransitive verbs
Active:
The man referred to this book.
Passive:
This book was referred to by the man.
168
In the passive construction the subject of the prepositional passive construction corresponds to
the object of the active construction and denotes the receiver of the action. The peculiarity of the
construction is that the preposition sticks to the verb.
Most verbs of this type denote the process of speaking, mental and physical perception.
The prepositional passive construction has no equivalent in Russian and is translated by an
indefinite personal active construction.
Caroline was also still being talked about.
О Кэролайн тоже все еще продолжали говорить.
Не had never been spoken to that way in his life.
С ним так никогда в жизни не разговаривали.
He’s well spoken of as a man of science.
О нем хорошо отзываются как об ученом.
When the prepositional passive construction contains a modal verb, an impersonal active
construction is used in Russian.
These pictures must be looked at again and again with
sustained attention before they completely reveal their
beauty.
На эти картины надо смотреть снова и снова с
неослабевающим вниманием, прежде чем
полностью раскроется их красота.
Here are some of the most important prepositional monotransitive verbs:
I
II
III
to account for
to catch sight of
to arrive at
to agree upon
to lose sight of
to come to
to appeal to
to find fault with
to live in
to call on
to make fun of
to sleep in
to comment on (upon)
to make a fuss of
to sit in (on)
to deal with
to make use of
to decide on
to pay attention to
to depend (up)on
to put an end (a stop) to
to dispose of
to put up with
to dwell upon
to set fire to
to hear of
to take notice of
to insist on
to take advantage of
to interfere with
to take care of
to laugh at
to listen to
169
to look at
to look for
to look into
to object to
to pay for
to provide for
to put up with
to read to
to refer to
to rely on
to send for
to speak about (of)
to speak to
to talk about (of)
to think about (of)
to touch upon
to wait for
to wonder at
Group I in the list contains the majority (but not all) of prepositional transitive verbs. The list
could be continued, for a number of verbs of the kind are used occasionally, but the pattern itself
is very productive.
Some prepositional monotransitive verbs have non-prepositional equivalents, e.g. to account
for is a synonym for to explain, to look on - to regard, to speak (talk) about - to discuss.
Your absence must be accounted for. = Your absence must be explained.
Group II contains phraseological units based on the fusion of a monotransitive verb and a
noun as direct object. These units express one notion and function as prepositional verbs. Many
of them have synonyms among monotransitive verbs, prepositional and non-prepositional:
to take care of
- to look after, to tend;
to find fault with
- to grumble at, about, to criticize;
to put an end to
- to stop;
to put up with
- to reconcile oneself to;
to make fun of
- to laugh at, to mock.
170
Like single prepositional verbs the phraseological units with the verb in the passive voice are
usually rendered in Russian by means of indefinite personal or impersonal constructions.
In hospital patients are taken great care of.
В госпитале за больными хорошо ухаживают.
The boy was the only child and was made a
lot of fuss of.
I’m not prepared to think that I’m being made
Мальчик был единственным ребенком в
семье, и с ним много возились.
Мне не хочется думать, что меня дурачат.
a fool of.
Sometimes a phraseological unit is split and the original direct object becomes the subject of
the passive construction (the direct passive).
No notice was taken of the boy at first. - Сначала мальчика не замечали.
Group III contains a short list of intransitive verbs used with prepositional nominal groups
functioning as prepositional objects or adverbial modifiers. These may form passive
constructions by analogy with other verbs used with prepositions:
No conclusion was arrived at.
He пришли ни к какому заключению.
His bed hasn’t been slept in.
В его постели не спали. (Она не смята)
Such a dress can’t be sat down in.
В таком платье нельзя садиться.
The use of the passive voice
§ 71. The passive voice is widely used in English. It is used alongside the active voice in
written and spoken English. Passive constructions are often used instead of active constructions
in sentences beginning with an indefinite pronoun, a noun or a pronoun of indefinite reference.
Somebody left the dog in the garden.
= The dog was left in the garden.
Has anybody answered your questions?
= Have your questions been answered?
People will laugh at you for your trouble.
= You will be laughed at for your trouble.
They told me to go away.
= I was told to go away.
It is evident that in the process of speech passive constructions arise naturally, not as a result
of conversion from the active into the passive.
A passive construction is preferable in case when the speaker is interested in what happens to
the person or thing denoted by the subject. The verb or the whole verb phrase is thus made more
prominent. The agent or the source of the action is not mentioned at all, either because it is
unknown or because it is of no particular importance in the utterance, or else it is evident from
the context or the situation. The predicate verb with its modifiers contains a new and most
important item of information and is of great communicative value.
171
We were brought up together.
I am always being contradicted.
Thank you for your help, but it is no longer required.
You will be met as you leave the airport, and you will be given another ticket.
There are a number of conventional expressions where the passive voice is constantly used.
The novel was published in 1929.
Shakespeare was born in 1564.
The use of the agentive by-object
§ 72. The use of the agentive by-object is highly restricted, it occurs in one case out of five,
and even less frequently in colloquial speech and imaginative prose. However, when it does
occur, the by-object is of great communicative value, and its elimination would often make the
meaning of the verb incomplete and the sentence devoid of meaning.
The agent may be a living being, or any thing or notion that can be the source of the action.
The whole scene was being enacted by puppets.
In some areas the picture has been barely touched by the brush.
I was wounded by a landmine.
The distant mountain had been formed by fire and water.
How much was she influenced by that fake idea?
Besides a noun and very rarely a pronoun, a by-object may be a gerundial phrase or complex,
or a subordinate clause.
I was then awakened only by knocking on the window and Annie telling the person
responsible to go off.
She didn’t really know anything about people, she was always being taken in by what they
told her.
Owing to its communicative value and the final position in the sentence, the by-object may be
expanded, if necessary, to an extent that is hardly possible in the subject group, as in this
commentary on Cezanne's painting:
“The Card Players.” The subject of this painting of two peasants playing cards was probably
inspired by a similar composition by one of the brothers de Pack, French painters of the
seventeenth century whose work Cezanne admired.
172
Literature.
1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского
языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических
институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.496с.
THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES
§ 1. The sequence of tenses is a certain dependence of the tense of the verb in a
subordinate clause on that of the verb in the principal clause: if the verb in the principal clause is
in one of the past tenses, a past tense (or future in the past) must be used in the subordinate
clause. The rule is generally observed in object clauses (a more detailed treatment of the question
will be found in § 7, 9, 10).
I thought you had better sense. (Dreiser)
I always thought it would come to this.
N o t e. — It is implied in the rule of the sequence of tenses that if a present or future tense is
used in the principal clause, any tense required by the sense can be used in the subordinate
clause: I’ve seen which way the wind is blowing. (Dreiser)
§ 2. If the past action expressed in the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that
expressed in the principal clause, the Past Indefinite or the Past Continuous is used in the
subordinate clause:
I thought you had more courage than this. (Dreiser)
Я думал, что у вас больше мужества.
Не looked at Cowperwood and saw at once... that the latter was preparing a big fight of
some sort. (Dreiser)
Он посмотрел на Каупервуда и сразу понял, что тот замышляет какой-то бой.
If the past action expressed in the subordinate clause is prior to that expressed in the
principal clause, the Past Perfect is used in the subordinate clause:
He knew that she (Hetty) had not had time to read the letter. (Eliot)
Он знал, что она еще не успела прочесть письмо.
If the action expressed in the subordinate clause lasted a certain time before the action
expressed in the principal clause, the Past Perfect Continuous or the Past Perfect Inclusive is
used in the subordinate clause.
He realized that the old life he had lived in that city since boyhood was ended. (Dreiser)
Он понял, что та жизнь, которой он жил в этом городе с детства, окончилась.
173
If the action expressed in the subordinate clause is posterior to that of the principal clause
the Future in the Past is used.
He knew they would read the book the following year. (FUTURE INDEFINITE IN THE
PAST)
He knew they would be reading when she came. (FUTURE CONTINUOUS IN THE
PAST)
He knew they would have read the book by the 1st of June. (FUTURE PERFECT IN
THE PAST)
Occasionally we find examples of should being used with the 3rd person and would with
the 1st. This generally occurs when the speaker wants to preserve the same verb that was used by
the original speaker.
See! Here’s his writing; I made him put it down this morning when he told me he
shouldn’t be back before I came here. (Dickens)
He asked me if there wasn’t any hope that I would change. (Webster)
§ 3. If there are several subordinate clauses in a sentence, the rule of the sequence of tenses
is observed in all of them.
As the weeks went by... he began to believe that she had been able to think of her girlish
fancy that Arthur was in love with her and would marry her as a folly of which she was timely
cured. (Eliot)
§ 4. The rule of the sequence of tenses also holds good when a past tense is used in a
subordinate clause to which other clauses are subordinated.
She says he knew they would never return. (Bennett)
He said he was sure you were in.
§ 5. It should be noted that the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed after verbals if
they depend on a finite verb in the past tense:
Cowperwood stood by his desk... wondering where he should get one hundred thousand
dollars. (Dreiser)
§ 6. In Russian, the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause does not depend on the tense
of the verb in the principal clause.
174
TENSES USED IN ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AFTER A
PAST TENSE IN THE PRINCIPAL CLAUSE
ENGLISH
RUSSIAN
Past Indefinite
Present
I knew she played the piano every day.
Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле
каждый день.
Past Continuous
Present
I knew she was playing the piano and did not Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле, и
want to disturb her.
не хотел ее беспокоить.
Past Perfect
Past
I knew she had played the piano at the Я знал, что она играла на рояле на вечере.
evening party.
Past Perfect Continuous
Present
(Past Perfect Inclusive)
(in affirmative sentences)
I knew she had been playing (had played) the Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле
piano for two hours.
два часа.
Past Perfect
Past (in negative sentences)
I knew she had not played the piano for a Я знал, что она давно не играла (не играет)
long time.
на рояле.
Past Perfect Continuous
Past
Exclusive
I knew she had been playing the piano.
Я знал, что она играла на рояле.
Future in the Past
Future
I knew she would play the piano at the Я знал, что она будет играть на рояле на
evening party.
вечере.
§ 7. The main sphere where the sequence of tenses is applied is object clauses.
Harris said he knew what kind of place I meant. (Jerome)
The sequence of tenses is not observed if the object clause expresses a general truth:
The pupils knew that water consists of oxygen and hydrogen.
175
In political language a present tense is often used in the object clause after a past tense in
the principal clause.
The speaker said that the peoples want peace.
The sequence of tenses is often not observed if something is represented as habitual,
customary, or characteristic.
He asked the guard what time the train usually starts. (Curme)
He did not seem to know that nettles sting. (Curme)
§ 8. In conventional direct speech the tenses are used according to the same principle which
governs their uses in complex sentences with a principal clause and an object clause, though
there is no principal clause.
She put her hands up to her ears; it was because there were . some thin gold rings in them,
which were also worth a little money. Yes, she could surely get some money for her ornaments.
The landlord and landlady had been good to her; perhaps they would help her to get the money
for these things. But this money would not keep her long; what should she do when it was
gone? (Eliot)
§ 9. The sequence of tenses does not concern attributive relative clauses and adverbial
clauses of cause, result, comparison, and concession (if the verb stands in the Indicative Mood).
I didn’t go out of the shop door, but at the back door, which opens into a narrow alley.
(Eliot)
He didn’t go to the cinema last night because he will have an exam tomorrow.
She worked so much yesterday that she is feeling quite weak today.
Last year he worked more than he does this year.
He insisted on going to the library yesterday, though he will not want the book today.
§ 10. The sequence of tenses is generally observed in subject clauses and predicative
clauses:
What he would do was of no importance.
The question was what he would do next.
It is also observed in appositive attributive clauses:
She had a sickening sense that life would go on in this way. (Eliot)
176
Literature.
1. В. Л. КАУШАНСКАЯ, Р. Л. КОВНЕР, О. Н. КОЖЕВНИКОВА,Е. В. ПРОКОФЬЕВА, 3.
М. РАЙНЕС, С. Е. СКВИРСКАЯ, Ф. Я. ЦЫРЛИНА ГРАММАТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО
ЯЗЫКА, ПОСОБИЕ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ ИНСТИТУТОВ,
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ
УЧЕБНО-ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОЕ
ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО
МИНИСТЕРСТВА ПРОСВЕЩЕНИЯ РСФСР ЛЕНИНГРАДСКОЕ ОТДЕЛЕНИЕ,
Ленинград 1963
THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES
The rules of the sequence of tenses are one of the peculiarities of English. The sequence of
tenses is a dependence of the tense form of the predicate in a subordinate clause on the tense
form of the predicate in its principal clause. The rules mainly concern object clauses depending
on principal clauses with the predicate verb in one of the past tenses, though it holds true also for
some other subordinate clauses (such as subject, predicative and appositive ones).
The rules are as follows:
1.
I know
1) a present (or future) tense in the principal clause may be followed by any tense in the
subordinate object clause:
(that) he plays tennis well.
he is playing tennis in the park.
I say
he has played two games today.
I am just saying
he has been playing tennis since morning.
I have always known
I’ve just been telling her
he played tennis yesterday.
I shall tell her
he was playing tennis when the storm began.
he had played two games before the storm began.
he had been playing tennis for some time when the storm began.
he will play tennis in summer.
he will be playing tennis all day long.
he will have played some games before you return.
he will have been playing tennis for some time before you come.
2) a past tense in the principal clause is followed by a past tense in the subordinate object
clause.
I knew
(that)
he played tennis well.
177
I said
he was playing tennis in the park.
I was just saying
he had played two games that day.
I had never known
he had been playing tennis since morning.
She had been telling
he had played tennis the day before.
he had been playing when the storm began.
he had played two games before the storm.
he had been playing tennis for some time before the storm.
he would play tennis in summer.
he would be playing tennis all day long.
he would have played some games by the time you returned.
he would have been playing tennis for more than an hour before you
came.
Thus the past indefinite or the past continuous tense in the subordinate clause denotes an
action, simultaneous with that of the pripcipal clause. They are translated into Russian by the
present tense.
For a moment she did not know where she was.
Joanna noticed suddenly that I was not listening.
Had she not hinted what was troubling her?
He had thought it was his own son.
People had been saying he was a madman.
My first thought was where they were now.
The past perfect or the past perfect continuous in the subordinate clause denotes an action
prior to that of the principal clause. Both of these forms are translated into Russian by the past
tense.
I perceived that something had happened.
I wasn’t going to tell her that Megan had rung me up.
I knew well enough what she had been doing.
Up to that moment I had not realized what they had been trying to prove.
The fact was that his sister Rose had married beneath her.
She had a feeling that she had been deceived.
The future in the past tenses in the subordinate clause denote an action following that of the
principal clause.
178
I hoped she would soon be better.
I told Caroline that I should be dining at Fernley.
What she would say or do did not bother him.
The fact remained that none of us would see them till late at night.
The sudden thought that Nell would not come at all flashed through his head.
The fact that the action of the subordinate clause follows that of the action in the principal
clause may be also indicated by other means.
She said she was going to see him the same night.
The rules of the sequence of tenses concern subordinate clauses dependent not only on the
predicate of the principal clause but also on any part expressed by a verb or verbal:
I received from her a letter saying that she was passing through Paris and would like to
have a chat with me.
She smiled again, sure that I should come up.
She turned her head slightly, well aware that he was watching her.
In complex sentences containing more than two subordinate clauses the choice of the tense
form for each of them depends on the tense form of the clause to which it is subordinated:
I guess you told him where they had come from and why they were hiding.
As far as I can see he did not realize that very soon all would be over.
Besides the complex sentences described above the rules of the sequence of tenses are also
found in all types of clauses and simple sentences reproducing inner speech (conventional direct
speech).
As already stated the rules of the sequence of tenses concern object, subject and predicative
clauses. In all the other clauses (attributive and adverbial ones) the use of tenses depends wholly
on the sense to be conveyed:
Clyde thought of all the young and thoughtless company of which he had been a part.
He lifted the heavy latch which held the large iron gate in place.
She only liked men who are good-looking.
I was thinking of the day which will come only too soon.
He was standing where the creek turns sharply to the east.
At the moment he was standing where he always had stood, on the rug before the livingroom fire.
She felt gay as he had promised to take her to the pictures.
You see, I could not follow them as I’m rather shy.
Mr. Direck’s broken wrist healed sooner than he desired.
He knew the job better than I do.
179
She had been a wife for even less time than you have.
In my youth life was not the same as it is now.
The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in the following cases:
1) when the subordinate clause describes the so-called general truth, or something which the
speaker thinks to be one.
Up to then Roy never realized that our Solar system is but a tiny speck in the infinite
Universe.
The other day I read in a book that everything alive consists mostly of water.
She was very young and - and ignorant of what life really is.
2) when the subordinate clause describes actions referring to the actual present, future, or past
time, which usually occurs in dialogues or in newspaper, radio, or TV reports.
Margaret, I was saying to you - and I beg you to listen to me – that as far as I have known
Mrs. Erlynne, she has conducted herself well.
“Before the flier crashed,” the operator said ten minutes later, “he gave me information. He
told me there are still a few men alive in these mountains.”
I did not know he will be here tomorrow.
3) when the predicate verb of the subordinate clause is one of the modal verbs having no past
tense forms.
She said I must come at once.
I thought you should come too.
Literature.
1. Н. А. Кобрина, Е. А. Корнеева, М. И. Оссовская, К. А. Гузеева Грамматика английского
языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических
институтов и университетов по специальности «Иностранные языки», СПб, СОЮЗ, 1999.496с.
180