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Cardiovascular System Anatomy and Physiology Two children were sitting outside a clinic. One of them was crying very loudly. 2nd Child: Why are you crying? 1st Child: I came here for a blood test. 2nd Child: So? Are you afraid? 1st Child: No. For the blood test, they cut my finger. At this, the second one started crying profusely. The first one was astonished. 1st Child: Why are you crying now? 2nd Child: I came for a urine test! Overview of Blood Circulation Blood leaves the heart via arteries that branch repeatedly until they become capillaries Oxygen (O2) and nutrients diffuse across capillary walls and enter tissues Carbon dioxide (CO2) and wastes move from tissues into the blood Oxygen-deficient blood leaves the capillaries and flows in veins to the heart This blood flows to the lungs where it releases CO2 and picks up O2 The oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart Composition of Blood Blood is the body’s only fluid tissue It is composed of liquid plasma and formed elements Formed elements include: – Erythrocytes, or red blood cells (RBCs) – Leukocytes, or white blood cells (WBCs) – Platelets (Thrombocytes) Hematocrit – the percentage of RBCs out of the total blood volume Composition of Blood Figure 18.1 Physical Characteristics and Volume Blood is a sticky, opaque fluid with a metallic taste Color varies from scarlet (oxygen-rich) to dark red (oxygen-poor) The pH of blood is 7.35–7.45 Temperature is 38C, slightly higher than “normal” body temperature Blood accounts for approximately 8% of body weight Average volume of blood is 5–6 L for males, and 4–5 L for females Functions of Blood Blood performs a number of functions dealing with: – Substance distribution – Regulation of blood levels of particular substances – Body protection Blood Plasma Blood plasma contains over 100 solutes, including: – Proteins – albumin, globulins, clotting proteins, and others – Nonprotein nitrogenous substances – lactic acid, urea, creatinine – Organic nutrients – glucose, carbohydrates, amino acids – Electrolytes – sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, bicarbonate – Respiratory gases – oxygen and carbon dioxide Erythrocytes (RBCs) Biconcave discs, anucleate, essentially no organelles Filled with hemoglobin (Hb), a protein that functions in gas transport Contain the plasma membrane protein spectrin that: – Gives erythrocytes their flexibility – Allows them to change shape as necessary Figure 18.3 Erythrocyte Function Erythrocytes are dedicated to respiratory gas transport Hemoglobin reversibly binds with oxygen and most oxygen in the blood is bound to hemoglobin Hemoglobin is composed of: – The protein globin, made up of two alpha and two beta chains, each bound to a heme group – Each heme group bears an atom of iron, which can bind one to oxygen molecule Each hemoglobin molecule can transport four molecules of oxygen Erythrocyte Function Figure 18.4a, b Hormonal Control of Erythropoiesis Erythropoietin (EPO) release by the kidneys is triggered by: – Hypoxia due to decreased RBCs – Decreased oxygen availability – Increased tissue demand for oxygen Enhanced erythropoiesis increases the: – RBC count in circulating blood – Oxygen carrying ability of the blood increases Hormonal Control of Erythropoiesis Figure 18.6 Life Cycle of Red Blood Cells Figure 18.7 Leukocytes (WBCs) Leukocytes, the only blood components that are complete cells: – – – – Are less numerous than RBCs Make up 1% of the total blood volume Can leave capillaries via diapedesis Move through tissue spaces Leukocytosis – WBC count over 11,000 per cubic millimeter – Normal response to bacterial or viral invasion Platelets Platelets are fragments of megakaryocytes with a bluestaining outer region and a purple granular center The granules contain serotonin, Ca2+, enzymes, ADP, and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) Platelets function in the clotting mechanism by forming a temporary plug that helps seal breaks in blood vessels White blood cells Platelets Red blood cells Neutrophil Lymphocyte Monocyte Eosinophil Lymphocyte Neutrophil Basophil Monocyte 6 3 2 1 4 5 Infection Sickle cell anemia Leukemia Hemostasis A series of reactions designed for stoppage of bleeding During hemostasis, three phases occur in rapid sequence – Vascular spasms – immediate vasoconstriction in response to injury – Platelet plug formation – Coagulation (blood clotting) Blood Typing When serum containing anti-A or anti-B agglutinins is added to blood, agglutination will occur between the agglutinin and the corresponding agglutinogens Positive reactions indicate agglutination Heart Anatomy Approximately the size of your fist Location – Superior surface of diaphragm – Left of the midline – Anterior to the vertebral column, posterior to the sternum Heart Anatomy Figure 19.1 Heart Covering Pericardial physiology – Protects and anchors heart – Prevents overfilling Figure 19.2 Heart Covering Pericardial anatomy – Fibrous pericardium – Serous pericardium (separated by pericardial cavity) – Epicardium (visceral layer) Figure 19.2 Heart Wall Epicardium – visceral layer of the serous pericardium Myocardium – cardiac muscle layer forming the bulk of the heart Fibrous skeleton of the heart – crisscrossing, interlacing layer of connective tissue Endocardium – endothelial layer of the inner myocardial surface External Heart: Anterior View Figure 19.4b Atria of the Heart Atria are the receiving chambers of the heart Each atrium has a protruding auricle Pectinate muscles mark atrial walls Blood enters right atria from superior and inferior venae cavae and coronary sinus Blood enters left atria from pulmonary veins Ventricles of the Heart Ventricles are the discharging chambers of the heart Papillary muscles and trabeculae carneae muscles mark ventricular walls Right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary trunk Left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta Gross Anatomy of Heart: Frontal Section Figure 19.4e Pathway of Blood through the Heart and Lungs Right atrium tricuspid valve right ventricle Right ventricle pulmonary semilunar valve pulmonary arteries lungs Lungs pulmonary veins left atrium Left atrium bicuspid valve left ventricle Left ventricle aortic semilunar valve aorta Aorta systemic circulation Pathway of Blood through the Heart and Lungs Figure 19.5 Heart Valves Heart valves insure unidirectional blood flow through the heart Atrioventricular (AV) valves lie between the atria and the ventricles AV valves prevent backflow into the atria when ventricles contract Chordae tendineae anchor AV valves to papillary muscles Heart Valves Figure 19.9 Heart Valves Aortic semilunar valve lies between the left ventricle and the aorta Pulmonary semilunar valve lies between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk Semilunar valves prevent backflow of blood into the ventricles Heart Valves Figure 19.10 Heart Physiology: Sequence of Excitation Sinoatrial (SA) node generates impulses about 75 times/minute Atrioventricular (AV) node delays the impulse approximately 0.1 second Impulse passes from atria to ventricles via the atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His) Heart Physiology: Sequence of Excitation AV bundle splits into two pathways in the interventricular septum (bundle branches) – Bundle branches carry the impulse toward the apex of the heart – Purkinje fibers carry the impulse to the heart apex and ventricular walls Heart Physiology: Sequence of Excitation Figure 19.14a Electrocardiography Electrical activity is recorded by electrocardiogram (ECG) P wave corresponds to depolarization of atria QRS complex corresponds to ventricular depolarization T wave corresponds to ventricular repolarization Atrial repolarization record is masked by the larger QRS complex Electrocardiography Figure 19.16 videos heart beat electricity http://medmovie.com/mmdatabase/flash/0007a.swf ecg http://medmovie.com/mmdatabase/flash/0038a.swf all animations http://science.nhmccd.edu/biol/ap2int.htm#cardio heart valves http://www.wellesley.edu/Biology/Courses/111/HeartValves.MOV visible heart video clips http://www.visibleheart.com/videoclips.html arrythmeias http://medmovie.com/mmdatabase/flash/0078a.swf heart attack http://medmovie.com/mmdatabase/flash/0072a_B.swf Cardiac Cycle Cardiac cycle refers to all events associated with blood flow through the heart – Systole – contraction of heart muscle – Diastole – relaxation of heart muscle Phases of the Cardiac Cycle Figure 19.19b Blood Vessels Blood is carried in a closed system of vessels that begins and ends at the heart The three major types of vessels are arteries, capillaries, and veins Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood toward the heart Capillaries contact tissue cells and directly serve cellular needs Generalized Structure of Blood Vessels Arteries and veins are composed of three tunics – tunica interna, tunica media, and tunica externa Capillaries are composed of endothelium with sparse basal lamina Lumen – central blood-containing space surrounded by tunics Generalized Structure of Blood Vessels Figure 20.1b Tunics Tunica interna (tunica intima) – Endothelial layer that lines the lumen of all vessels – In vessels larger than 1 mm, a subendothelial connective tissue basement membrane is present Tunica media – Smooth muscle and elastic fiber layer, regulated by sympathetic nervous system – Controls vasoconstriction/vasodilation of vessels Tunica externa (tunica adventitia) – Collagen fibers that protect and reinforce vessels – Larger vessels contain vasa vasorum Capillary Beds Figure 20.4a Capillary Beds Figure 20.4b Blood Pressure (BP) Force per unit area exerted on the wall of a blood vessel by its contained blood – Expressed in terms of millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) – Measured in reference to systemic arterial BP in large arteries near the heart The differences in BP within the vascular system provide the driving force that keeps blood moving from higher to lower pressure areas Systemic Blood Pressure Figure 20.5 Measuring Blood Pressure Systemic arterial BP is measured indirectly with the auscultatory method – A sphygmomanometer is placed on the arm superior – – – – to the elbow Pressure is increased in the cuff until it is greater than systolic pressure in the brachial artery Pressure is released slowly and the examiner listens with a stethoscope The first sounds heard is recorded as the systolic pressure The pressure when sound disappears is recorded as the diastolic pressure Alterations in Blood Pressure Hypotension – low BP in which systolic pressure is below 100 mm Hg Hypertension – condition of sustained elevated arterial pressure of 140/90 or higher – Transient elevations are normal and can be caused by fever, physical exertion, and emotional upset – Chronic elevation is a major cause of heart failure, vascular disease, renal failure, and stroke