Download Study Guide for Exam 1 Dr. Osborne

Study Guide for Exam 1
Dr. Osborne
I.
n.
Introduction
A.
Scientific Method
I.
An observation is made
2.
A hypothesis is constructed to explain the observation
3.
An experiment is conducted to test the hypothesis
4.
The hypothesis is either supported or disproved
B.
The Metric System
1.
Units of measure exist for length, volume, mass and time
2.
Prefixes are used to indicate multiples of 10
C.
Scientific Notation
I.
A special system is used to write numbers less than I 'or greater than lOin a uniform way
2.
The number is made to fit between 1 and 10 and is multiplied by 10 raised to the correct power
Simple Chemistry
A.
Atoms
l.
Fundamental particles
a.
Proton
i.
The proton has a change of + I and a mass of I AMU
ii.
The proton is found in the nucleus .
iii.
The number of protons is called the atomic number of the atom
b.
Neutron
i.
The neutron is neutral with no charge arid has a mass of 1 AMU
ii.
The neutron isJound in the nucleus along with the proton
iii.
The number of protons and neutrons is the atomic mass of the atom
c.
Electron
i.
The electron has a charge of -1 and is weighs 5.5 x 10.4 AMU
ii.
Electrons are found in shells surrounding the nucleus of the atom
2.
Atomic structure
a.
Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus. electrons orbit the nucleus in shells
b.
The first shell holds two electrons, the second and third shells hold eight electrons each".
c.
The outer electrons are the only ones involved in chemical bonding
3.
Elements
a.
An element is composed of only one type of atom
b.
There are over 108 different elements
c.
The elements can be arranged in a periodic table according to their properties
4.
Molecules
a.
Electrically neutral structures ofatoms
b.
May have same or different atoms
5.
Compounds
a.
_Composed ofa singIe kind ofmolecule
b.
Molecules of compounds can be broken down into their component atoms
B.
Chemical Bonding
l.
Ionic bonds
a.
Formed by complete transfer of one or more electrons
b.
Involves only the electrons in the outer shell
c.
Atom losing electron(s) becomes a positive ion
d.
Atom gaining electron(s) becomes a negative ion
e.
Final result is that each ion has a complete outer shell
2.
Covalent bonds
a.
Formed by sharing electrons between atoms
b.
Involves only the electrons in the outer shell
c:
Final result is that each atom has a complete outer shell including the shared electrons
2
C.
D.
The pH Scale
I.
Ionization
a.
Ions are formed by loss or gain of electrons
b.
Ionic compounds dissolved in water will separate into their component ions
c.
Water can ionize to produce hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OW)
2.
Neutralization
a.
Acids form hydrogen ions
b.
Bases form hydroxide ions
c.
Acids and bases react with and neutralize each other
3.
The pH Scale
a.
The pH scale measures the strength of an acid or a base
b.
Pure water is pH 7 which is the neutral point
c.
The pH scale is logarithmic
d.
Acids
i.
Acids have pH less than 7
ii.
The smaller the number the stronger the acid is
e.
Bases
i.
Bases have pH greater than 7
ii.
The higher the number the stronger the base is
Organic Chemistry
I.
General considerations
a.
Organic chemicals contain carbon
b.
Many important biological chemicals are organic
c.
Biological molecules are polymers are made of repeating subunits
d.
Condensation reactions are used to synthesize biological molecules
e.
Synthesis is part of the Hydrolysis-Synthesis Cycle of molecules
2.
Carbohydrates
a.
Carbohydrates have a ratio ofH:O of2:1
b.
Monosaccharides (simple sugars) are the building blocks ofcar~ohydrates
c.
Disaccharides are formed by condensation reaction between two monosaccharides
d.
Polysaccharides are formed by condensation reaction of many identical monosaccharides
3.
Lipids
a.
Lipids have much more hydrogen than oxygen
b.
Fats and oils are triglycerides made of glycerol and three fatty acids
c.
Waxes are made by condensation reactions oflong-chain fatty acids and long-chain alcohols
d.
Phospholipids contain glycerol, two fatty acid tails and a polar head
e.
Steroids have a complicated structure of interlocking rings
4.
Proteins
a.
Proteins are made of amino aCids
i.
Amino acids have carbon with an amino group, a carboxyl group, hydrogen and a side chain
ii.
- There are about-20 different side chains therefore about 20 differentaminoacids - - - - - ---­
b.Synthesis of proteins involves condensation reactions between the component amino acids
c.
Amino acids of proteins are joined by peptide bonds
d.
Structural proteins connect body structures or are components of body structures
e.
Enzymes are proteins which permit biological reactions to occur at body temperatures
5.
Nucleic acids
a.
Nucleic acids are polymers composed ofnucleotides
b.
Each nucleotide contains a base, a phosphate and a sugar
c.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
i.
DNA is found in the chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell
ii.
DNA directs all cellular activities and makes up the genes of the organism
d.
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) comes in three forms and is involved in protein synthesis
3
III.
Biology of Cells
A.
The cell theory
I.
All living things are made of cells
2.
All cells arise from pre-existing cells
3.
There are exceptions to the cell theory
a.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are self-replicating
b.
Viruses are not true cells
B.
Microscopes
1.
Simple microscopes contain only one lens
2.
Compound microscopes have two lenses working in series
3.
Electron microscopes use a beam of electrons to illuminate the specimen instead of using light
4.
Ultrastructure is the fine details of a cell seen in the electron microscope but not in the light microscope
C.
Cell Structures
I.
Cell membrane
.
a.
The cell membrane is made of phospholipid and proteins
b.
The appearance of the cell membrane is called a fluid mosaic
c.
The cell membrane is found in all cells, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic
2.
Nucleus
a.
The nucleus is found in all eukaryotic cells
b.
The nucleus is sl:1rrounded by a nuclear membrane
i.
The nuclear membrane separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm
ii.
The nuclear membrane has pores and channels which connect to the endoplas"mic reticulum
c.
Chromosomes are found in the nucleus
"
i.
Chromosomes are made of DNA and proteins
ii.
Chromosomes carry the genes which are the hereditary information of the cell
d.
The nucleolus is a structure involved in the formation of ribosomes
3.
Cellular structures common to all eukaryotic cells
a.
The cytoplasm is found inside the cell but outside the nucleus
b.
Organelles are structures contained within the cytoplasm that perform various functions
c.
Mitochondria
"
i.
Mitochondria are made with a double membrane structure
ii.
Mitochondria contain the respiratory enzymes of the cell that carry out aerobic respiration
iii.
Aerobic respiration in the mitochondria provides the energy the cell needs to live
d.
Endoplasmic reticulum
i.
Endoplasmic reticulum is a series of channels and membranes in the cytoplasm
ii.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum contains ribosomes which carry out protein synthesis
iii.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not contain ribosomes
iv.
The endoplasmic reticulum is connected to the nuclear membrane and Golgi bodies
e.
Ribosomes
"
i.
Ribosomes are structures made of ribosomal RNA and proteins
. ii.Ribosomes are the locations where proteins are synthesized
f.
Golgi bodies
i.
Golgi bodies are layers of flat membranes that become filled with cell products
ii.
Golgi bodies transport the cell products from the cytoplasm to the outside
g.
Lysosomes
.
i.
Lysosomes are membranous structures that contain digestive enzymes
ii.
Lysosomes are found in cells that conduct phagocytosis
h.
Vacuoles are storage structures inside the cytoplasm
i.
Microtubules are flexible protein fibers found in the cytoplasm as part of the cytoskeleton
4
4.
V.
Cellular structures found in plant cells
a.
Cell wall
i.
The cell wall is made of cellulose
ii.
The center layer is a membrane called the middle lamella
iii.
Each adjoining cell produces a primary cell wall
iv.
Some cells produce secondary walls in addition to primary walls
b.
Plastids
i.
Chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis and produce food for the plant
ii.
Chromoplasts contain various colors other than green
Ill.
Leukoplasts are used for storage of materials like starch
5.
Cellular structures found in animal cells
a.
Cilia and flagella
i.
Cilia and flagella are used for locomotion
ii.
Cilia and flagella ar~ made of contractil~ proteins in a 9+2 arrangement
b.
Centrioles
i.
Centrioles are found in the cytoplasm near the nucleus of animal cells
ii.
Animal cells use centrioles to form the spindle during mitosis
D.
Definitions of cell structure and function
I.
Types of mixtures
a.
A solution contains particles less than 1 nm which do not settle out
b.
A colloid has particles between 1 and 100 nm which form a sol or a gel
c.
A suspension has particles greater than 100 nm which settle out
2.
Diffusion is movement of molecules of a substance from higher concentration to lower concentration
3.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a membrane which is semipermeable
4.
Active transport involves movement" of substances across Ii membrane using energy
5.
Endocytosis
a.
Endocytosis is movement of substances into a cell
b.
Phagocytosis is an engulfing motion used for very large substances
c.
Pinocytosis is use~ for small substances
6.
Exocytosis
a.
Exocytosis is movement of substances out of a cell
b.
Substances are packaged by the Golgi bodies for transport out of the cell
7.
Regulation
a.
A hyperosmotic medium causes the cell to lose water
b.
A hypoosmotic medium causes the cell to gain water
An isoosmotic medium causes the cell not to lose or gain water
c.
Cells and Tissues
A.
Plant Tissues
1.
Meristematic tissues
a.
Shoot tip
i. . The shoot tipmeristem is found at the tip of each branch or shoot
ii.
The shoot tip meristem produces all of the leaves and other tissues for the branch
b.
Root tip
i.
The root tip meristem is located at the tip ofeach root
ii.
The root tip meristem produces all the tissues found in the root
c.
Cambium
i.
The cambium is found between the xylem and phloem of woody stems
ii.
The cambium cells produce xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside
2.
Permanent tissues
a.
Surface tissues
i.
Epidermis contains living cells and is found on the surfaces ofleaves and young stems
ii.
Periderm is a tissue containing dead cells which replaces the epidermis in older stems
\
5
b.
B.
Fundamental tissues
i. . Parenchyma has thin walled living cells and is the least specialized plant tissue
ii.
Collenchyma has cells thickened in the corners and is used for structural support
iii.
Sclerenchyma contains dead cells with very thick walls
a.Fibers are very long cells that provide support to stems and vascular bundles
p. Sclereids are spherical cells found in structures such as peach pits
3.
Vascular tissues
a.
Xylem
i.
Xylem contains vessel elementS and tracheids which are dead cells
ii.
Xylem tissue transports water and minerals upward in the plant
b.
Phloem
i.
Phloem contains sieve tubes'and companion cells which are both living
ii.
The cells come in pairs with the nucleus of the pair found in the companion cell
iii.
Phloem tissue conducts materials bot,h upward an.d downward in the plant
Animal tissues
I.
Epithelium
a.
Simple epithelium has one layer of cells on a basement membrane
i.
Simple squamous epithelium has one layer of flat cells and is found in peritoneum
ii.
Simple cuboidal epithelium has cubic cells and is found in the kidney collecting duct
iii.
Simple columnar epithelium has tall cells and is found in the intestinal lining
b.
Stratified epithelium has multiple layers of cells which all start out as cuboidal
i.
Stratified squamous epithelium has flat cells and is found in skin
ii.
Stratified cuboidal epithelium has all cubic cells and is found in the sweat ducts
iii. Stratified columnar epithelium has tall cells and is found in mammary gland ducts
2.
Connective tissue
a.
Connective tissues hold body structures together or connect body tissues
i.
Loose connective tissue contains collagenous fibers, elastic fibers, lymph and various cells
ii.
Dense connective tissue is collagenous and forms tendons and ligaments
iii.
Adipose tissue is fat tissue found in various body structures
iv.
Cartilage is found in various locations and has three types
a.
Yellow elastic cartilage is found between the rungs of the trachea
p. Hyaline cartilage forms the ridge of the nose and the rungs of the trachea
y.
Elastic cartilage is found in the external ear and the Eustachian tube
b.
Bone
i.
Bone contains the most mineral matter of any tissue
ii.
Spongy bone has the appearance of a sponge and is found on the ends of bones
iii. Compact bone is dense and forms the long parts of long bones
iv.
There are Haversian canals which contain the blood vessels which supply the bone cells
c.
Vascular tissue
i.
Blood is found. in the blood vessels ofthe circulatory system
ii.
Lymph-is the t-issuef1uidllndis found in-the ducts-of the lymphatic system ­
3.
Muscles
a.
Smooth muscle has discrete cells, lacks striations and'is found in involuntary organs
Striated muscle has long fibers, contains striations and is found attached to the skeleton
. b.
c.
Cardiac muscle has striations, intercalated discs to denote cells and is found only in the heart
4.
Nerve
a.
The nerve cell is known as a neuron
b.
Each nerve cell is surrounded by a sheath
6
VI.
Photosynthesis
A.
General considerations
I.
Oxidation is the loss of electrons, reduction is the gain of electrons
2.
Photosynthesis contains light-dependent and light-independent reactions
3.
Reactions of photosynthesis are of the oxidation-reduction type
4.
Photosynthesis requires light, chlorophyll and CO2
5.
Using light energy the chloroplast converts carbon dioxide to glucose
6.
The photosynthesis reaction is: 6 CO2 + 12 H2Q + light energy --> C6 H12°6 + 6 Q2 + 6 H20
7.
The raw materials of photosynthesis are water and carbon dioxide
8.
Oxygen is the waste product of photosynthesis
B.
The light reactions (photochemical reactions)
I.
Light is absorbed by chlorophyll
a.
Red and blue light are absorbed
,
b.
Green light is not absorbed but is reflected.by the plant
2.
Electrons travel the cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation pathways
3.
Water is broken down to replace the electrons of the non-cyclic photophosphorylation pathway
a.
The hydrogen ofthe water is incorporated into the glucose which is produced
b.
The oxygen of the water is released as the waste product of photosynthesis
4.
The light energy which is absorbed is converted to chemical energy
5.
The electrical energy is,converted to chemical energy and stored as ATP and NADPH
6.
The photochemical reactions occur only in the light
C.
The dark reactions (carbon-fixation reactions)
I.
The carbon-fixation reactions occur all the time, whether light is present or not
2.
The carbon-fixation reactions will not occur without carbon dioxide
The carbon-fixation reactions use the stored energy in ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 to glucose
VII. Cellular respiration
A.
General considerations
I.
Respiration is used to obtain energy
2.
The energy which is obtained is in the form of ATP
3.
The by-products of respiration are water and carbon dioxide
4.
The process of respiration is carried out by all living cells, all the time
B.
Anaerobic respiration (fermentation)
I.
Anaerobic respiration does not require air or oxygen
2.
The process of anaerobic respiration is used to obtain energy
Few ATP molecules (2 ATP) are produce for each glucose consumed
3.
a.
The end-produets in yeast are alcohol and carbon dioxide
b.
The end-product in muscle is lactic acid
4.
Anaerobic respiration pathways occur in the cytoplasm of the cell
C.
Aerobic respiration
I.
The first part of aerobic respiration is glycolysis which is anaerobic respiration
2.
Conversion of pyruvate to-c1lfbon dioxide and water gives much more energy (36 or 38 A TP)··
3.
The Krebs cycle and chemiosmosis of aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria
4.
The mitochondria produce ATP from NADH and FADH2 resulting from respiration pathways
3: