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Chapter 5 Learning Defining Learning • Learning – a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience • Fixed action patterns – behaviors that are driven by genetic inheritance and are species-specific Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2 Classical Conditioning • Classical conditioning – a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response • Reflexes – automatic stimulus-response connections that are “hardwired” into the brain Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 3 How Classical Conditioning Works • Unconditioned stimulus (US) – a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning • Unconditioned response (UR) – an unlearned response that is automatically associated with the unconditioned stimulus Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 4 How Classical Conditioning Works • Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – elicits the conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus • Conditioned Response (CR) – the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after CS-US association Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5 Classical Conditioning Phenomena • Generalization – the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response • Discrimination – the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not to others Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 6 Classical Conditioning Phenomena • Extinction – the weakening of the conditioned response in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus • Spontaneous recovery – the process by which a conditioned response can appear again after a time delay without further conditioning Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 Applications in Human Classical Conditioning • Phobias • Counterconditioning – a classical conditioning procedure for weakening a conditioned response of fear by associating the fear-provoking stimulus with a new response that is incompatible with the fear Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 9 Evaluation of Classical Conditioning • Stimulus substitution – CS substitutes for the US • Information theory – the key to understanding classical conditioning is the information the organism obtains from the situation – latent learning Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 10 Operant Conditioning • Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning) – a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 11 Operant Conditioning • Thorndike’s Law of Effect – behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, whereas behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 12 Operant Conditioning • Skinner’s Operant Conditioning – Reinforcement • increases the probability of behavior – Positive reinforcement • response is followed by a stimulus – Negative reinforcement • response either removes a stimulus or involves avoiding the stimulus Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 13 Operant Conditioning Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14 Operant Conditioning • Punishment – a consequence that decreases the probability that a behavior will occur • Shaping – rewarding approximations • Chaining – technique used to teach a complex sequence of behaviors Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 15 Operant Conditioning • Primary reinforcement – reinforcers that are innately satisfying • Secondary reinforcement – acquires its positive value through experience • Partial reinforcement – intermittent reinforcement Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 16 Schedules of Reinforcement • Fixed-ratio schedule – reinforcement of a behavior after a set number • Variable-ratio schedule – a timetable in which response are rewarded an average number of times, but on an unpredictable basis Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 17 Schedules of Reinforcement • Fixed-interval schedule – reinforcement of the first appropriate response after a fixed amount of time has elapsed • Variable-interval schedule – reinforcement of a response after a variable amount of time has elapsed Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 18 Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 19 Observational Learning • Observational learning – learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates someone else’s behavior • Mentor – a role model who acts as an advisor, coach, and confidant Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 20 Cognitive Factors in Learning • S-O-R model – a model of learning that gives some importance to cognitive factors – S=Stimulus, O=Organism, R=Response • Bandura’s cognitive model – self-efficacy • the expectation that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 21 Cognitive Factors in Learning • Cognitive maps – an organism’s mental representation of the the structure of physical space • Insight learning – a form of problem solving in which an organism develops a sudden understanding of a problem’s solution Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 22 Biological Factors in Learning • Preparedness – the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not in others • Instinctive drift – the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning • Taste aversion – the conditioned avoidance of certain substances Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 23 Cultural Factors in Learning • How does culture affect learning? – Degree to which these learning processes are used – Determines the content of learning Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 24