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ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM uses chemical substances called hormones as a means of regulating and integrating body functions. participates in the regulation of digestion, use, and storage of nutrients; growth and development electrolyte and water metabolism; and reproductive functions. functions of the endocrine system are closely linked with those of the nervous system and the immune system and functions of the immune system also are closely linked with those of the endocrine system. The immune system responds to foreign agents by means of chemical messengers (cytokines, e.g., interleukins, interferons) and complex receptor mechanisms .The immune system also is extensively regulated by hormones such as the adrenal cortico steroid hormones ANATOMY OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM The primary glands that make up the human endocrine system are the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal body, and reproductive glands—the ovary and testis. In addition, some nonendocrine organs are known to actively secrete hormones. These include the brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, thymus, skin, and placenta. Almost all body cells can either produce or convert hormones, and some secrete hormones. For example, glucagon, a hormone that raises glucose levels in the blood when the body needs extra energy, is made in the pancreas but also in the wall of the gastrointestinal tract. HORMONES -are chemical messengers created by the body where they transfer information from one set of cells to another to coordinate the functions of different parts of the body. - specific messenger molecule synthesized and secreted by a group of specialized cells called an endocrine gland. PHEROMONES - also communication chemicals, but are used to send signals to other members of the same species. ENDOCRINE GLAND -ductless - their secretions (hormones) are released directly into the bloodstream and travel to elsewhere in the body to target organs, upon which they act. EXOCRINE GLAND -not part of the endocrine system that secrete products that are passed outside the body. -Sweat glands, salivary glands, and digestive glands are examples of exocrine glands. The roles of hormones in selecting target cells and delivering the hormonal message. Images from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission. HORMONE RECEPTORS -binding sites on the target cells Each hormone’s shape is specific and can be recognized by the corresponding target cells. Many hormones come in antagonistic pairs that have opposite effects on the target organs. For example, insulin and glucagon have opposite effects on the liver’s control of blood sugar level. Insulin lowers the blood sugar level by instructing the liver to take glucose out of circulation and store it, while glucagon instructs the liver to release some of its stored supply to raise the blood sugar level. Much hormonal regulation depends on feedback loops to maintain balance and homeostasis. CHARACTERISTICS OF HORMONES A single hormone can exert various effects in different tissues or, conversely, a single function can be regulated by several hormones. ■Hormones function as chemical messengers, moving through the blood to distant target sites of action, or acting more locally as paracrine or autocrine messengers that incite more local effects. ■Most hormones are present in body fluids at all times but in greater or lesser amounts, depending on the needs of the body. ■Hormones exert their actions by interacting with high affinity receptors, which in turn are linked to one or more effectors systems in the cell. Some hormone receptors are located on the surface of the cell and act through second messenger mechanisms ,and others are located in the cell, where they modulate the synthesis of enzymes, transport proteins, or structural proteins THREE GENERAL CLASSES OF HORMONES These are classified by chemical structure, not function. steroid hormones including prostaglandins which function especially in a variety of female functions (aspirin inhibits synthesis of prostaglandins, some of which cause “cramps”) and the sex hormones all of which are lipids made from cholesterol, amino acid derivatives (like epinephrine) which are derived from amino acids, especially tyrosine, and peptide hormones (like insulin) which is the most numerous/diverse group of hormones. Local regulators -hormones with target cells nearby or adjacent to the endocrine gland in question. For example, neurotransmitters are secreted in the synapses of our nervous system and their target cells are in the same synapses. NONSTEROID HORMONES - water soluble -do not enter the cell but bind to plasma membrane receptors, generating a chemical signal inside the target cell. STEROID HORMONES -pass through the plasma membrane and act in a two step process. Steroid hormones bind, once inside the cell, to the nuclear membrane receptors, producing an activated hormone-receptor complex. The activated hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA and activates specific genes, increasing production of proteins. Paracrine and Autocrine Actions-some hormones and hormone-like substances never enter the blood-stream but instead act locally in the vicinity in which they are released. Paracrine - act locally on cells other than those that produced the hormone, action of sex steroids on the ovary is a paracrine action. Autocrine - Hormones also can exert anautocrine action on the cells from which they were produced. For example, the release of insulin from pancreatic beta cells can inhibit its release from the same cells. Juxtacrine -refers to a mechanism whereby a cytokine that is em-bedded in, bound to, or associated with the plasma membraneof one cell interacts with a specific receptor in a juxtaposed cell. Eicosanoids and Retinoids- group of compounds that have a hormone-like action arethe eicosanoids, which are derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids in the cell membrane. EICOSANOIDS- arachidonic acid is the most important and abundant precursor of the various eicosanoids. - most important of the eicosanoids are the prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes. (these fatty acid derivatives are produced by most body cells, are rapidly cleared from the circulation, and are thought to act mainly by paracrine and autocrine mechanisms.) - Synthesis often is stimulated in response to hormones, and they serve as mediators of hormone action. Retinoids ( e.g., retinoic acid) also are derived from fatty acids and have an important role in regulating nuclear receptor action. MAJOR HORMONES Hormone Gland Origin Target Tissue Function Adrenocorticotropic Growth hormone Pituitary gland (anterior) Pituitary gland (anterior) Adrenal cortex Throughout body Triggers secretion of hydrocortisone from the adrenal gland Stimulates growth and development Follicle-stimulating hormone Pituitary gland (anterior) Luteinizing hormone Pituitary gland (anterior) Prolactin Pituitary gland (anterior) Thyroid-stimulating Pituitary hormone gland (anterior) MelanocytePituitary stimulating hormone gland (anterior) Antidiuretic hormone Pituitary gland (posterior) Oxytocin Pituitary gland (posterior) Sex glands Melatonin Pineal gland Calcitonin Thyroid gland Unclear, although possible target sites are pigment cells and sex organs Bones Thyroid hormone Thyroid gland Sex glands Mammary glands Thyroid gland Melanin-producing Controls skin pigmentation cells Kidneys Regulates water retention and blood pressure Uterus Triggers contraction of the uterus during labor Stimulates milk letdown for breast-feeding after childbirth May affect skin pigmentation; may regulate biorhythms (awake/sleep patterns) and prevent jet lag Controls the level of calcium in the blood by depositing it in the bones Increases the body's metabolic rate; promotes normal growth and development Regulates calcium level in blood Promotes the growth and development of white blood cells, helping the body fight infection Regulates sodium and potassium levels in the blood to control blood pressure Mammary glands Throughout body Parathyroid hormone Parathyroid glands Thymosin Thymus Bones, intestines, and kidneys White blood cells Aldosterone Kidneys Adrenal gland Stimulates female egg maturation and male sperm production Stimulates female ovulation and male secretion of testosterone Stimulates milk production in the breasts after childbirth Triggers secretion of thyroid hormones Hydrocortisone Adrenal gland Throughout body Epinephrine Adrenal gland Muscles and blood vessels Norepinephrine Adrenal gland Muscles and blood vessels Glucagon Pancreas Liver Insulin Pancreas Throughout body Estrogen Ovaries Female reproductive system Progesterone Ovaries Testosterone Testes Mammary glands Uterus Throughout body Erythropoietin Kidney Bone Marrow Plays key role in stress response; increases blood glucose levels and mobilizes fat stores; reduces inflammatation Increases blood pressure, heart and metabolic rate, and blood sugar levels; dilates blood vessels. Also released during exercise Increases blood pressure and heart rate; constricts blood vessels Stimulates the breakdown of glycogen (stored carbohydrate) into glucose (blood sugar); regulates glucose blood level Regulates blood glucose levels; increases storage of glycogen; facilitates glucose intake by body cells Causes sexual development and growth; maintains proper functioning of female reproductive system Prepares uterus for pregnancy Causes sexual development and growth spurt; maintains proper functioning of male reproductive system Produces red blood cells Hormones Regulated by the Hypothalamic/Pituitary System Hormone Thyroid hormones T4, T3 Cortisol Pituitary Stimulating Hormone Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) Hypothalamic Releasing Hormone Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) Estrogen or testosterone Insulinlike growth factorI (IGF-I) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH) Growth hormone Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary Hormone Secreted by Luteinizing hormonereleasing hormone (LHRH) or gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) Releasing Hormone (Stimulates Secretion) Human growth hormone (hGh) or somatotropin Somatotrophs Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), also known as somatocrinin. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) or thyrotropin Thyrotrophs Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) Follicle stimulating Gonadotrophs hormone (FSH) Luteinizing hormone (LH) Gonadotrophs Prolactin (PRL) Lactotrophs Adrenocorticotropic Corticotrophs hormone (ACTH) or corticotropin Melanocyte-simulating Corticotrophs hormone (MSH) Principal Actions of Anterior Pituitary Hormones Hormone Target Tissues Human growth hormone Liver (hGh) or somatotropin Gonadotropic-releasing hormone (GnRH) Gonadotropic-releasing hormone (GnRH) Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH); TRH. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). Inhibiting Hormone (Suppresses Secretion) Growth hormoneinhibiting hormone (GHIH), also known as somatostatin. Growth hormoneinhibiting hormone (GHIH). Prolactininhibiting hormone (PIH), which is dopamine. Dopamine. Principal Actions Stimulates liver, muscle, cartilage, bone and other tissues to synthesize and secrete insulinlike Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) or thyrotrophin Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Thyroid gland Ovaries, Testes Luteinizing hormone (LH) Ovaries, Testes Prolactin (PRL) Mammary glands Adrenocorticotropic hormone Adrenal Cortex Melanocyte-simulating hormone (MSH) Brain Posterior Pituitary Hormones Hormone Target Tissues growth factors (IGFs); IGFs promote growth of body cells, protein synthesis, tissue repair, lipolysis, and elevation of blood glucose concentration. Stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones by thyroid gland. In females, initiates development of oocytes and induces ovarian secretion of estrogens. In males, stimulates testes to produce sperm. In females, stimulates secretion of estrogens and progesterone, ovulation and formation of corpus luteum. In males, stimulates interstitial cells in testes to develop and produce testosterone. Together with other hormones, promotes milk secretion by the mammary glands. Stimulates secretion of glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol) by adrenal cortex. Influence brain activity; when present in excess, can cause darkening of skin. Control of Secretion Oxytocin (OT) Uterus, Mammary glands Neurosecretory cells of hypothalamus secrete OT in response to uterine distention and stimulation of nipples. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin Kidneys, Neurosecretory cells of Sudoriferous (sweat) hypothalamus secrete ADH in Principal Actions Stimulates contraction of smooth muscle cells of uterus during childbirth; stimulates contraction of myoepithelial cells in mammary glands to cause milk ejection. Conserves body water by glands, Arterioles response to elevated blood osmotic pressure, dehydration, loss of blood osmotic pressure dehydration, loss of blood decreasing urine volume; decreases water loss tgrough perspiration; raises blood pressure by constricting arterioles. volume, pain or stress; low blood osmotic pressure, high blood volume, and alcohol inhibit ADH secretion. Thyroid Gland Hormones Hormone Source Control of Secretion Principal Actions T3 (triiodothyronine) and Thyroid follicle → Secretion is increased by Increase basal T4 (thyroxine) or thyroid Follicular cells thyrotropin-releasing metabolic rate, hormones from follicular hormone (TRH), which stimulate cells stimulates release of thyroid- synthesis of stimulating hormone (TSH) in proteins, response to low thyroid increase use of hormone levels, low metabolic glucose and rate, cold, pregnancy, and high fatty acids for ltitudes; TRH and TSH ATP secretion are inhibited in production, response to high thyroid increase hormone levels; high iodine lipolysis, level suppresses t3/t4 enhance secretion. cholesterol excretion, accelerate body growth, and contribute to development of the nervous system. Calcitonin (CT) from High blood Ca2+ levels Lowers blood Thyroid follicle → parafollicular cells stimulate secrewtion; low levels of ionic Parafollicular cells accelerating blood Ca2+ levels inhibit calcium and secretion. phosphates by inhibiting bone resorption by osteoclasts and uptake of calcium and phosphates into bone matrix. Parathyroid Gland Hormone Hormone Source Control Secretion Low blood Ca2+ levels stimulate secretion. High blood Ca2+ levels inhibit secretion. Principal Actions Increase blood Ca2+ and Mg2+ levels and decreases blood phosphate level; increases bone resorption by osteoclasts; increases Ca2+ reabsorption and phosphate excretion by kidneys; and promotes formation of calcitriol (active form of vitamin D), which increases rate of dietary Ca2+ and Mg2+ absorption. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Chief cells Hormone and Source Adrenal cortex hormones Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone) from zona glomerulosa cells Glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol) from zona fasciculate cells Control of Secretion Increased blood K+ level and angiotensin II stimulate secretion. Principal Actions Increase blood levels of Na+ and water and decrease blood level of K+. ACTH stimulates release; corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) promotes ACTH secretion in response to stress and low blood levels of glucocorticoids. Increase protein breakdown (except in liver), stimulate gluconeogenesis and lipolysis, provide resistance to stress, dampen inflammation, and depress immune responses. Androgens (mainly dehydroepiandrosterone or DHEA) from zona reticularis cells ACTH stimulates secretion. Adrenal medulla hormones Epinephrine and norepinephrine from chromaffin cells Sympathetic preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine, which stimulates secretion. Pancreatic Hormones Hormone and Source Glucagon from alpha cells of pancreatic islets Insulin from beta cells of pancreatic islets Somatostatin from delta cells of pancreatic islets Pancreatic polypeptide from F cells of pancreatic islets Control of Secretion Decreased blood level of glucose, exercise and mainly protein meals stimulate secretion; somatostatin and insulin inhibit secretion. Increased blood level of glucose, acetylcholine (released by parasympathetic vagus nerve fibers), argentine and leucine (two amino acids), glucagons, GIP, hGh, and ACTH stimulate secretion; somatostatin inhibits secretion. Pancreatic polypeptide inhibits secretion. Assist in early growth of axillary and pubic hair in both sexes; in females, contribute to libido and are source of estrogens after menopause. Produce effects that enhance those of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) during stress. Principal Actions Raises blood glucose level by accelerating breakdown of glycogen into glucose in liver (glycogenolysis), converting other nutrients into glucose in liver (gluconeogenesis), and releasing glucose into the blood. Lowers blood glucose level by accelerating transport of glucose into cells, converting glucose into glycogen (glycogenesis), and decreasing glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis; also increase lipogenesis and stimulates protein synthesis. Inhibits secretion of insulin and glucagons and slows absorption of nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract. Inhibits somatostatin secretion, gallbladder contraction, and secretion of pancreatic digestive enzymes. Meals containing protein, fasting, exercise, and acute hypoglycemia stimulate secretion; somatostatin and elevated blood glucose level inhibit secretion. Hormone of the Ovaries and Testes Hormone Principal Actions Ovarian hormones Together with gonadotropic hormones of the Estrogens and progesterone anterior pituitary gland, regulate the female reproductive cycle, regulate oogenesis, maintain pregnancy, prepare the mammary glands for lactation, and promote development and maintenance of feminine secondary sex characteristics. Relaxin Increase flexibility of pubic symphysis during pregnancy and helps dilate uterine cervix during labor and delivery. Inhibin Inhibits secretion of FSH from anterior pituitary. Testicular hormones Stimulates descent of testes before birth, Testosterone regulates spermatogenesis, and promotes development and maintenance of masculine secondary sex characteristics. Inhibin Inhibits secretion of FSH from anterior pituitary. Hormones produced by organs and tissues that contain endocrine cells Hormone Principal Actions Gastrointestinal tract Promotes secretion of gastric juice and Gastrin increases motility of the stomach. Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide Stimulates release of insulin by pancreatic beta (GIP) cells. Secretin Stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice and bile. Cholecystokinin (CCK) Stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice, regulates release of bile from the gallbladder, and brings about a feeling of fullness after eating. Placenta Stimulates the corpus luteum in the ovary to Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) continue the production of estrogens and progesterone to maintain pregnancy. Estrogens and progesterone Maintain pregnancy and help prepare mammary glands to secrete milk. Human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS) Stimulates the development of the mammary glands for lactation. Kidneys Increases rate of red blood cell formation. Erythropoietin (EPO) Calcitriol* (active form of vitamin D) Aids in the absorption of dietary calcium and phosphorous. Heart Decrease blood pressure. Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) Adipose tissue Suppresses appetite and may have a permissive Leptin effect on activity of GnRH and gonadotropins PARTS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Illustration of the endocrine system Hypothalamus - located in the lower central part of the brain. - Part of the brain which is important in regulation of satiety, metabolism, and body temperature. - secretes hormones that stimulate or suppress the release of hormones in the pituitary gland. Releasing Hormones - secreted into an artery (the hypophyseal portal system) that carries them directly to the pituitary gland. -it signals secretion of stimulating hormones. Somatostatin -it causes the pituitary gland to stop the release of growth hormone. Pituitary Gland -located at the base of the brain beneath the hypothalamus and is no larger than a pea. -considered the most important part of the endocrine system because it produces hormones that control many functions of other endocrine glands. I. ANTERIOR LOBE Growth hormone: Stimulates growth of bone and tissue (growth hormone deficiency in children results in growth failure. Growth hormone deficiency in adults results in problems in maintaining proper amounts of body fat and muscle and bone mass. It is also involved in emotional well-being.) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones (A lack of thyroid hormones either because of a defect in the pituitary or the thyroid itself is called hypothyroidism.) Adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH): Stimulates the adrenal gland to produce several related steroid hormones Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): Hormones that control sexual function and production of the sex steroids, estrogen and progesterone in females or testosterone in males Prolactin: Hormone that stimulates milk production in females II. POSTERIOR LOBE Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin): Controls water loss by the kidneys Oxytocin: Contracts the uterus during childbirth and stimulates milk production Thyroid Gland -located in the lower front part of the neck. -produces thyroid hormones that regulate the body's metabolism. -plays a role in bone growth and development of the brain and nervous system in children. Thyroid Hormone - help maintain normal blood pressure, heart rate, digestion, muscle tone, and reproductive functions. Parathyroid Glands - two pairs of small glands embedded in the surface of the thyroid gland, one pair on each side. - release parathyroid hormone. PARATHROID HORMONE -plays a role in regulating calcium levels in the blood and bone metabolism. Adrenal Glands - adrenal glands are triangular-shaped glands located on top of each kidney. ADRENAL CORTEX - outer part that produces hormones called corticosteroids, which regulate the body's metabolism, the balance of salt and water in the body, the immune system, and sexual function. ADRENAL MEDULLA - inner part that produces hormones called catecholamines (for example, adrenaline). These hormones help the body cope with physical and emotional stress by increasing the heart rate and blood pressure. Pineal Body/ Pineal Gland - located in the middle of the brain. - secretes a hormone called melatonin. MELATONIN - regulate the wake-sleep cycle of the body. Reproductive Glands - Main source of sex hormones. MALES - the testes, located in the scrotum, secrete hormones called androgens; the most important of which is testosterone. These hormones affect many male characteristics (for example, sexual development, growth of facial hair and pubic hair) as well as sperm production. FEMALES - the ovaries, located on both sides of the uterus, produce estrogen and progesterone as well as eggs. These hormones control the development of female characteristics (for example, breast growth), and they are also involved in reproductive functions (for example, menstruation, pregnancy). Pancreas - Elongated organ located toward the back of the abdomen behind the stomach. - has digestive and hormonal functions. EXOCRINE PANCREAS - secretes digestive enzymes. ENDOCRINE PANCREAS - secretes hormones called insulin and glucagon. These hormones regulate the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. HORMONE ACTION Hormone signals a cell by biding to specific receptors on or in the cell. “lock-and-key” mechanism (hormones will bind only to receptor molecules that fit them exactly) Target cell (any cell with one or more receptors for a particular hormone) Each different hormone-receptor interaction produces different regulatory changes within the target cell Different hormones may work together to enhance each other’s influence on a target cell. o Synergism- combinations of hormones have a greater effect on the target cell than the sum of the effects that each would have if acting alone o Permissiveness- it occurs when a small amount of one hormone allows a second hormone to have its full effect on a target cell; the first hormone permits the full action of the second hormone o Antagonism- seen as the common type of combined action of hormones; one hormone produces the opposite effect of another hormone; it give signals to the cell when to increase or decrease a certain cellular process Mechanism of Steroid Hormone Action Steroid hormones are lipids and thus are not very soluble in blood plasma, which is mostly water. Instead of travelling in the plasma as free molecules, they attach to soluble plasma proteins. A steroid hormone molecule dissociates from its carrier before approaching the target cell. Because steroid hormones are lipid-soluble and thus can pass into cells easily, it is not surprising that their receptors are normally found inside the cell rather than on the surface of the plasma membrane. After a steroid hormone molecule has diffused into its target cell, it passes into the nucleus where it binds to a mobile receptor molecule to form a hormone-receptor complex. Some hormones must be activated by enzymes before they can bind to their receptors. Because steroid hormone receptors are not attached to the plasma membrane, but seem to move freely in the nucleoplasm, this model of hormone action has been called the mobilereceptor hypothesis. Once formed, the hormone-receptor complex activates a certain gene sequence to begin transcription of messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules. The newly formed mRNA molecule then move out of the nucleus into the cytosol, where they associate with ribosomes and begin synthesizing protein molecules. The new protein molecules synthesized by the target cell would not have been made if not for the arrival of the steroid hormone molecule. Steroid hormones regulate cells by regulating their production of certain critical proteins. This mechanism of steroid hormone action implies several things about the effects of these hormones. For one thing, the more hormone-receptor complexes formed, the more new protein molecule are formed, and thus the greater the magnitude of regulatory effect. Mechanisms of Nonsteroid Hormone Action Nonsteroid hormones typically operate according to a mechanism originally called the second messenger hypothesis. According to this concept, also called fixed-membrane-receptor hypothesis, a nonsteroid hormone molecule acts as a “first messenger,” delivering its chemical message to fixed receptors in the target cell’s plasma membrane. The second messenger mechanism produces target cell effects that differ from steroid hormone effects in several important way. First, the cascade of reactions produced in the second messenger mechanism greatly amplifies the effects of the hormone. Thus the effects of many nonsteroid hormones are disproportionally great when compared to the amount of hormone present. Recall that steroid hormones produce effects in proportion to the amount of hormone present. Also, the second messenger mechanism operates much more quickly than steroid mechanism. Many nonsteroid hormones produce their full effects within seconds or minutes of initial binding to the target cell receptors—not the hours or days sometimes seen with steroid hormones. In the figure, a nonsteroid hormone binds to a fixed receptor in the plasma membrane of the target cell. The hormone-receptor complex activates the protein and the activated protein reacts with a certain nucleotide, which in turn activates the membrane-bound enzyme. The activated membrane-bound enzyme removes phosphates from ATP, converting it to cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). cAMP activates or inactivates an enzyme that will activate intracellular enzyme. These activated enzymes then influence specific cellular reactions, such as glycogen breakdown, thus producing the target cell’s response to the hormone The nuclear receptor mechanism Not all steroid hormones operate according to the second messenger. Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothronine (T3) are small iodinated amino acids that apparently enter their target cells and bind to receptors already associated with a DNA molecule within the nucleus of the target cell. Formation of a hormone-receptor complex triggers transcription of mRNA and the synthesis of new enzymes in a manner similar to the steroid mechanism. REGULATION OF HORMONE SECRETION It is usually part of a negative feedback loop Responses that result from the operation of feedback loops within the endocrine system are called endocrine reflexes. The simplest mechanism operates when endocrine cell is sensitive to the physiological changes produced by its target cells Another mechanism that may influence the secretion of hormones by a gland is input from the nervous system Although the operation of long feedback loops tend to minimize wide fluctuations in secretion rates, the output of several hormones typically rises and falls dramatically within a short period. For example, the concentration of insulin—a hormone that can correct a rise in blood glucose concentration—increase to a high level just after a meal high in carbohydrates. The level of insulin decreases only after the blood glucose concentration returns to its set point value. Likewise, threatening stimuli can cause a sudden dramatic increase in the secretion of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla as part of the fight-orflight response. DISORDERS AND DISEASES OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Hypersecretion- production of too much hormone. Gigantism- abnormal rapid rate of skeletal growth. Acromegaly-a condition in w/c cartilage is still left in the skeleton continuous to form new bone. -result in hypersecretion after skeletal fusion. - may result from pituitary tumor, abnormally onset of puberty. Hyposecretion- production of too little hormone. Pituitary Dwarfism- stunted body growth. -may result to disruption of reproduction, kidney function, overall metabolism. ANTIDIURETIC Hormone(ADH) Abnormalities Diabetes insipidus- hyposectretion of Antidiuretic hormone(ADH). -abnormal production of large amounts of urine. THYROID Hormone Abnormalities Graves diseases- hypersecretion of thyroid hormone w/c is thought to be an autoimmune condition. -leads to weight loss, nervousness, increased in heart rate, and exophthalmos- protrusion of the eyeballs resulting from edema of tissue at the back of the eye socket. Cretinism- hyposecretion of thyroid hormone during growth years. -characterized by a low metabolic rate, retarded growth and sexual development, and possibly mental retardation, decreased metabolic weight, loss of hair, yellow dullness of the skin, and myxedema-swelling(edema) and firmness of the skin caused by accumulation of mucopolysaccharides in the skin. PARATHYROID Hormone Abnormalities Hyperthyroidism- leads to increase in blood calcium levels and possible development of osteoporosis and kidney stones due to elevation of parathyroid hormone. Hypocalcemia- too much tissue is removed that results to drop in PTH below normal limits. -cryopreservation- deep freezing, of the removed tissue of 1 year. ADRENAL CORTICAL Hormone Abnormalities Aldosteronism- hypersecretion of aldosterone that leads to increased water retention and muscle weakness resulting from K ion loss. Virilizing tumors-tumor of the adrenal cortex due to hypersection of androgens. Also it increase the blood level of male hormones. Cushing syndrome- the hypersecretion of cortisol from the adrenal cortex -also had the characteristics of moon face and thin, reddened skin. DIABETES MELLITUS -most common endocrine disorders. -result when the pancreatic islets secrete too little insulin, resulting in increased levels of blood glucose. Insulin resistance- the inability of fat, muscle, and other cells to respond normally to insulin and permit the entry of the sugar. Insulin insensitivity- the opposite of insulin resistance. Hyperglycemia- the chronic elevation of blood glucose levels. Glycosuria- spilling over of sugar into the urine. Polyuria- increased urine production. Polydipsia- excessive and ongoing thirst. Polyphagia-intense and continuous hunger. Diabetic ketoacidosis- accumulation of ketone bodies in the blood. Types of Diabetes Mellitus a. Type 1(juvenile-onset diabetes)- usually strikes before 30 years of age. - Also called the insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus(IDDM). An autoimmune disease usually triggered by some type of viral infection in genetically susceptible individuals b. Type 2(non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus) - Most common form of diseases. - Often occurs after age 40 years. - A specific gene defect. - THYROID DISORDERS: Euthyroidism- the thyroid gland is functioning normally. Hyperthyroidism- increased secretion of the gland’s hormone. Hypothyroidism- decreased section of the gland’s hormone. GOITER a. Endemic goiter- nutritional iodine deficiency. b. Sporadic goiter- not restricted to any geographical area. Major causes include the following: - Genetic defects resulting in faulty iodine metabolism - Ingestion of large amounts of goitrogens such as cabbage soybeans and spinach. - Ingestions of medicinal goitrogens such as glocorticoids, dopamine, lithium. HYPOTHYROIDISM -a deficiency of TH resulting in slowed body metabolism, Decrease heat production and decreased oxygen consumption by the tissues. Primary hypothyroidism -TH levels are low and TSH levels are elevated. *Hashimoto’s disease- most common form of primary-autoimmune hypothyroidism. Secondary hypothyroidism -insufficient stimulation of a normal thyroid gland, results decreased TSH levels. Tertiary or central hypothyroidism -develops if the hypothalamus cannot produce TRH and TSH. Subclinical hypothyroidism -diagnosed with an elevated TSH level but a normal to low normal T4 level. HYPERTHYROIDISM -Excessive secretion of TH. Thyroid storm(Thyrotoxicosis) -potentially fatal acute episode of overactivity characterized by high fever, severe tachycardia , delirium, dehydration, and extreme irritability. *Thyroidectomy-removal of the thyroid gland; may be total or partial. THYROIDITIS -inflammation of the thyroid gland. Hope this movie helps you more understand abput endocrine system. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-S_vQZDH9hY http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D6mZaFG-W4A&feature=related SOURCES: INTERNET http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio105/endocrin.htm http://www.emedicinehealth.com/anatomy_of_the_endocrine_system/page12_em.h tm#authors_and_editors http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookendocr.html https://www.healthtap.com/#topics/endocrine-system-trivia http://www.scribd.com/doc/25408619/PATHO-CH30-Organization-and-Controlof-the-Endocrine-System-Porth http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQjaeNC1cU6E7Hhj2ULQJuG7p173rJWu bMQ-hR7z0Whi9f3_iiCow http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTmIGtvPswIMmKUwb1eDEKNGaGPCuLqqOG4YPoXiRAxSDJdQw-CA (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.thepepproject.net/ (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.google.com/ (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.thepepproject.net/ (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.google.com/ (n.d). Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=ENDOCRINE+SYSTEM&oq=ENDO CRINE+SYSTEM&gs_l=youtube.3..0l10.54286.55157.0.55677.14.6.0.0.0.2.403.1161. 1j2j2j0j1.6.0...0.0...1ac.1.hcuMCLMWh84 Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. BOOKS Thibodeau, G. A., & Patto, K. T. (2003). Anatomy and Physiology (5th editon ed.). Mosby. Black, J. M., & Hawks, J. H. MEDICAL-SURGICAL NURSING (18TH ed.). Thibodeau, G. A., & Patton, K. T. (2003). Anatomy and Physiology (5th editon ed.). Mosby. Thibodeau, & Patton. Anatomy and Physiology (18th ed.). .