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ANIMAL BEHAVIOR Ch 51 Animal behavior involves the actions of muscles and glands, which are under the control of the nervous system, to help an animal respond to a stimulus I. KINDS OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR A. Innate Behavior = developmentally fixed behavior 1. Fixed action patterns A sequence of unlearned acts that is unchangeable and is usually carried out to completion Example: male stickleback fish (they have read bellies) will attack other males that invade their nesting territories but won’t attack females (no red bellies What is the stimulus? How could they prove this? 2. Oriented movement Kinesis: undirected movement of an animal in response to environmental condition. Pillbugs are more active in dry conditions than in moist conditions. Why? Clue: Pillbugs breathe thru gills. All respiratory membranes must be moist for gas exchange Taxis: directed movement towards or away from a stimulus. Ex: trout orient themselves upstream. Why? Migration: seasonal movement of animals for long distance o Is circannual and usually follow sun’s position in sky to help them navigate o What might be the stimulus to initiate migration? 3. Imprinting Behavior is acquired ONLY if appropriate stimulus is provided during the CRITICAL PERIOD Once behavior is acquired it is irreversible In birds, young imprint on parent and learn basic behaviors of their species. If critical period passes without imprinting, then species-specific behavior is not learned 4. Behavioral rhythms Behavior that follows a biological clock Circadian rhythms follow a daily clock like nocturnal vs diurnal animals Circannual rythms follow a yearly clock like mating and migration o Most follow changes in light/dark during the year to cue them 5. Animal communication: transmission of a signal from one animal induces a behavior in another Chemical signal secreted by one animal like marking territory o Can involve pheromones that are secreted by females to indicate readiness to mate Visual o To show courtship or aggression: baring teeth and courtship dances Auditory Tactile = touch o Greeting, grooming. Mating B. Associative Learning = Learned thru interactions with environment Classical conditioning = animal responds to substitute stimulus Operant conditioning = animal learns behavior thru positive or negative stimulus Habituation = animal learns to ignore meaningless stimulus Observational learning = animal learns by observing other animals Insight = animal performs a behavior without being learned II. Genetics Of Behavior A. Is behavior the result of genetics or is it learned? Genes provide the instructions for behavior Nongenetic factors will modify how instructions are carried out Some behavior is more genetic than learned and visa versa. o More genetic? In what type of animal? o More learned? In what type of animal? o Physiological factor involved? B. Is variation in a particular behavior evidence for evolution? Case study: variation in migratory patterns C. The purpose of behavior is to enhance survival What is natural selection? Genes for behavior have evolved by natural selection in order to enhance survival o Foraging behavior o Mating behavior POPULATION ECOLOGY CH 53 TERMS: Population: members of the same species living together Community: a bunch of populations living together Ecosystem: all of the biotic and abiotic factors in a region Biosphere: part of the Earth that has living things Habitat: place where an organism lives Niche: living and nonliving resources of an organism I. POPULATION ECOLOGY Study of the growth, abundance and distribution of populations A. POPULATION ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Population size: N Total number of individuals in the population 2. Population Density: Number of individuals per unit area 3. Age structure The abundance of individuals of each age o Pyramid shaped curves indicate a rapidly growing population o Rectangular shaped curves indicate a stable population 4. Survivorship curves Describes the mortality of individuals during their lifetime o Type I species: most survive to middle age or older example humans tend to be large mammals that produce few offspring but provide a lot of care o Type II species: length of survival is random. Equal likelihood of death at any age example rodents o Type III species: most of the individuals die young Tend to be organisms that produce a lot of offspring with very little care example oysters B. POPULATION GROWTH 1. exponential growth The maximum growth rate of a species under IDEAL conditions The equation for exponential growth is: dN/dT = rmaxN Factors that affect the rmax of a species o Age at which they reproduce o Average # offspring produced in each breed o How frequently they reproduce o How long they can reproduce o How many offspring survive to reproduce 2. Logistic Growth As the population reaches the carrying capacity of the environment, growth decreases and approaches zero Represented by the following formula: dN/dT = rmaxN(K-N) N K = carrying capacity N= #individuals K-N = #of new individuals the environment can support K-N/N = fraction of K that is still available for population growth The smaller N is the closer K-N/K is to 1 and the growth rate approaches the maximum rate The larger N is the closer K-N/K is to zero and the closer the growth rate approaches zero What happens if N>K? 3. Carrying capacity: the maximum number of individuals of a population that the environment can support Factors that limit the carrying capacity and biotic potential of a population o Parasites and disease o Resources o Toxic effects of waste o Stress of too many individuals inhibits reproduction o predators These are density dependent. What does that mean? Examine the graph: a. explain the change in population size from 1955 to 1956 and from 1956 to 1958 in terms of competition for resources Examine the following graph: a. which is the predator and which is the prey? b. explain the graph C. REPRODUCTIVE PATTERNS ARE THE RESULT OF NATURAL SELECTION Any trait that would enhance an organism’s chances to survive and reproduce is favorable However, there are tradeoffs between survival and reproduction o The greater the chance of survival, the more energy can be invested in reproduction Species whose young have a high rate of survival like primates tend to produce few larger young and invest energy in their care o The lower the chance of survival the less energy will be invested in reproduction Species whose young have a lower chance of survival, like insects, produce a lot of smaller young and don’t invest energy in their care 2. reproductive strategies can be kselected or r-selected K-selected strategies o Tends to operate in a stable environment and is under the influence of density dependent factors o Organisms that are extreme kstrategists tend to have the following reproductive characteristics: Fewer larger offspring Lots of parental care Slower maturity Often reproduce more than once Most offspring survive to reproduce Because most offspring survive they can invest a lot of energy in their young R-selected strategies Tend to operate in an unstable environment and subject to density independent factors o Characteristics of r-strategists: many small offspring little or no parental care early reproductive age often reproduce only once most offspring die before they reproduce because survival of offspring is low they tend to invest little energy in their young COMMUNITY ECOLOGY CH 54 A. Interactions Between Populations 1. Interspecies competition: two different species compete for the same resource. This often results in one species succeeding over the other 2. Resource partitioning occurs when species coexist despite their competition for the same resources because they live in slightly different niches 3. predation occurs when one species negatively uses another species for food. Is a cow considered a predator? 4. Symbiosis occurs when two species live in close contact Mutualism: both species benefit Commensalism: one species benefits Parasitism: one species benefits and the other is harmed B. EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATIONS THAT HELP PREY AVOID PREDATORS AND HELP PREDATORS CATCH PREY In order for a predator-prey relationship to continue they both must be able to successfully reproduce 1. Evolutionary adaptations that help prey avoid predator Chemical produced by certain plants that discourage herbivore from eating them Camouflage or cryptic coloration is the color, pattern shape, or behavior that allows an animal to blend into its surroundings Aposematic or warning colorations the coloration or pattern of an animal that warns predators that they should be avoided Poison dart frog mimicry occurs when two species resemble each other a. mullarian: animals with the same mechanism of defense share the same coloration (a) Cuckoo bee Two unpalatable species mimic each (b) Yellow jacket other . b. batesian: one animal with no defenses resembles another animal with defenses (b) Green parrot snake Hawkmoth larva A harmless species mimics a harmful one. 2. Evolutionary adaptations that allow predator to capture prey acute sense of smell speed claws, fangs, stingers, poisons C. Effect of Dominant, Keystone, and Introduced Species on Community Structure species diversity: the variety of different species on a community. Has 2 components: o species richness: the number of different species in the community o relative abundance: the amount of each species in the community 1. Dominant species most abundant species in the community it controls the distribution of other species ex: sugar maple is abundant species in northeast forests and provides shade and good quality soil what might happen if the dominant species declined in number? How did it become a dominant species? 2. Invasive species Organisms that are introduced to a new community, usually by humans Why are they so successful? Ex: 3. Keystone species Affects community structure not by being abundant but by its role in the community Ex: sea otters Kelp→ sea urchin→ sea otter How does the sea otter population affect the kelp abundance? ECOSYSTEMS AND ENERGY FLOW CH 55 A. THE CYCLES 1. Water cycle a. The water from oceans evaporates into the atmosphere b. Water from plants evaporates to the atmosphere by transpiration c. Water precipitates from the atmosphere to the earth d. Most of the water enters into the oceans e. Some of the water is taken up by living organisms 2. The Carbon cycle a. CO2 in the atmosphere is fixed by photosynthetic organisms b. animals eat the photosynthetic organisms c. animals respire and put CO2 back into the atmosphere d. animals die and their remains become fossil fuels e. fossil fuels are burned and CO2 is deposited in the atmosphere 3. The nitrogen cycle a. atmospheric N2 is fixed by nitrogen fixing bacteria and used by plants b. herbivores eat the plants c. herbivores pee, poop and die returning nitrogen to the soil which is then fixed by nitrogen fixing bacteria in plants d. Carnivores eat herbivores e. Carnivores pee, poop, and die returning nitrogen to the soil to be fixed f. some bacteria in the soil take the soil nitrogen and restore it to atmospheric nitrogen B. TROPHIC LEVELS 1. Primary Producers a. Autotrophs that produce glucose 2. Primary consumers a. Herbivores that eat primary producers 3. Secondary consumers a. carnivores that eat herbivores 4. Tertiary consumers a. Eat secondary consumers 5. Detrivores a. consumers that eat dead stuff C. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS Show the relationship between trophic levels Why is energy flow thru ecosystems inefficient? o 10% rule: 10 % of energy from 1 trophic level is available to the next o Rest of the energy is used by the organism or lost as heat or waste o Therefore: There are a limited # of trophic levels There are fewer and fewer organisms/mass/energy in higher trophic levels This creates pyramid of numbers/biomass/energy D. ENERGY FLOWS THROUGH ECOSYSTEMS Primary productivity o .the amount of organic material produced by autotrophs in a given period Gross primary productivity o the amount of organic material produced o net primary productivity the amount of organic material that is available to heterotrophs o Secondary productivity The production of new biomass by heterotrophs Productivity and photosynthesis The more photosynthesis, the greater the primary productivity and the greater the production of new biomass Therefore the ecological pyramid will be broader III. Ecological Succession and Community Disturbances A. Community Disturbances A change in a community due to the destruction of resources and death of organisms o Natural disturbances Fire, hurricane, volcanos o Human disturbances Clearing of land, sinking of ships Community disturbance could be positive or negative o Positive: sunken ship provides new habitats for fish o Negative: volcanic eruption destroys communities B. Ecological Succession: Colonization of new species into the disturbed area a. Primary succession: when a force like a volcano destroys everything in community even soil moss and lichen grow on hardened lava and make soil small plants like grasses start growing in soil from blown in seeds shrubs and trees start to grow b. Secondary succession When a force like a tornado or an abandoned farm destroys everything but leaves soil intact Grasses start to grow then shrubs and trees II. How Have Humans Affected Species Diversity A. Deforestation Clearing of land for farming or housing Destroys animal habitats so they have no place to live Many organisms die B. Hunting Excessive hunting kills many animals By doing this species become endangered They are forced to inbreed and this makes them weakened C. Introduced Species A nonnative species brought in by humans Many thrive and take over a community because they have no known predators