Download Operant Conditioning - Everglades High School

Chapter 6: Learning
BEHAVIORAL
PERSPECTIVE
2015-2016
Objective
• I will be able to understand and
apply the concepts of “learning”
1.Classical conditioning
2.Operant conditioning
3. Observational learning
to “real life” situations
What type of “things” do
people learn?
What is the process
involved in this learning?
How would you define
learning?
Learning
• *A relatively durable change in behavior or
knowledge that is due to experience
Label your Notes:
1. Classical Conditioning
Some Natural Reactions
What happens when you
smell good food?
What happens when you
see the “love of your life”
walking down the hall?
We’ll get back to this in a
minute!
I need a volunteer who is a
“good sport.”
Ivan Pavlov
*Ivan Pavlov, Russian
physiologist , 1900’sresearch on digestion,
found dogs salivate in
response to sound of a
tone. He discovered
Classical Conditioning,
a.k.a. Pavlovian
conditioning
He was studying the role of saliva in
digestion of dogs
Figure 6.1 Classical conditioning apparatus
Figure 6.2 The sequence of events in classical conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
• Terminology
– *Unconditioned Stimulus-UCS or US (the food)-evokes
an unconditioned response that is not learned
– *Unconditioned Response-UCR or UR (salivate)-an
unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (food)
– *Conditioned Stimulus-CS (bell) –a neutral stimulus that is
able, through conditioning, to evoke a conditioned response
(salivating)
– *Conditioned Response-salivate (CR) –a learned reaction
to a conditioned stimulus (bell) that occurs because of
conditioning
Now, back to our pizza and
“the love of your life.”
Conditioning in Everyday Life
Food and the Bell
• You are in your 5th
period, the bell rings, you
become hungry and
salivate. You associate
eating with the bell.
• In this example,
the UCS=,
the UCR=
the CS=
the CR=
Seeing the “love of your
life”
• You see him/her, your
heat beats, you get
butterflies in your
stomach. This love wears
AXE. You are walking
down the hall & smell
AXE, you get butterflies.
• In this example,
the UCS=
the UCR=
the CS=
the CR=
The water bottle incident.
• What was the US?
• What was the UR?
• What was the CS?
• What was the CR?
Natural Reactions and Their Causes
Other Reactions that are
Natural (part of out human
make-up)?
Natural Causes (part of
our human make-up) for
these Reactions
Classical Conditioning or Pavlovian
Conditioning
*A stimulus (the bell-AXE) acquires the
capacity (making it conditioned) to
evoke a response (salivation-feelings of
love) that was originally evoked by a
natural stimulus (food-seeing your
“love”)
Classical Conditioning: More Terminology
• Trial = pairing of UCS (food) and CS (bell)
• Acquisition = initial stage in learning
• Stimulus contiguity = occurring together in
time and space
Presenting the CS no more than 2 to 3 seconds
before an US/UCS will result in most effective
learning
Figure 6.3 Classical conditioning of a fear response
The Love Story, Charlie, Gum and
Cigarettes
Processes in Classical Conditioning
• *Extinction-gradual weakening and disappearance of a
conditioned response when the UCS and the CS are no longer
paired
• *Spontaneous Recovery-reappearance of an extinguished
response
• *Stimulus Generalization-responding the same way to stimuli
that are similar to the conditioned stimuli ( a different tone of a
bell, the word turd)
• *Discrimination-not responding to similar stimuli as the CS-only
respond to the original bell tone
• *Higher-order conditioning-conditioned stimulus function as if
it were an unconditioned stimulus-using a CS to add another CS
See next slide for example)
Figure 6.10 Higher-order conditioning
Figure 6.7 Acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery
Poor Little Albert
Little Albert
-What is the UCS?
-What is the UCR?
-What is the CS?
-What is the CR?
-How was generalization
demonstrated?
-What would have
demonstrated stimulus
discrimination in the
case of Little Albert?
Your Turn
• Work with a partner to:
1. Use Classical Conditioning to explain why
you or someone else associates one event
with another
2. Include and identify the UCS (water in face),
UCR (turning head to avoid), CS (word bird),
CR (turning head)
3. Explain discrimination and generalization
4. You have 10 minutes
Conditioning and Physiological
Responses
• Functions of the immune system can be
influenced by conditioning
immunosuppression (decrease in production
of antibodies)
Animals injected with immunosuppression drug
while given an odd tasting liquid to drink
Had reduced antibody production when given
just the drink
Let’s See How Many Past
Vocabulary Words We know
Lets see how many old terms you
remember
Behavioral Perspective
Evolutionary Perspective
Psychoanalytic Perspective
Cognitive Perspective
Socio-cultural (Cultural) Perspective
Humanistic Perspective
Hypothesis
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Control Group
Experimental Group
Extraneous Variables
proactive interference
anterograde amnesia
retrograde amnesia
long term potentiation
Operational Definitions
random sample
population
random assignment
Label Your Notes:
2. Operant Conditioning
is Instrumental Learning (Thorndike)
• *Edward L. Thorndike (1913) – the law of
effect – behaviors followed by positive
consequences are strengthened (have better
chance of occurring in future); behaviors
followed by negative consequences are
weakened.
• Did pioneering work on how cats learn
using puzzle box (p. 229)-read about in
text
Operant ConditioningBF Skinner (1953)
• learning in which
responses are
controlled by their
consequences
(the response is
called an operant
response)
Operant Conditioning
• B.F. Skinner (1953) – principle of
*reinforcement -reinforcement occurs when
an event (ex. candy) following a response
(ex. answering questions) increases an
organism’s tendency to make that response
(ex. answering questions)
– *Operant chamber or Skinner box
(animal makes specific responses that are
recorded and consequences are
controlled)
Operant Conditioning
– *Reinforcement contingencies-whether
or not responses lead to
reinforces/rewards-controlled by the
experimenter
– *Cumulative recorder-creates a graphic
record of animal’s response and
reinforcement
Figure 6.13 Skinner box and cumulative recorder
How Does Operant Conditioning Look in
“Real” Life? Are you likely to go out with
these friends again?
Figure 6.12 Reinforcement in operant conditioning
Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning
• *Acquisition-the initial stages of learning, effected
by:
• *Shaping-rewarding successive approximations
(behaviors close to what is expected)
• *Extinction-the weakening of the response due to no
reinforcement (how would this look in real life?)
*Generalization-responding to a new stimuli as if it were the
original-I answer questions to any kind of candy reward
*Discrimination-responding only to the original stimulus (a
bear responds to an animal trainer’s hand signals but not to
your hand signals)
Figure 6.14 A graphic portrayal of operant responding
Table 6.1 Comparison of Basic Processes in Classical and Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement:
Consequences that Strengthen Responses
• *Primary Reinforcers
– Satisfy biological needs (food, water)
• *Secondary Reinforcers are
– Conditioned reinforcers-acquire
reinforcing qualities (money, good grades,
cars, etc…)
Schedules of Reinforcement
• *Continuous reinforcement =reward every time(most effective
when learning new behaviors)
• *Intermittent (partial) reinforcement (responses sometimes
reinforced and sometimes not-2 types):
1. *Ratio schedules (# of responses)
• Fixed – number of responses (pellet after every 7pigeon
pecks)
• Variable – average number of correct responses (occurs
after an average of 7 pigeon pecks)
2. *Interval schedules (amount of time)
• Fixed –rat reinforced every 2 minutes
• Variable – rat reinforced after average of every 2
minutes
Partial Reinforcement Schedule
Ratios
Fixed Ratio-Every 5 pulls-lower resistance to
extinction
Variable Ratio-average of 5
pulls-higher resistance to
extinction
Partial Reinforcement Schedule
Ratios
Fixed Interval-Every 5
minutes--lower resistance
to extinction
Variable Interval-average of 5
every five minutes-higher
resistance to extinction
Figure 6.17 Schedules of reinforcement and patterns of response
Consequences: Reinforcement (increases
behaviors) and Punishment (decreases behaviors)
• Increasing a response through:
– *Positive reinforcement = response followed by
rewarding stimulus (food)
– *Negative reinforcement = response (push lever
in skinner box; studying; click seatbelt)
stops/removes an aversive (means
uncomfortable) stimulus/event (shock-fear of
failing test; seat belt buzzer stops- doing what
you were asked just to stop mom from yelling):
• *Escape learning-response that ends or
decreases an aversive stimuli (shock; turning
on AC to end heat)
• *Avoidance learning-an aversive stimuli is
prevented from occurring (turn on AC before it
gets hot)
Figure 6.18 Positive reinforcement versus negative reinforcement
Figure 6.19 Escape and avoidance learning
Operant Conditioning
• Decreasing a response through:
– *Punishment (consequences that
weaken a response)
*Positive Punishment(give somethingspanking, ticket)
*Negative Punishment(take something-car,
grounded for a week)
– Problems with punishment and General Rules:
1. apply swiftly 2. just severe enough to be effective
–fit the “crime” 3. consistent 4. explain the
punishment 5. minimize physical punishment
Punishment Verses Reinforcement
• Punishment (negative or positive)
decreases a behavior
• Reinforcement (negative or positive)
increases a behavior
Figure 6.20 Comparison of negative reinforcement and punishment
Changes in Our Understanding
of Conditioning
• Biological Constraints on Conditioning
– Instinctive Drift-animals instincts interfere with
conditioning (raccoons rub shinny pennies-can not
get them to put pennies in bank; can’t get you to
jump out window for $100)
– Conditioned Taste Aversion (aka, the Garcia
Effect)- John Garcia, 1989- Food paired with
nausea, even hours later, we avoid that food and
do not relate nausea to other stimuli present (our
girlfriend, our parents, a fork)
– WHY????
Figure 6.22 Conditioned taste aversion
Changes in Our Understanding
of Conditioning
– Biological Preparedness (Martin
Seligman) said we are prone to be easily
conditioning in certain ways. Certain
phobias are more common than others
Most Common Phobias-Snakes, spiders,
heights, darkness-Most common Phobias
After painful experiences with hot stove or
electrical outlets, fear’s infrequent
WHY???????????????????????????????
Why-Evolutionary or Biological Perspective- Most
were Once Threats to our Ancestors
Avoiding events in our
environment are adaptive
our biological heritage puts
restraints on learning
Associative Learning= learning that two
events occur together (stimuli in classical
cond., or a response and its
consequence-as in operant cond.)
Premack Principle: high probability
behaviors (we do by choice-soccer) are
used to reinforce low probability behaviors
(chores).
Recognizing Cognitive Processes in
Conditioning
If I listen to music while studying, I
realize that it is the studying, not
the music, that improved my grade.
Studying will be reinforced and
done again. Robert Rescorla’s
(behavioral psychologist-studied
Operant Conditioning)
Contingency Model-has a cognitive
aspect)
Key Figure-Robert Rescorla’s
Contingency Model –Cognitive
Process :
Response Outcome Relations:
• Stimulus must provide subject info. about
likelihood events will occur
Example: Dog has to realize that going a trick
results in a food treat, for the dog to be
trained to do tricks
Label your Notes:
3. Observational Learning / Social
Learning Theory/Social Cultural
Perspective (Albert Bandura):
Observational Learning:
• Albert Bandura :
– *Observational learning =learn by
watching and then imitating others, called
models
– *Vicarious conditioning=both classical
and operant conditioning takes place,
vicariously, through observational learning
(example=You respond to my word
questions because you saw others get
candy)
What are some examples of this?
Bandura’s BoBo
Doll Experiment
and observational
learning
Showed that
children
learned to be
aggressive by
watching
aggressionLet’s watch
Mirror Neurons
• Particular group of brain
cells seem to be
responsible for
observational learning
Other Important Learning Concepts
Learned Helplessness-Seligman, passive behavior
due to unavoidable aversive events, feel outcome is
out of our control (read page 223)Ex: do not study b/c
you feel you always fail
Insight Learning-sudden solution to a problem, an “ahha” experience (Kohler-banana in ceiling
experiment)
Cognitive Maps-Tolman-a mental representation of the
layout of the environment (with food present) in a
maze because they remembered cognitive maps of
the maze when they were in there with no food
present-Tolman called this:
Latent learning-storing the info until it was needed (can
wash car since I saw mom do it years earlier)
Figure 6.25 Observational learning
Observational Learning: Basic
Processes
Bandura distinguishes between acquisition (I know how to
study) vs. performance (but will I) .
*Reinforcement will determine
whether I actually perform a
learned response-is it worth it?
Prosocial v. Antisocial Modeling
Effects
• Positive, helpful
models
• Negative models
have negative
effects (abusive
men saw mothers
abused)
More Terms to Know
• Aversive Conditioning=associating a satisfying
experience with an unpleasant one to stop unwanted
behavior (is Classical Conditioning-taking a nausea
producing drug with alcohol)
• Token economy= (is operant conditioning) using
tokens/tickets/stickers to reward desired behaviorstokens are later traded in for desired items – used in
psychiatric facilities
• Chaining= (is operant conditioning)teach subjects
to perform a number of responses successfully to get
a reward (training a dog act in the circus)
(shaping is to mold a single behavior)
Overjustification Effect external rewards diminish
intrinsic motivations (I love reading; school gives
prize for summer reading; I don’t enjoy reading as
much-I read less)