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Learning
Chapter 6: Learning
Part 1- Behaviorist Learning Theory
Case Study: The Little Albert Experiment
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
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Learning
Case Study: The Little Albert Experiment
The Little Albert experiment showed that emotional reactions such as
fear can be taught through classical conditioning.
The Experiment
The Results
• Eleven-month-old Albert was
conditioned to fear a white rat
rather than be amused by it.
• After they paired the rat with loud
noises, Albert showed a fear of the
rat even when there was no noise.
• Psychologists achieved this by
pairing the rat with something
that Albert would find
instinctively frightening.
• By today’s standards, the
experiment was unethical.
• Albert’s fear spread to similar
objects.
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Learning
What do you think?
• How did Watson and Rayner condition Little Albert to
fear white rats?
• Do you think you have learned to fear or enjoy certain
things because of conditioning or association? Explain.
Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.
Learning
Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.
Learning
Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.
Learning
Section 1 at a Glance
Classical Conditioning
• Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov pioneered research
into a form of learning known as classical conditioning. In
classical conditioning, one stimulus causes a response
that is usually caused by another stimulus.
• Classical conditioning can help people adapt to the
environment and can help eliminate troubling fears or
other behaviors.
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Learning
Classical Conditioning in Action
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Learning
Classical Conditioning
Main Idea
Classical conditioning is a form of learning that involves the use of a
stimulus to generate a specific response.
Reading Focus
• What are the basic principles of classical conditioning?
• How might classical conditioning help people or animals adapt to the
environment?
• What are some applications of classical conditioning?
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Learning
Principles of Classical Conditioning
• Conditioning is a type of learning that involves stimulus-response
connections.
• Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning in which one stimulus
calls forth the response that is usually called forth by another stimulus.
Pavlov’s Dogs
Stimulus and Response
• Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov used
dogs in his studies of classical
conditioning.
• Unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus
that causes a response that is
automatic, not learned
• He trained the dogs to associate the
sound of a bell with food.
• Unconditioned response: caused by
an unconditioned stimulus
• They learned that the sound of the bell
meant food was coming.
• Conditioned response: a learned
response to a neutral stimulus
• Conditioned stimulus: a previously
neutral stimulus that causes a
conditioned response
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Learning
Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.
Learning
Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.
Learning
Reading Check
Summarize
How does classical conditioning occur?
Answer: One stimulus calls forth the response
that is usually called forth by another stimulus.
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Learning
Applications of Classical Conditioning
Flooding and Systematic
Desensitization
• In flooding, a person is exposed to
the harmless stimulus until fear
responses to that stimulus are
extinguished.
Counterconditioning
• In counterconditioning, a pleasant
stimulus is paired repeatedly with a
fearful one, counteracting the fear.
• With systematic desensitization,
people learn relaxation techniques
and then, while they are relaxed,
they are gradually exposed to the
stimulus they fear.
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Learning
Section 2 at a Glance
Operant Conditioning
• Psychologist B.F. Skinner helped pioneer research into a
form of learning known as operant conditioning, in which
individuals learn from the consequences of their actions.
• Operant conditioning depends on the use of
reinforcements and a schedule to execute them.
• The principles of operant conditioning can be applied to
help people or animals learn to combine a series of
simple steps or actions to form complex behaviors.
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Learning
Operant Conditioning
Main Idea
Operant conditioning occurs when people or animals have learned to
respond to a certain situation.
Reading Focus
• How are operant conditioning and reinforcement related?
• What are the main types of reinforcers?
• How do rewards and punishments shape learning?
• How do schedules of reinforcement influence learning?
• What are some applications of operant conditioning?
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Learning
Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement
• In operant conditioning, people and animals learn to do certain
things—and not to do others—because of the results of what they do.
• They learn from the consequences of their actions.
• In operant conditioning, voluntary responses are conditioned.
• B.F. Skinner studied operant conditioning by using the “Skinner box.”
• His experiment demonstrated reinforcement, or the process by
which a stimulus (food) increases the chances that a preceding
behavior (a rat pressing a lever) will occur again.
• Knowledge of results is often all the reinforcement that people need
to learn new skills.
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Learning
Reading Check
Describe
How does reinforcement result in operant
conditioning?
Answer: In operant conditioning, people and
animals learn to do certain things because of the
results of what they do. Reinforcement increases
the chances that such behavior will occur again.
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Learning
Types of Reinforcers
Primary and Secondary
Reinforcers
Positive and Negative
Reinforcers
• Primary reinforcers are
reinforcers that function due to the
biological makeup of an organism.
• Positive reinforcers increase the
frequency of a behavior.
• Secondary reinforcers are
learned by being paired with
primary reinforcers.
• Money is a secondary reinforcer
because we have learned that it
may be exchanged for primary
reinforcers like food and shelter.
• In positive reinforcement, a person
receives something he or she
wants following the behavior.
• Negative reinforcers increase the
frequency of a behavior when they
are removed.
• In negative reinforcement, a
behavior is reinforced because
something unwanted stops
happening or is removed following
the behavior.
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Learning
Reading Check
Summarize
Describe the four main types of reinforcers.
Answer: Primary reinforcers are those that people and animals do
not need to be taught to value, such as food and water. Secondary
reinforcers, like money, must be learned. Positive reinforcers, such as
food and fun, increase the frequency of the behavior they follow when
they are applied. Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of the
behavior that follows when they are removed. They are unpleasant,
and include discomfort and fear.
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Learning
Rewards and Punishments
Rewards
Punishments
• Like positive reinforcement,
rewards help encourage learning.
• Punishments are quite different
from negative reinforcers.
• Some psychologists, however,
prefer positive reinforcement
because the concept of
reinforcement can be explained
without trying to guess what an
organism will find rewarding.
• Punishments are unwanted events
that decrease the frequency of the
behavior they follow.
• Punishments tend to work only
when they are guaranteed.
• Most psychologists believe it is
preferable to reward children for
desirable behavior than punish
them for unwanted behavior.
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Learning
Reading Check
Contrast
Explain how punishments are different from
negative reinforcers.
Answer: Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of a
behavior by being removed, whereas punishments, when
applied, decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow.
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Learning
Schedules of Reinforcement
• The effectiveness of a reinforcement depends on the schedule of
reinforcement—when and how often the reinforcement occurs.
Continuous and Partial
Reinforcement
Interval Schedules
• Continuous reinforcement is the
reinforcement of a behavior every time
the behavior occurs.
• Fixed-interval schedule: a fixed amount
of time must elapse between
reinforcements
• Continuous reinforcement is not always
practical or possible.
• Variable-interval schedule: varying
amounts of time go by between
reinforcements
• The alternative is partial
reinforcement, which means a
behavior is not reinforced every time the
behavior occurs.
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Learning
Reading Check
Infer
Why are both variable-interval schedules
and variable-ratio schedules successful?
Answer: because timing is unpredictable; reinforcement
can come at any time
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Learning
Applications of Operant Conditioning
Shaping and Chaining
Programmed Learning
• Shaping is a way of teaching
complex behaviors in which one
first reinforces small steps in the
total activity.
• Programmed learning is based on
shaping and chaining.
• Chaining is combining the steps of
a sequence to progress toward a
final action.
• Chaining can be forward or
backward.
• Developed by B.F. Skinner, it
assumes that any task can be
broken down into small steps.
• Programmed learning does not
involve punishments.
• Instead, it reinforces correct
responses.
• Chaining can be used to teach
complex behavior patterns to
animals.
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