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PoliticalIslamattheAgeofReason SaeedMortazavi,Ph.D. ProfessorEmeritus HumboldtStateUniversity 2017 I. Introduction ThecollapseoftheSovietUnionin1991heraldedthevictory ofcapitalismoversocialism.Inturn,thereinvigorated capitalistregimeshavefacedmajoreconomiccrisesoverthe pastcoupleofdecades.Historically,capitalismhasexhibited instabilityandinequality.Instabilityordisequilibriumseems tobethenormratherthanexceptionincapitalism.Forthat reason,JohnMaynardKeynesassignedanimportantroleto thegovernmentandgovernmentpoliciestoreestablish equilibrium. Thepromiseofcontinuousgrowthandaccumulationofwealth inaworldoffiniteresourcesseemstobeanimprobable proposition.Thisisparticularlytrueatthepresenttime.The capitalistregimeshaveexhibitedaverysloweconomicgrowth, unevendistributionofwealth,andgovernmentdebtat unprecedentedlevel.Thegovernmentdebt,inturn,hasturned thegovernmentanditspoliciesineffectivetoreestablish equilibrium.Consequently,manysocialthinkersbelievethat capitalismisonitsdeathbedandgraduallywillbereplaced withanewsystem[1]. Interestinglyenough,manyMuslimcountrieshavefocusedon politicalIslamasathirdalternativetosocialismand capitalism.Religiondominanceinpoliticsisnotanew 1 phenomenon.ThechurchdominatedEuropeanregimesfora longtime.Finally,theEnlightenmentmovementinEuropeput anendtothisdominance.PhilosopherssuchasThomas HobbesandJohnLockeprovidedastrongargumentagainst thedivinesourceofpoliticalpowerandempoweredpeopleas theultimateandlegitimatesourceofpoliticalpower.Tothis end,thispaperattemptstoanalyzepoliticalIslamandpeople’s choiceandpowerwithinIslamicpoliticalregimesattheageof reason. II. ThomasHobbes:PoliticalPhilosophy TheEnglishCivilWar(1642-1651)wasastrugglebetween parliamentarianswhowantedtolimitthepoweroftheking androyalistswhobelievedinthedivinerightofkingsand wantedtoprotectthestatusquo.Thedivinerightofkings impliedthatking’ssourceofpowerandauthorityisGod. Hence,kingscouldnotbeheldaccountabletopeople’s representativesinparliaments.Thisconflictwasconcludedin theGloriousRevolution(1688-89)thatputanendtothe divinerightofkings. ItwasduringthischaoticperiodoftimethatThomasHobbes (1588-1679)wrotehismasterpiece,Leviathan,in1651. Therefore,likemanyotherpoliticalphilosophers,hisbookwas aremedyforthechaosthatheobservedinEngland.Hobbesis asocialcontracttheorist.Hebelievedinthevoluntaryactof 2 peopletojoinasocialcontracttoformagovernmenttoend politicalchaosanduncertainty.Todevelophistheory,he imaginesanoriginalposition(priortotheformationof government)thathecallsthe“stateofnature”andinvestigates humannatureintheoriginalpositioninordertoshowthe necessityofasocialcontractfortheformationofa government. Thestateofnatureisahypotheticaloriginalpositioninwhich thereisnogovernmentandhencethereisnolegitimateforce tocontroltherelationshipamongmen.Inthisstate,peopleare equal,initially.However,thisequalitywillnotlastlongsince accordingtoHobbeseverymanseeksquarrelbasedonthree principals:competition,diffidence(distrust),andglory (vanity). Sothatinthenatureofman,wefindthreeprincipal causesofquarrel.First,competition;secondly, diffidence;thirdly,glory.Thefirst,makethmen invadeforgain;thesecond,forsafety;andthird,for reputation[2]. Inthisstate,thereisnomorality(norightorwrong)and nothingisjustorunjustsincethereisnolaw.Asaresult,men willseekmorepowersincetheyhavedesireforit.Thisinturn willresultinthewarofallagainstall[3].Thischaoticand 3 uncertainenvironmentwillmotivatementoacceptvoluntarily asocialcontractthatgivesthemprotectionthroughcreationof asovereignauthoritywithsupremepowerthatcouldmake lawsandenforcelawstoconvertthewarofallagainstalltoa peacefulenvironmentinwhichsafetyofindividualand protectionoftheirlivesandpropertyareguaranteedbythe government. Iauthorizeandgiveupmyrightofgoverningmyself, tothisman,ortothisassemblyofmen,onthis condition,thatthougiveupthyrighttohim,and authorizeallhisactionsinlikemanner[4]. ItiseasytoseethatHobbeshadapessimisticviewofman. Leavingthemtotheirowndevices,theywillseekcompetition andconflict.However,toavoidrisk,theyarewillingtoforma governmenttoavoidtheperiloflivinginthestateofnature.It isimportanttonotethatalthoughthesocialcontractis voluntaryandsignedcollectively,individualsforgotheirrights afterwardsandgivethesovereignanabsolutepowerthatis notreversible. III. JohnLocke:PoliticalPhilosophy LikeHobbes,JohnLockeisasocialcontracttheorist;however, heisamuchmoreoptimistpoliticalphilosopher.Healso 4 believesinthepowerofindividualsandrejectsHobbesian absolutepowerofthesovereign.HisfirstbookofTwo TreatisesofGovernmentisaresponsetoSirRobertFilmerwho believedinthedivinerightofkingsandabsolutism.Locke rejectedthisdoctrineanddefendedthemajorityruleandthe righttoresistthegovernment[5]. Locke’sstateofnatureisverydifferentfromHobbes’s.Men arefreeandequalinthestateofnature. TounderstandPoliticalPowerright,anddriveitfrom itsorigin,wemustconsiderwhatStateareallMenare naturallyin,andthatis,aStateofperfectFreedomto ordertheirActions,anddisposeoftheirPossessions, andPersonsastheythinkfit,withintheboundsofthe LawofNature.…AStatealsoofEquality,whereinall thePowerandJurisdictionisreciprocal,noone havingmorethananother[6]. So,Locke’sstateofnatureisnotdevoidoflaw.Thereisnocivil lawinthestateofnaturebutthereisGod’slaw.Therefore, menlivetogetheramicablybasedonGod’slaw.Inthestateof nature,Godhasgiventheearthtomenincommon.However, individualsowntheirownbodyandhenceareentitledtothe fruitoftheirlabor.Anindividual’slaborcombinedwith commonresourcesyieldsprivatepropertyaccordingtoLocke. 5 ThoughtheEarth,andallinferiorCreaturesbe commontoallMen,yeteveryManhasapropertyin hisownperson.ThisnoBodyhasanyRighttobut himself.TheLabourofhisBody,andtheWorkofhis Hands,wemaysay,areproperlyhis.Whatsoever thenheremovesoutoftheStatethatNaturehath provided,andleftitin,hehadmixedhislabourwith, andjoinedtoitsomethingthatishisown,and therebymakesithisproperty[7]. Onceprivatepropertyiscreated,thenthestateofinequality willbecomethenormamongthemenbasedontheirown industry(labor).Thiswillcreateconflictamongthemsince thereisnocivillawtoprotectprivateproperty.Asaresult, menbyconsentdecidetojoinacivilsocietybasedonasocial contract.Thesocialcontractisbetweenpeopleandnotwith thegovernment.Inthecivilsociety,peoplewilltradetheir naturallibertyforcivilliberty;however,thistrade-offisnot absolute.Thelawsestablishedandenforcedbyalegitimate governmentguaranteethecivillibertyandprotectprivate property.UnlikeHobbes’ssocialcontract,individualshave preservedtheirsupremepowerthroughtheruleofmajority andthegovernment’slegitimacyisalwaysconditional. Therefore,peoplehavetherighttoresistagovernmentthat deviatesfromthewillofpeople. 6 IV. PoliticalPhilosophyofIslam 622C.E.isanimportantbenchmarkinIslam.Inthatyear,Prophet MuhammadandhisfollowersemigratedtoMedina.Thisdateisthe beginningofIslamiccalendarandpoliticalIslam.InMedina,Prophet Muhammadruledasareligiousandpoliticalleader.Theso-called ConstitutionofMedinadeclaredaMuslimcommunity(ummah)outof severaltribeslivingsidebysidewiththeJewishcommunityand Muhammadasamediatorbetweenthetwogroupsadjudicatingcases basedonthedivinelaws.So,theMedinaofMuhammadisconsideredas amulti-religionstatethatstillMuslimsaroundtheworlddesireto emulate. Islam,asanAbrahamicreligion,inasensehasrenewedandfulfilled God’scovenantwithAbraham.So,Islamicfaithisalsoacompact betweenGodandMuslimstolivetheirlivesbasedonthedivinelaws. Asaresult,therearesimilaritiesbetweenthisreligiouscompactandthe socialcontractsofHobbesandLockethatweconsiderinthissection. MuslimsbelievethatGodhadsentHislawstothepreviousprophets includingAbraham,Moses,andJesus.However,theselawswerenotin operationinArabiaandinasense,notpracticedcorrectlyelsewhere. So,wemightcompareArabiabeforeIslamanddevoidofdivinelawto thestateofnatureinHobbesandLocke’stheories.Muslimsrefertothis periodastheeraofIgnorance(Jahiliyyeh)wherethedivinelawwas absent.TheProphet’semigrationtoMedinatransformedthestateof naturetoacivilandreligiouscommunitybasedonacompactwithGod. 7 ThedivinelawgovernsthetotalityofMuslims’livesandmakesIslama legalreligion.ThisisanimportantissuesinceIslam,similartoHobbes, doesnothaveapositiveviewofmanandhencewithoutlawtheresult willbechaos.HerearefewversesoftheQur’andescribingthebehavior ofthemankind. 1.Mankindisweak …manwascreatedweak.(Qur’an,4:32) 2.Mankindisunjust …manistrulyunjustandungrateful.(Qur’an,14:34) 3.Mankindishastyandimpatient Manwascreatedhasty:IwillshowyouMysignssoon,sodonot askMetohastenthem.(Qur’an,21:37) 4.Mankindiscontentiousandquarrelsome …manismorecontentiousthananyothercreature. (Qur’an,18:54) 5.Mankindlacksthoughtfulnessanddeliberation …theyhavealwaysbeenveryineptandrash. (Qur’an33:72) ItseemsthattherearesimilaritiesbetweenHobbes’sviewandIslam’s viewofmankind.Withoutlaw,government,andapowerfulleader,the “warofallagainstall”isadefinitepossibility. 8 RightaftertheProphet’sdeath,Muslimsweredividedintotwogroups basedonthelegitimacyofanewleader.TheSunnis(majorityof Muslims)sidedwiththeinstitutionofthecaliphatewhiletheShiites (minorityofMuslims)declaredthattheleadershipshouldremaininthe Prophet’sfamilyandsidedwiththeimamate. A. Caliphate AcaliphisthereligiousleaderoftheMuslimcommunity.Afterthe Prophet’sdeath,fourcaliphs(AbuBakr,Umar,Othman,andAli)known asRashidun(rightlyguided)caliphsruledtheIslamicword632-661 C.E.In661AliwasmurderedandMuawiyyahdeclaredhimselfcaliph andestablishedtheUmayyaddynastyasthekeeperofthecaliphate.In 749C.E.,theUmayyadweretoppledbytheAbbasidswhoruled7491258C.E.whentheAbbasidsweredefeatedbytheMongolsandthe continuousinstitutionofthecaliphatecametoanend. Inthe14thcentury,theOttomanEmperordeclaredhimselftherulerof theMuslimsandassumedthetitleofthecaliphate.Thislineofthe caliphatecametoanendwhentheOttomanEmpirewasdefeatedin WWIandthenewgovernmentofTurkeyabolishedthecaliphate.And in2014,theleaderoftheso-calledIslamicState(ISIS),Abu-BakrAlBaghdadiproclaimedthereturnofthecaliphate. 9 Theoretically,thechoiceofthecaliphwasthroughconsensus(ijma)of thecommunity.Thechoiceofthefirstcaliphwaslefttoagroupofthe Prophet’sclosestcompanions.Theselectionofthecaliphwasfollowed byanoathofallegiance(bayah)oftheentirecommunitytotheselected caliph.Oncetheoathistaken,theindividualMuslimsdonothavethe righttochangetheirmind.So,inasense,theselectionofacaliphis similartotheselectionofaleaderalaHobbes.Likewise,acaliphisan absolutemonarchwhoseruleisnotsubjecttoquestionbypeople. Lockeanideasofamajorityrule,andtherightofresistancehaveno placeinIslamandthereisnopeacefulwaytoremoveacaliphaccording tothehistory.InIslam,nogovernmenthasbeenformedbythe voluntaryconsentofpeopleandthecontinuousconsentoftheruledis notnecessaryforthesurvivalofthegovernment.Thisisagravematter sincethecaliphrulestheentireIslamicworldsincenation-stateis anotheroddityinIslam.Asarule,governmentshavecomeabout throughforceandconquestinIslam.Asthetermsunnah(tradition) implies,customsandtraditionshavebeenthegreatestforceinIslam andnotconsentofthecommunity. B. Imamate UnliketheSunnis,theShiitesbelievedthattheleadershipofIslamwas vestedinImamAli,hiscousinandson-in-law,andhischildren. AccordingtoShiitedoctrine,Imamsaredivinelyinspiredandtheyare sinlessandinfallible.Unlikecaliphswhoareordinarymen,Shiite Imamsaredivinelyinspiredandareknowledgeableaboutissuesin Islamthatarehiddentoordinarymen. 10 Itisimportanttonoticethatpeople(Muslims)havenosayingonthis matter.Therefore,theleadershipinIslamisnotamatterofchoiceby individualMuslims.Asmentioned,theShiitesaretheminoritiesinthe IslamicworldandyettheyconsidertheirversionofIslamthetrue version.Asaresult,thetruthhasnothingtodowiththebeliefofthe majorityandmajorityruleisunimportantinsuchmatters. AlthoughtheShiitesaretheminorityinIslam,theyconstitutethe majorityinIran.TheIranianversionofShiism,thetwelver,isthe largestbranchofShiism.Accordingtothisversion,Imamateisvestedin AliandhisdescendantsandthetwelfthImamislivinginoccultationand willreturntoestablishjusticeinthefuture. AnotherimportantdifferencebetweentheSunnisandtheShiites concernsIslamiclaw.TheIslamiclaw(shariah)wascomposedfrom fourdifferentsources–theQur’an,thesayingsandtraditionofthe Prophet(thesunnah),qiyas(deductivereasoning),andtheconsensusof thecommunity(ummah).Whenthelawwascompleted,theSunnis declaredthatthegateofijtihad(independentreasoning)wasclosed and,hence,theIslamiclawshouldbepracticedforeverwithout alteration.TheShiiteMuslimshavekeptthegateofijtihadopenand Islamiclawissubjecttointerpretation. AyatollahKhomeini,theleaderofIslamicrevolutioninIran,arguedthat intheabsenceonthetwelfthImam,thereisaneedforaleaderwhois 11 knowledgeableaboutIslamandtheIslamiclawtojudgegovernment policiesasIslamicornon-Islamic.Therefore,theSupremeLeaderin Iranisajuristselectedbyagroupofjurists(mujtahids)whoareelected bypublic(assemblyoftheExperts).So,peoplehaveanindirectrolein selectingtheSupremeLeader.SincetheSupremeLeaderhasthefinal voteonallmattersinIran,thepoliticalregimeisanautocraticregime despitethedemocraticfaçade. V.Conclusion InIslam,sovereigntybelongstoGod. …AuthoritybelongstoGodalone,andHeordersyouto worshipnonebutHim.(Qur’an,12:40) CaliphsandImamsarehisregentsonearthtoruleonhisbehalfandto implementhislawsandordinances.SinceGod’slawsandordinances areimmutable,asocietyruledbysuchlawsiscoerciveandlacks democratictendencies.Assuch,politicalordersinanIslamicsociety arenotpronetochangeandmoderation. Asmentioned,peoplehavehadverylittleinfluence,ifany,onthe selectionofpoliticalleaders.Theoathofallegianceissimplyan acknowledgmentofcontinuousobediencetotherulerwhoisonly accountabletoGod.InIslam,bothinreligionandpolitics,entrytothe communitymightbefree,butexitisnotpermissible.Thisbasically 12 makesindividuals’freedomamootissueinIslamand,inturn,makes politicalregimesinIslamundemocratic. InIslam,asmentioned,theummah(Islamiccommunity)referstothe totalityofMuslimpopulation.Therefore,politicalinstitutionssuchas nationalityandnationalism,nation-states,nationalidentitiesarenot meaningfulconcepts.Thisisthereasonthataterroristorganization suchastheISISisabletorecruitsvolunteersfromallovertheworld. ThesepeopleseethemselvesonlyasMuslimsandnothingelse. Thispaperchosepurposefullytwopoliticalphilosophersofthe Enlightenment,HobbesandLocke,todiscusspoliticalIslam.Hobbesian politicalphilosophywithitspessimisticviewofmankindtooksides withabsolutismwhileLockeanpoliticalphilosophyconsideredalogical andareasonableroleforpeoplechoosingtheirownleadersand keepingthemaccountable.Interestinglyenough,bothphilosophers wereopentoreasonandlogictoreachaconclusion. IslamicpoliticalphilosophyisverymuchinlinewithHobbesianview andrejectsLockean’smovetoempowerpeople.Islamicinstitutionsare constructedbasedonimmutablelawsandhencearenotdisposedto changebasedlogicandreasonsrelatedtomodernpoliticalissuessuch astheuniversalityofhumanrights.Islamicsocialcontractisineffecta Hobbesiansocialcontractinfavorofabsolutism. 13 References 1. Streeck,Wolfgang.HowWillCapitalismEnd?London,Verso 2016. 2. Thomas,Hobbes,Leviathan,London,CollierMacmillanPublishers 1962,p.99. 3. Ibid.p.100. 4. Ibid.p.132. 5. JohnLocke,TwoTreatisesofGovernment,NewYork,New AmericanLibrary1960. 6. Ibid.ChapterII,p.309. 7. Ibid.ChapterV,p.328. 14