Download Document

PoliticalIslamattheAgeofReason
SaeedMortazavi,Ph.D.
ProfessorEmeritus
HumboldtStateUniversity
2017
I.
Introduction
ThecollapseoftheSovietUnionin1991heraldedthevictory
ofcapitalismoversocialism.Inturn,thereinvigorated
capitalistregimeshavefacedmajoreconomiccrisesoverthe
pastcoupleofdecades.Historically,capitalismhasexhibited
instabilityandinequality.Instabilityordisequilibriumseems
tobethenormratherthanexceptionincapitalism.Forthat
reason,JohnMaynardKeynesassignedanimportantroleto
thegovernmentandgovernmentpoliciestoreestablish
equilibrium.
Thepromiseofcontinuousgrowthandaccumulationofwealth
inaworldoffiniteresourcesseemstobeanimprobable
proposition.Thisisparticularlytrueatthepresenttime.The
capitalistregimeshaveexhibitedaverysloweconomicgrowth,
unevendistributionofwealth,andgovernmentdebtat
unprecedentedlevel.Thegovernmentdebt,inturn,hasturned
thegovernmentanditspoliciesineffectivetoreestablish
equilibrium.Consequently,manysocialthinkersbelievethat
capitalismisonitsdeathbedandgraduallywillbereplaced
withanewsystem[1].
Interestinglyenough,manyMuslimcountrieshavefocusedon
politicalIslamasathirdalternativetosocialismand
capitalism.Religiondominanceinpoliticsisnotanew
1
phenomenon.ThechurchdominatedEuropeanregimesfora
longtime.Finally,theEnlightenmentmovementinEuropeput
anendtothisdominance.PhilosopherssuchasThomas
HobbesandJohnLockeprovidedastrongargumentagainst
thedivinesourceofpoliticalpowerandempoweredpeopleas
theultimateandlegitimatesourceofpoliticalpower.Tothis
end,thispaperattemptstoanalyzepoliticalIslamandpeople’s
choiceandpowerwithinIslamicpoliticalregimesattheageof
reason.
II.
ThomasHobbes:PoliticalPhilosophy
TheEnglishCivilWar(1642-1651)wasastrugglebetween
parliamentarianswhowantedtolimitthepoweroftheking
androyalistswhobelievedinthedivinerightofkingsand
wantedtoprotectthestatusquo.Thedivinerightofkings
impliedthatking’ssourceofpowerandauthorityisGod.
Hence,kingscouldnotbeheldaccountabletopeople’s
representativesinparliaments.Thisconflictwasconcludedin
theGloriousRevolution(1688-89)thatputanendtothe
divinerightofkings.
ItwasduringthischaoticperiodoftimethatThomasHobbes
(1588-1679)wrotehismasterpiece,Leviathan,in1651.
Therefore,likemanyotherpoliticalphilosophers,hisbookwas
aremedyforthechaosthatheobservedinEngland.Hobbesis
asocialcontracttheorist.Hebelievedinthevoluntaryactof
2
peopletojoinasocialcontracttoformagovernmenttoend
politicalchaosanduncertainty.Todevelophistheory,he
imaginesanoriginalposition(priortotheformationof
government)thathecallsthe“stateofnature”andinvestigates
humannatureintheoriginalpositioninordertoshowthe
necessityofasocialcontractfortheformationofa
government.
Thestateofnatureisahypotheticaloriginalpositioninwhich
thereisnogovernmentandhencethereisnolegitimateforce
tocontroltherelationshipamongmen.Inthisstate,peopleare
equal,initially.However,thisequalitywillnotlastlongsince
accordingtoHobbeseverymanseeksquarrelbasedonthree
principals:competition,diffidence(distrust),andglory
(vanity).
Sothatinthenatureofman,wefindthreeprincipal
causesofquarrel.First,competition;secondly,
diffidence;thirdly,glory.Thefirst,makethmen
invadeforgain;thesecond,forsafety;andthird,for
reputation[2].
Inthisstate,thereisnomorality(norightorwrong)and
nothingisjustorunjustsincethereisnolaw.Asaresult,men
willseekmorepowersincetheyhavedesireforit.Thisinturn
willresultinthewarofallagainstall[3].Thischaoticand
3
uncertainenvironmentwillmotivatementoacceptvoluntarily
asocialcontractthatgivesthemprotectionthroughcreationof
asovereignauthoritywithsupremepowerthatcouldmake
lawsandenforcelawstoconvertthewarofallagainstalltoa
peacefulenvironmentinwhichsafetyofindividualand
protectionoftheirlivesandpropertyareguaranteedbythe
government.
Iauthorizeandgiveupmyrightofgoverningmyself,
tothisman,ortothisassemblyofmen,onthis
condition,thatthougiveupthyrighttohim,and
authorizeallhisactionsinlikemanner[4].
ItiseasytoseethatHobbeshadapessimisticviewofman.
Leavingthemtotheirowndevices,theywillseekcompetition
andconflict.However,toavoidrisk,theyarewillingtoforma
governmenttoavoidtheperiloflivinginthestateofnature.It
isimportanttonotethatalthoughthesocialcontractis
voluntaryandsignedcollectively,individualsforgotheirrights
afterwardsandgivethesovereignanabsolutepowerthatis
notreversible.
III.
JohnLocke:PoliticalPhilosophy
LikeHobbes,JohnLockeisasocialcontracttheorist;however,
heisamuchmoreoptimistpoliticalphilosopher.Healso
4
believesinthepowerofindividualsandrejectsHobbesian
absolutepowerofthesovereign.HisfirstbookofTwo
TreatisesofGovernmentisaresponsetoSirRobertFilmerwho
believedinthedivinerightofkingsandabsolutism.Locke
rejectedthisdoctrineanddefendedthemajorityruleandthe
righttoresistthegovernment[5].
Locke’sstateofnatureisverydifferentfromHobbes’s.Men
arefreeandequalinthestateofnature.
TounderstandPoliticalPowerright,anddriveitfrom
itsorigin,wemustconsiderwhatStateareallMenare
naturallyin,andthatis,aStateofperfectFreedomto
ordertheirActions,anddisposeoftheirPossessions,
andPersonsastheythinkfit,withintheboundsofthe
LawofNature.…AStatealsoofEquality,whereinall
thePowerandJurisdictionisreciprocal,noone
havingmorethananother[6].
So,Locke’sstateofnatureisnotdevoidoflaw.Thereisnocivil
lawinthestateofnaturebutthereisGod’slaw.Therefore,
menlivetogetheramicablybasedonGod’slaw.Inthestateof
nature,Godhasgiventheearthtomenincommon.However,
individualsowntheirownbodyandhenceareentitledtothe
fruitoftheirlabor.Anindividual’slaborcombinedwith
commonresourcesyieldsprivatepropertyaccordingtoLocke.
5
ThoughtheEarth,andallinferiorCreaturesbe
commontoallMen,yeteveryManhasapropertyin
hisownperson.ThisnoBodyhasanyRighttobut
himself.TheLabourofhisBody,andtheWorkofhis
Hands,wemaysay,areproperlyhis.Whatsoever
thenheremovesoutoftheStatethatNaturehath
provided,andleftitin,hehadmixedhislabourwith,
andjoinedtoitsomethingthatishisown,and
therebymakesithisproperty[7].
Onceprivatepropertyiscreated,thenthestateofinequality
willbecomethenormamongthemenbasedontheirown
industry(labor).Thiswillcreateconflictamongthemsince
thereisnocivillawtoprotectprivateproperty.Asaresult,
menbyconsentdecidetojoinacivilsocietybasedonasocial
contract.Thesocialcontractisbetweenpeopleandnotwith
thegovernment.Inthecivilsociety,peoplewilltradetheir
naturallibertyforcivilliberty;however,thistrade-offisnot
absolute.Thelawsestablishedandenforcedbyalegitimate
governmentguaranteethecivillibertyandprotectprivate
property.UnlikeHobbes’ssocialcontract,individualshave
preservedtheirsupremepowerthroughtheruleofmajority
andthegovernment’slegitimacyisalwaysconditional.
Therefore,peoplehavetherighttoresistagovernmentthat
deviatesfromthewillofpeople.
6
IV.
PoliticalPhilosophyofIslam
622C.E.isanimportantbenchmarkinIslam.Inthatyear,Prophet
MuhammadandhisfollowersemigratedtoMedina.Thisdateisthe
beginningofIslamiccalendarandpoliticalIslam.InMedina,Prophet
Muhammadruledasareligiousandpoliticalleader.Theso-called
ConstitutionofMedinadeclaredaMuslimcommunity(ummah)outof
severaltribeslivingsidebysidewiththeJewishcommunityand
Muhammadasamediatorbetweenthetwogroupsadjudicatingcases
basedonthedivinelaws.So,theMedinaofMuhammadisconsideredas
amulti-religionstatethatstillMuslimsaroundtheworlddesireto
emulate.
Islam,asanAbrahamicreligion,inasensehasrenewedandfulfilled
God’scovenantwithAbraham.So,Islamicfaithisalsoacompact
betweenGodandMuslimstolivetheirlivesbasedonthedivinelaws.
Asaresult,therearesimilaritiesbetweenthisreligiouscompactandthe
socialcontractsofHobbesandLockethatweconsiderinthissection.
MuslimsbelievethatGodhadsentHislawstothepreviousprophets
includingAbraham,Moses,andJesus.However,theselawswerenotin
operationinArabiaandinasense,notpracticedcorrectlyelsewhere.
So,wemightcompareArabiabeforeIslamanddevoidofdivinelawto
thestateofnatureinHobbesandLocke’stheories.Muslimsrefertothis
periodastheeraofIgnorance(Jahiliyyeh)wherethedivinelawwas
absent.TheProphet’semigrationtoMedinatransformedthestateof
naturetoacivilandreligiouscommunitybasedonacompactwithGod.
7
ThedivinelawgovernsthetotalityofMuslims’livesandmakesIslama
legalreligion.ThisisanimportantissuesinceIslam,similartoHobbes,
doesnothaveapositiveviewofmanandhencewithoutlawtheresult
willbechaos.HerearefewversesoftheQur’andescribingthebehavior
ofthemankind.
1.Mankindisweak
…manwascreatedweak.(Qur’an,4:32)
2.Mankindisunjust
…manistrulyunjustandungrateful.(Qur’an,14:34)
3.Mankindishastyandimpatient
Manwascreatedhasty:IwillshowyouMysignssoon,sodonot
askMetohastenthem.(Qur’an,21:37)
4.Mankindiscontentiousandquarrelsome
…manismorecontentiousthananyothercreature.
(Qur’an,18:54)
5.Mankindlacksthoughtfulnessanddeliberation
…theyhavealwaysbeenveryineptandrash.
(Qur’an33:72)
ItseemsthattherearesimilaritiesbetweenHobbes’sviewandIslam’s
viewofmankind.Withoutlaw,government,andapowerfulleader,the
“warofallagainstall”isadefinitepossibility.
8
RightaftertheProphet’sdeath,Muslimsweredividedintotwogroups
basedonthelegitimacyofanewleader.TheSunnis(majorityof
Muslims)sidedwiththeinstitutionofthecaliphatewhiletheShiites
(minorityofMuslims)declaredthattheleadershipshouldremaininthe
Prophet’sfamilyandsidedwiththeimamate.
A. Caliphate
AcaliphisthereligiousleaderoftheMuslimcommunity.Afterthe
Prophet’sdeath,fourcaliphs(AbuBakr,Umar,Othman,andAli)known
asRashidun(rightlyguided)caliphsruledtheIslamicword632-661
C.E.In661AliwasmurderedandMuawiyyahdeclaredhimselfcaliph
andestablishedtheUmayyaddynastyasthekeeperofthecaliphate.In
749C.E.,theUmayyadweretoppledbytheAbbasidswhoruled7491258C.E.whentheAbbasidsweredefeatedbytheMongolsandthe
continuousinstitutionofthecaliphatecametoanend.
Inthe14thcentury,theOttomanEmperordeclaredhimselftherulerof
theMuslimsandassumedthetitleofthecaliphate.Thislineofthe
caliphatecametoanendwhentheOttomanEmpirewasdefeatedin
WWIandthenewgovernmentofTurkeyabolishedthecaliphate.And
in2014,theleaderoftheso-calledIslamicState(ISIS),Abu-BakrAlBaghdadiproclaimedthereturnofthecaliphate.
9
Theoretically,thechoiceofthecaliphwasthroughconsensus(ijma)of
thecommunity.Thechoiceofthefirstcaliphwaslefttoagroupofthe
Prophet’sclosestcompanions.Theselectionofthecaliphwasfollowed
byanoathofallegiance(bayah)oftheentirecommunitytotheselected
caliph.Oncetheoathistaken,theindividualMuslimsdonothavethe
righttochangetheirmind.So,inasense,theselectionofacaliphis
similartotheselectionofaleaderalaHobbes.Likewise,acaliphisan
absolutemonarchwhoseruleisnotsubjecttoquestionbypeople.
Lockeanideasofamajorityrule,andtherightofresistancehaveno
placeinIslamandthereisnopeacefulwaytoremoveacaliphaccording
tothehistory.InIslam,nogovernmenthasbeenformedbythe
voluntaryconsentofpeopleandthecontinuousconsentoftheruledis
notnecessaryforthesurvivalofthegovernment.Thisisagravematter
sincethecaliphrulestheentireIslamicworldsincenation-stateis
anotheroddityinIslam.Asarule,governmentshavecomeabout
throughforceandconquestinIslam.Asthetermsunnah(tradition)
implies,customsandtraditionshavebeenthegreatestforceinIslam
andnotconsentofthecommunity.
B. Imamate
UnliketheSunnis,theShiitesbelievedthattheleadershipofIslamwas
vestedinImamAli,hiscousinandson-in-law,andhischildren.
AccordingtoShiitedoctrine,Imamsaredivinelyinspiredandtheyare
sinlessandinfallible.Unlikecaliphswhoareordinarymen,Shiite
Imamsaredivinelyinspiredandareknowledgeableaboutissuesin
Islamthatarehiddentoordinarymen.
10
Itisimportanttonoticethatpeople(Muslims)havenosayingonthis
matter.Therefore,theleadershipinIslamisnotamatterofchoiceby
individualMuslims.Asmentioned,theShiitesaretheminoritiesinthe
IslamicworldandyettheyconsidertheirversionofIslamthetrue
version.Asaresult,thetruthhasnothingtodowiththebeliefofthe
majorityandmajorityruleisunimportantinsuchmatters.
AlthoughtheShiitesaretheminorityinIslam,theyconstitutethe
majorityinIran.TheIranianversionofShiism,thetwelver,isthe
largestbranchofShiism.Accordingtothisversion,Imamateisvestedin
AliandhisdescendantsandthetwelfthImamislivinginoccultationand
willreturntoestablishjusticeinthefuture.
AnotherimportantdifferencebetweentheSunnisandtheShiites
concernsIslamiclaw.TheIslamiclaw(shariah)wascomposedfrom
fourdifferentsources–theQur’an,thesayingsandtraditionofthe
Prophet(thesunnah),qiyas(deductivereasoning),andtheconsensusof
thecommunity(ummah).Whenthelawwascompleted,theSunnis
declaredthatthegateofijtihad(independentreasoning)wasclosed
and,hence,theIslamiclawshouldbepracticedforeverwithout
alteration.TheShiiteMuslimshavekeptthegateofijtihadopenand
Islamiclawissubjecttointerpretation.
AyatollahKhomeini,theleaderofIslamicrevolutioninIran,arguedthat
intheabsenceonthetwelfthImam,thereisaneedforaleaderwhois
11
knowledgeableaboutIslamandtheIslamiclawtojudgegovernment
policiesasIslamicornon-Islamic.Therefore,theSupremeLeaderin
Iranisajuristselectedbyagroupofjurists(mujtahids)whoareelected
bypublic(assemblyoftheExperts).So,peoplehaveanindirectrolein
selectingtheSupremeLeader.SincetheSupremeLeaderhasthefinal
voteonallmattersinIran,thepoliticalregimeisanautocraticregime
despitethedemocraticfaçade.
V.Conclusion
InIslam,sovereigntybelongstoGod.
…AuthoritybelongstoGodalone,andHeordersyouto
worshipnonebutHim.(Qur’an,12:40)
CaliphsandImamsarehisregentsonearthtoruleonhisbehalfandto
implementhislawsandordinances.SinceGod’slawsandordinances
areimmutable,asocietyruledbysuchlawsiscoerciveandlacks
democratictendencies.Assuch,politicalordersinanIslamicsociety
arenotpronetochangeandmoderation.
Asmentioned,peoplehavehadverylittleinfluence,ifany,onthe
selectionofpoliticalleaders.Theoathofallegianceissimplyan
acknowledgmentofcontinuousobediencetotherulerwhoisonly
accountabletoGod.InIslam,bothinreligionandpolitics,entrytothe
communitymightbefree,butexitisnotpermissible.Thisbasically
12
makesindividuals’freedomamootissueinIslamand,inturn,makes
politicalregimesinIslamundemocratic.
InIslam,asmentioned,theummah(Islamiccommunity)referstothe
totalityofMuslimpopulation.Therefore,politicalinstitutionssuchas
nationalityandnationalism,nation-states,nationalidentitiesarenot
meaningfulconcepts.Thisisthereasonthataterroristorganization
suchastheISISisabletorecruitsvolunteersfromallovertheworld.
ThesepeopleseethemselvesonlyasMuslimsandnothingelse.
Thispaperchosepurposefullytwopoliticalphilosophersofthe
Enlightenment,HobbesandLocke,todiscusspoliticalIslam.Hobbesian
politicalphilosophywithitspessimisticviewofmankindtooksides
withabsolutismwhileLockeanpoliticalphilosophyconsideredalogical
andareasonableroleforpeoplechoosingtheirownleadersand
keepingthemaccountable.Interestinglyenough,bothphilosophers
wereopentoreasonandlogictoreachaconclusion.
IslamicpoliticalphilosophyisverymuchinlinewithHobbesianview
andrejectsLockean’smovetoempowerpeople.Islamicinstitutionsare
constructedbasedonimmutablelawsandhencearenotdisposedto
changebasedlogicandreasonsrelatedtomodernpoliticalissuessuch
astheuniversalityofhumanrights.Islamicsocialcontractisineffecta
Hobbesiansocialcontractinfavorofabsolutism.
13
References
1. Streeck,Wolfgang.HowWillCapitalismEnd?London,Verso
2016.
2. Thomas,Hobbes,Leviathan,London,CollierMacmillanPublishers
1962,p.99.
3. Ibid.p.100.
4. Ibid.p.132.
5. JohnLocke,TwoTreatisesofGovernment,NewYork,New
AmericanLibrary1960.
6. Ibid.ChapterII,p.309.
7. Ibid.ChapterV,p.328.
14