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Chapter # 5: Learning and Memory Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned Response(UCR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR) Delayed Conditioning Arrangements Trace Conditioning Arrangements Simultaneous Conditioning Arrangements Backward Conditioning Arrangements Stimulus Generalization Stimulus Discrimination Higher Order Conditioning -the thing that the organism naturally, reflexively responds to -ex: meat powder for a dog -natural, unlearned, largely reflexive response to the UCS -ex: excitement or anticipation at the presentation of meat powder (dogs salivate) -“what is the learner now responding to that he did not previously respond to in this way?” -initially meaningful stimuli -new, learned response to the CS -ex: dog learned to respond to sound of bell -ex: dog drooling at sound of bell -sub-division of forward conditioning (CS is presented b4 the US) -the CS is present until the US begins -CS is removed some time before the US is presented -CS and US are presented at the same time US is presented before the CS -typically ineffective -when the subject cannot distinguish among similar but distinct stimuli -ex: Albert was afraid of all other fluffy white objects (similar to rat) -when the subject can distinguish among similar but distinct stimuli -ex: if the dog salivates only at the bell -a previous CS is used as the US -in theory can go up to any order as new CSs are linked to old ones -rarely effective beyond the second order -ex: dogs salivating at the sound of metronome, pair that sound with a red night and get conditioning to it, red light would not be paired with the meat powder Chapter # 5: Learning and Memory Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Aversion therapy Systematic Desensitization + and reinforcement + and punishment Escape and Avoidance Responses Shaping -the elimination of the conditioned response -achieved by presenting CS without the US repeatedly -the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction -suppression of an undesirable responses by associating it with aversive (painful or uncomfortable) stimuli -learning involving an unpleasant or harmful stimulus or reinforcer -a guided reduction in fear, anxiety, or aversion -treatment for phobias -trained to relax to increasingly fearful stimuli + encourages behavior, pleasurable consequence delivered upon completion of desirable action; increases likelihood that particular type of response will repeat – removal of aversive event, not same as punishment, increases probability that given type of response will be repeated; unpleasant condition is removed when a desired behavior is completed -decreases behavior -positive punishment: discomfort follows response, ex: spanking -negative punishment: positive state removed after response, ex: grounded -avoidance: behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus before it begins -escape: behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus after it has already started -reinforcing a subject as it takes successive steps toward the goal behavior -primary –unlearned and are inherently reinforcing to most members of a species -secondary – learn to value these things Primary and Secondary Reinforcers -a series of steps that change behavior to a desired response Successive Approximations pattern -ex: white rat without the loud noise - primary: food, water, love/attachment/sex - secondary: money Chapter # 5: Learning and Memory Skinner Box Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement Fixed Interval (Reinforcement) Variable Interval (Reinforcement) Fixed Ratio (Reinforcement) Variable Ratio (Reinforcement) Latent Learning -empty box except for a lever and hole to deliver food pellets -trained rats to press the lever in order to get food; used shaping: rat first receives a food reward for being near the lever, then for touching the lever, and finally for pressing the lever -in the end, only rewarded for pressing the lever, process known as: differential reinforcement of successive approximations -continuous – consequence is delivered after every instance of the goal behavior; produces rapid learning and rapid extinction -partial – intermittent, not all responses are reinforced; produces slow learning and slow extinction -reinforcement is delivered based on a specified passage of time -reinforcement is delivered after some established period of time but it changes from one reinforcement to the next -reinforcement will be delivered after a specified number of desired responses -ex: awaiting mail on Friday but the delivery time is different each week, you would check more often to see if it has arrived since you do not know exactly when it will get there -ex: being paid by an employer for every 7 toys assembled -reinforcement will be delivered after some number of responses but the amount is not specified -ex: playing the lottery -Edward Tolman -learning that is not demonstrated until the subject is reinforced for doing so -research with rats and maze completion tasks showed that rats who had been exposed to a maze several times were more likely to run it efficiently and with few errors if there was a reinforcement in the goal box -ex: reward for reading a certain number of books will stop once the reward is discontinued Overjustification -predicts that if you begin to reinforce a behavior that the individual is already disposed to perform it may actually Effect Modeling -ex: paycheck every other Friday discourage the subject from continuing to do it -much of what we learn comes from observation -if an adult is modeling a behavior a child is likely to imitate that model, especially if the adult’s behavior is reinforced in some way Chapter # 5: Learning and Memory Bandura’s Bobo -Albert Bandura Doll experiment -adult models videotaped punching and kicking doll Sensory Memory Short-term Memory Long-Term Memory Flashbulb Memory Chunking Mnemonic Devices Encoding -children who watched the video were placed in same room as depicted in video imitated adult models, beating on Bobo -children in control group who did not view video played in same setting and did not behave in such ways -allows us to take in the plethora of sensory inputs that are available at any moment -brief functioning -info is not encoded and is lost -twenty seconds -can hold about 7 +/- 2 items -maintained there by rehearsal: maintenance – simple repetition Elaborative – organization and understanding of the info that has been encoded in order to transfer the information -lasting memories and knowledge -capable of permanent retention -semantically encoded -“do something” with incoming material through rehearsal, chunking, mnemonic elaboration, or a processing strategy -very deep vivid memory in the form of a visual image associated with a particular emotionally arousing event -grouping items of information into units -used for phone numbers, social security numbers, bank cards -group digits into manageable segments -rely on the ability to make mental images to remember -link part of it (image, way word sounds, etc.) to something already known -tie a set of images to a familiar place, mentally walk through familiar scene, retrieving images -create an image using “peg words” -shallow processing -simple rehearsal -attach meaning and place it in context - visually, acoustically (ex: rhyming), semantically (meaning) Studied the role of observational learning Chapter # 5: Learning and Memory Retroactive vs. Proactive Interference -retroactive interference: new memory interferes with old Iconic vs. Echoic Memory Implicit vs. Explicit Memory Long term Potentiation -iconic: visual, lasts for a few tenths of a second -echoic: auditory, lasts for 3-4 seconds State Dependent Memory Theories Of Forgetting Encoding Failure Positive and Negative Transfer Tip of the Tongue Phenomena Anterograde vs. Retrograde Amnesia ex: old address is blocked because new address interferes with recall -proactive interference: old memory interferes with new ex: trying to remember a new phone number disrupted by the memory of an old phone number -implicit memory: we remember something without knowing that we do; may need to be primed or cued to recall it -explicit memory: consciously declare that we know -an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation and possibly in the neutral basis for learning and memory, involving an increase in the efficiency with which signals are sent across the synapses within neural networks -theory that one is more likely to recall details of something if one is in a similar emotional and physical state as when one was exposed to the events one is trying to recall -Decay: fading/weakening of memories assumed to occur when memory traces become weak -Disuse: “Use it or lose it!”; theory that memory traces weaken when memories are not periodically used or retrieved -failure to store sufficient memory to form a useful memory -Positive transfer: mastery of one task aids learning in another Ex: learning to ride a bike and learning to ride a motorcycle -Negative transfer: mastery of one task conflicts with learning another -retrieval problem -memory is “in there” but we just can’t seem to pull it out because we lack cues -anterograde amnesia: memory loss for information since the accident -retrograde amnesia: memory loss for information before the damage occurred study where you are planning on taking the exam!! Ex: backing out a car and backing out a trailer Chapter # 5: Learning and Memory Eyewitness Testimony Ivan Pavlov B.F. Skinner John Watson Albert Bandura Herman Ebbinghaus -influenced by expectancy or set -might unknowingly apply gender, racial, or place schemas in trying to reconstruct the events they witnessed -framing of questions influences how events are recalled (Elizabeth Loftus) -studied digestive system of dogs, noted dogs responded to previously neutral stimuli -presented meat powder which makes a dog salivate and previously neutral stimulus -used metronomes and other tones -present sound followed by meat powder led to salivation response in dogs -dog begins to salivate at sound of metronome -pioneered the study of operant conditioning -ran many operant-conditioning experiments -“Skinner Box” apparatus -behavior is a series of behavior-reward pairings and cognition is not as important to learning process (psychologists abandoned this view) -with Rosalie Rayner demonstrated classical conditioning with Little Albert -no fear of small animals but showed fear when steel bar banged w/ a hammer -presented child with a rat and banged the steel bar at the same time = child cried -Albert cried any time he was presented with the rat – even w/o the noise -became afraid of other fluffy white objects -famous study in social or observational learning; Bobo doll studies -response-reward relationship not necessary for observational learning -for observational learning to occur: learner must pay attention to the behavior in question, retention of observed behavior (must be remembered), motivation for the learner to produce behavior, potential for reproduction must exist -postulated in his “forgetting curve” that we have rapid decay of memory for nonsense syllables but that decay will flatten out at ~20-30% in long term retention (it doesn’t all fade) -info forgotten because of interference (proactive and retroactive)