Download Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Chapter # 5: Learning and Memory
Unconditioned
Stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
Response(UCR)
Conditioned
Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned
Response (CR)
Delayed
Conditioning
Arrangements
Trace
Conditioning
Arrangements
Simultaneous
Conditioning
Arrangements
Backward
Conditioning
Arrangements
Stimulus
Generalization
Stimulus
Discrimination
Higher Order
Conditioning
-the thing that the organism naturally, reflexively responds to
-ex: meat powder for a dog
-natural, unlearned, largely reflexive response to the UCS
-ex: excitement or anticipation at the presentation of
meat powder (dogs salivate)
-“what is the learner now responding to that he did not
previously respond to in this way?”
-initially meaningful stimuli
-new, learned response to the CS
-ex: dog learned to respond to sound of bell
-ex: dog drooling at sound of bell
-sub-division of forward conditioning (CS is presented b4 the
US)
-the CS is present until the US begins
-CS is removed some time before the US is presented
-CS and US are presented at the same time
US is presented before the CS
-typically ineffective
-when the subject cannot distinguish among similar but distinct
stimuli
-ex: Albert was afraid of all other fluffy white objects
(similar to rat)
-when the subject can distinguish among similar but distinct
stimuli
-ex: if the dog salivates only at the bell
-a previous CS is used as the US
-in theory can go up to any order as new CSs are linked to old
ones
-rarely effective beyond the second order
-ex: dogs salivating at the sound of metronome, pair
that sound with a red night and get conditioning to it,
red light would not be paired with the meat powder
Chapter # 5: Learning and Memory
Extinction
Spontaneous
Recovery
Aversion
therapy
Systematic
Desensitization
+ and reinforcement
+ and punishment
Escape and
Avoidance
Responses
Shaping
-the elimination of the conditioned response
-achieved by presenting CS without the US repeatedly
-the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent
extinction
-suppression of an undesirable responses by associating it with
aversive (painful or uncomfortable) stimuli
-learning involving an unpleasant or harmful stimulus or
reinforcer
-a guided reduction in fear, anxiety, or aversion
-treatment for phobias
-trained to relax to increasingly fearful stimuli
+ encourages behavior, pleasurable consequence delivered upon
completion of desirable action; increases likelihood that
particular type of response will repeat
– removal of aversive event, not same as punishment, increases
probability that given type of response will be repeated;
unpleasant condition is removed when a desired behavior is
completed
-decreases behavior
-positive punishment: discomfort follows response, ex: spanking
-negative punishment: positive state removed after response, ex:
grounded
-avoidance: behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus before
it begins
-escape: behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus after it has
already started
-reinforcing a subject as it takes successive steps toward the
goal behavior
-primary –unlearned and are inherently reinforcing to most
members of a species
-secondary – learn to value these things
Primary and
Secondary
Reinforcers
-a series of steps that change behavior to a desired response
Successive
Approximations pattern
-ex: white rat without the loud noise
- primary: food, water, love/attachment/sex
- secondary: money
Chapter # 5: Learning and Memory
Skinner Box
Continuous vs.
Partial
Reinforcement
Fixed Interval
(Reinforcement)
Variable
Interval
(Reinforcement)
Fixed Ratio
(Reinforcement)
Variable Ratio
(Reinforcement)
Latent Learning
-empty box except for a lever and hole to deliver food pellets
-trained rats to press the lever in order to get food; used
shaping: rat first receives a food reward for being near the lever,
then for touching the lever, and finally for pressing the lever
-in the end, only rewarded for pressing the lever, process known
as: differential reinforcement of successive approximations
-continuous – consequence is delivered after every instance of
the goal behavior; produces rapid learning and rapid extinction
-partial – intermittent, not all responses are reinforced; produces
slow learning and slow extinction
-reinforcement is delivered based on a specified passage of time
-reinforcement is delivered after some established period of
time but it changes from one reinforcement to the next
-reinforcement will be delivered after a specified number of
desired responses
-ex: awaiting mail on Friday but the delivery time is
different each week, you would check more often to
see if it has arrived since you do not know exactly
when it will get there
-ex: being paid by an employer for every 7 toys
assembled
-reinforcement will be delivered after some number of
responses but the amount is not specified
-ex: playing the lottery
-Edward Tolman
-learning that is not demonstrated until the subject is reinforced
for doing so
-research with rats and maze completion tasks showed
that rats who had been exposed to a maze several times
were more likely to run it efficiently and with few
errors if there was a reinforcement in the goal box
-ex: reward for reading a certain number of books 
will stop once the reward is discontinued
Overjustification -predicts that if you begin to reinforce a behavior that the
individual is already disposed to perform it may actually
Effect
Modeling
-ex: paycheck every other Friday
discourage the subject from continuing to do it
-much of what we learn comes from observation
-if an adult is modeling a behavior a child is likely to imitate
that model, especially if the adult’s behavior is reinforced in
some way
Chapter # 5: Learning and Memory
Bandura’s Bobo -Albert Bandura
Doll experiment -adult models videotaped punching and kicking doll
Sensory
Memory
Short-term
Memory
Long-Term
Memory
Flashbulb
Memory
Chunking
Mnemonic
Devices
Encoding
-children who watched the video were placed in same room as
depicted in video imitated adult models, beating on Bobo
-children in control group who did not view video played in
same setting and did not behave in such ways
-allows us to take in the plethora of sensory inputs that are
available at any moment
-brief functioning
-info is not encoded and is lost
-twenty seconds
-can hold about 7 +/- 2 items
-maintained there by rehearsal: maintenance – simple repetition
Elaborative – organization and understanding of the info that
has been encoded in order to transfer the information
-lasting memories and knowledge
-capable of permanent retention
-semantically encoded
-“do something” with incoming material through rehearsal,
chunking, mnemonic elaboration, or a processing strategy
-very deep vivid memory in the form of a visual image
associated with a particular emotionally arousing event
-grouping items of information into units
-used for phone numbers, social security numbers, bank cards
-group digits into manageable segments
-rely on the ability to make mental images to remember
-link part of it (image, way word sounds, etc.) to something
already known
-tie a set of images to a familiar place, mentally walk through
familiar scene, retrieving images
-create an image using “peg words”
-shallow processing
-simple rehearsal
-attach meaning and place it in context
- visually, acoustically (ex: rhyming), semantically (meaning)
Studied the role of observational learning
Chapter # 5: Learning and Memory
Retroactive vs.
Proactive
Interference
-retroactive interference: new memory interferes with old
Iconic vs.
Echoic Memory
Implicit vs.
Explicit
Memory
Long term
Potentiation
-iconic: visual, lasts for a few tenths of a second
-echoic: auditory, lasts for 3-4 seconds
State Dependent
Memory
Theories Of
Forgetting
Encoding
Failure
Positive and
Negative
Transfer
Tip of the
Tongue
Phenomena
Anterograde vs.
Retrograde
Amnesia
ex: old address is blocked because new address
interferes with recall
-proactive interference: old memory interferes with new
ex: trying to remember a new phone number disrupted
by the memory of an old phone number
-implicit memory: we remember something without knowing that
we do; may need to be primed or cued to recall it
-explicit memory: consciously declare that we know
-an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid
stimulation and possibly in the neutral basis for learning and
memory, involving an increase in the efficiency with which
signals are sent across the synapses within neural networks
-theory that one is more likely to recall details of something if
one is in a similar emotional and physical state as when one was
exposed to the events one is trying to recall
-Decay: fading/weakening of memories assumed to occur when
memory traces become weak
-Disuse: “Use it or lose it!”; theory that memory traces weaken
when memories are not periodically used or retrieved
-failure to store sufficient memory to form a useful memory
-Positive transfer: mastery of one task aids learning in another
Ex: learning to ride a bike and learning to ride a motorcycle
-Negative transfer: mastery of one task conflicts with learning
another
-retrieval problem
-memory is “in there” but we just can’t seem to pull it out
because we lack cues
-anterograde amnesia: memory loss for information since the
accident
-retrograde amnesia: memory loss for information before the
damage occurred
study where you are planning on taking the exam!!
Ex: backing out a car and backing out a trailer
Chapter # 5: Learning and Memory
Eyewitness
Testimony
Ivan Pavlov
B.F. Skinner
John Watson
Albert Bandura
Herman
Ebbinghaus
-influenced by expectancy or set
-might unknowingly apply gender, racial, or place schemas in trying to reconstruct the events they witnessed
-framing of questions influences how events are recalled (Elizabeth Loftus)
-studied digestive system of dogs, noted dogs responded to previously neutral stimuli
-presented meat powder which makes a dog salivate and previously neutral stimulus
-used metronomes and other tones
-present sound followed by meat powder led to salivation response in dogs
-dog begins to salivate at sound of metronome
-pioneered the study of operant conditioning
-ran many operant-conditioning experiments
-“Skinner Box” apparatus
-behavior is a series of behavior-reward pairings and cognition is not as important to learning process (psychologists
abandoned this view)
-with Rosalie Rayner demonstrated classical conditioning with Little Albert
-no fear of small animals but showed fear when steel bar banged w/ a hammer
-presented child with a rat and banged the steel bar at the same time = child cried
-Albert cried any time he was presented with the rat – even w/o the noise
-became afraid of other fluffy white objects
-famous study in social or observational learning; Bobo doll studies
-response-reward relationship not necessary for observational learning
-for observational learning to occur: learner must pay attention to the behavior in question, retention of observed
behavior (must be remembered), motivation for the learner to produce behavior, potential for reproduction must exist
-postulated in his “forgetting curve” that we have rapid decay of memory for nonsense syllables but that decay will
flatten out at ~20-30% in long term retention (it doesn’t all fade)
-info forgotten because of interference (proactive and retroactive)