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LECTURE RESOURCE AND LABORATORY MANUAL FOR BIOL. 324 PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS A tray with spices, herbs, nuts and seeds. Photo credit: www.cjpetrow.co.uk/ J. HUGO COTA-SÁNCHEZ Winter 2009 GENERAL INFORMATION BIOLOGY 324.3.2 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS – SPRING 2009 INSTRUCTOR: Office: Office hours: E-mail: Lectures: Laboratory: TAs: J. Hugo Cota-Sánchez, Ph.D. Room 141, Biology Building. Tel. 966-4405 TR 9:30 am -11:00 am, Biol. 141 [email protected] MWF 9:30-10:20 am, Room 125 Biology Lab & Tutorial - Monday 1:30 - 4 pm, Room 213 Biology. TBA COURSE STRUCTURE • This is a 3-credit course open to any student of the U of S interested in human-plant interactions, not just biologists but also anthropologists, environmentalists, historians and people interested in the biological basis of human society. • This course has no prerequisites. Class meets three times a week, 1hr/meeting. In addition, a laboratory/tutorial session is scheduled weekly. • This course is designed for anyone who is interested in knowing the origin of current crop plants, and broadening their understanding on how plants have evolved throughout domestication processes according to numerous human needs, including enjoyment to daily human life. Though botanical terminology is desirable (and will be learned throughout the semester) technical terms are kept to a minimum but a botanical dictionary is highly recommended. COURSE OBJECTIVES • To learn the principles about the origin and domestication of plants, and the major centers of origin and diversification of agriculture in the world. • To introduce the students to the major plant families, plant parts, and plant products used as food by human cultures around the world and have close encounters with food, textiles, medicines, perfumes, and oils derived from numerous plant species. • To learn what plant parts/products have been industrialized, and the importance of genetic engineering in the plant production and crop improvement. Please note that students with food allergies and/or strong reactions to plants or plant products are advised not to register to this course. The lectures and lab sessions often include demonstrations with live plants or plant products or derivatives. BOOK RESOURCES LECTURE RESOURCE AND LABORATORY MANUAL FOR BIOL. 324 BY J. H. COTA-SÁNCHEZ. Available in instructor’s website only to registered students: http://www.usask.ca/biology/cota-sanchez/courses/courses324.html SUGGESTED TEXTBOOK Simpson B. B. and M. M. Ogorzaly. 2001. Economic Botany: Plants in our World. 3nd. Ed. MacGraw-Hill Publishers, New York. ISBN: 0-07-290938-2. RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS Prance, G. and M. Nesbitt. 2005. The Cultural History of Plants. Routledge, New York. ISBN: 0415-92746-3. Levetin, E., and K. McMahon. 2008. Plants and Society. 6nd. Ed. MacGraw-Hill Publishers, New York. ISBN: 978-0-07-722125-6. For more references see list for supplemental resources in pages 10z-13. 2 BIOL. 324 LECTURE SCHEDULE FOR PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS - SPRING 2009 INSTRUCTOR: J. HUGO COTA-SÁNCHEZ, PH.D. DATE Jan. 5 Jan. 7 Jan. 9 Jan. 12 Jan. 12 Jan. 14 Jan. 16 Jan. 19 Jan. 19 Jan. 21 Jan. 23 Jan. 26 Jan. 26 Jan. 28 Jan. 30 Feb. 2 Feb. 2 Feb. 4 Feb. 6 Feb. 9 Feb. 9 Feb. 11 Feb. 13 Feb.16-20 Feb. 23 Feb. 23 Feb. 25 Feb. 27 March 2 March 2 March 4 March 6 March 9 March 9 March 11 March 13 March 16 March 16 March 18 March 20 March 23 March 23 March 25 March 27 March 30 March 30 April 1 April 3 Lecture Topic Introduction and Course Overview Plants and People and Classification How to be a Plant Food and Population Laboratory Session 1 Major Cereals I – Wheat origin - Montreal – no class? Major Cereals II – Maize origin - No class? montreal Major Cereal III - Rice Laboratory Session 2 – Major Cereals I Minor Cereals I Minor Cereals II Pseudocereals Laboratory Session 3 – Major Cereals II Edible Plant Parts Starchy Plants I Starchy Plants II: Banana Laboratory Session 4 Midterm 1 through Feb. 2 Sugar Plants I: Sugar Cane and Slave Trade Sugar Plants II: Sugar Beet and Sugar Maple Laboratory Session 5 Legumes – Types and biological importance Pulse/Legume Crops I No Class – Reading Week Pulse/Legume Crops II Laboratory Session 6 Flower and Fruit Parts I - The Dance Flower and Fruit Parts II Fruits and Vegetables I Laboratory Session 7 Fruits and Vegetables II Midterm 2 through March 4 Spices I – Historical Uses and Spice Trade Laboratory Session 8 Spices II – Survey of Spices Plant Fibers I Plant Fibers II – Agave Plant and Tequila Laboratory Session 9 Origin of Agriculture - Overview Domestication and Selection Major Centres of Agriculture in the World Laboratory Session 10 Medicinal Plants – Historical Use and Chemistry Medicinal Plants - Examples Stimulant Beverages I Laboratory Session 11 Stimulant Beverages II Review 3 Suggested Reading / Lab Topic Chapter 1, pp 2-20 Chapter 1, 21-38 Chapter 19, pp 458-476 Classification and Plant Morphology Chapter 5, pp 108-118 Chapter 5, pp 126-134 Chapter 5, pp 119 Wheat/Corn Evolution – Tortilla making Chapter 5, pp 119-134 Chapter 5, pp 119-134 Chapter 5, pp 119-134 Rice, Minor Cereals & Pseudocereals Chapter 7, pp 155-178 Chapter 7, pp 180-186 Chapter 7, pp 180-186 Starchy Plant Parts Chapter 7, pp 187-191 Chapter 7, pp 187-191 Sugar Plants Chapter 6, pp 136-154 Chapter 6, pp 136-154 Chapter 6, pp 136-154 Legumes / Pulse Crops Chapter 5, pp 53-74 Chapter 6 pp 75-104 Chapter 7 Temperate and Tropical Fruits & Nuts Chapter 8, 172-217 Leaf, Stem & Root vegetables Chapter 8, 172-217 Chapter 15, pp 355-376 Spices & Herbs Chapter 2, pp 40-52 Chapter 2, pp 40-52 Chapter 2, pp 40-52 Supermarket Safari Chapter 11, pp 262-285 Chapter 11, pp 262-285 Chapter 13, pp 313-330 Group/Class Assignment REQUIRED EXAMINATION , COURSE WORK, AND GRADING SYSTEM INPUT % OF GRADE IMPORTANT DATES & DEADLINES Theory Mid-term I 20% February 4, 2009 Midterm II 20% March 6, 2009 Laboratory Tutorial (presentation) 15% Starting Jan. 19, 2009 Lab attendance, participation and exercises 15% Weekly Comprehensive Theory Final Exam 30% April ???, 2009 Mid-term and final exams: The mid-term and final exams will test material covered in lecture and any of the assigned readings. The exams will include a combination of fill-in-the-blank, short answer questions and essay questions. Material covered from the start of the course up to the date of the exam is eligible to be included on an exam. Missed exams / Make-up policy: You must take examinations during their scheduled periods. Make-up tests will be allowed only if there are extenuating circumstances, in which case the test will be given orally. If there is a medical problem that causes a student to miss an exam, the student must contact the instructor within 3 days of the exam to provide documentation of the illness and make arrangements for a make-up exam. Failure to do so will result in a zero grade for the exam. Late assignments: Assignments handed in late will be penalized/deducted 5 points (out of a total 100 points) per day that they are handed in late. If there is a medical reason for the delay, the student must contact the instructor within 3 days of the assignment due date to provide documentation of illness and make arrangements for a new due date for the assignment. Students who are struggling with unexpected, major life issues that conflict with an assignment due date are advised to contact the instructor BEFORE the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of arranging a new due date. The Laboratory sessions are very important because is where you will learn a great deal of information about uses and cultural issues of plants. They will consist of demonstration and study of plant material related to the class, reports prepared by class members, and discussion of lecture material, and reading assignments. Most labs are fun, cultural and illustrative. We often prepare and taste food made from the plants or families discussed. We may have international feasts depending on the class cultural enrollment. I strongly recommend you to attend the labs and cover all the material provided. Please share with us your heritage/cultural experiences. Note that your attendance, participation and completion of lab assignments will be worth 15% of your final grade. Remember that this is an integrative course and that lecture and laboratory sessions make up the entire content of this course. Hence, the exams will include material from both components. Note: Because of the amount of material and students’ presentations, some lab sessions may run a little bit longer than the expected length if the session. 4 ACADEMIC HONESTY The Guidelines for Academic Conduct from University of Saskatchewan Council (found at: http://www.usask.ca/honesty/aca_honesty.shtml) give the following description of honest behaviour at the university: Honesty and integrity are expected in class participation, examinations, assignments, patient care and other academic work. • • • • • • • • Perform your own work unless specifically instructed otherwise. Use your own work to complete assignments and exams. Cite the source when quoting or paraphrasing someone else’s work. Follow examination rules. Be truthful on all university forms. Discuss with your professor if you are using the same material for assignments in two different courses. Discuss with your professor if you have any questions about whether sources require citation. Use the same standard of honesty with fellow students, lab instructors, teaching assistants, sessional instructors and administrative staff as you do with faculty. Beware of plagiarism!!!! Academic honesty is a must in our institution and plagiarism will be strictly penalized. For more information on academic honesty visit the above website and the Guidelines for Academic Conduct found at: http://www.usask.ca/university_council/reports/archives/guide_conduct.shtml The above information has been taken from the U of S website (http://www.usask.ca/honesty/aca_honesty.shtml) 5 LABORATORY TUTORIAL The Laboratory Tutorial consists of a two-components assignment. It will consist of an individual oral presentation and a one-page handout/report on a subject chosen after consultation with your instructor. The tutorials will start on January 18th. There will be three to four presentations at the beginning of the lab session. It is important that the selection of topics be made early in the term. Each student should sign up with the TA to schedule his/her presentation. The handout should be quite concise and should be handed in at the end of your oral presentation (see below). The presentation style is optional. You may use the blackboard, slides, overheads, or powerpoint presentations. Please advise your instructor or TA about your choice to make the necessary arrangements for the required equipment. You are encouraged to enhance your report by bringing material for observation or sampling. The handout should be written in font size no smaller than 11 and contain the following information: a). Taxonomy. Scientific and common names, plant family, related economic species, and general plant characteristics. b). Origin and Distribution. Area of origin, history of domestication and spread (if applicable), present distribution, and major centers of production, climate and soil preferences. c). Production and Processing. Methods of cultivation (if domesticated) and harvesting, part of the plant used, processing, uses, byproducts, magnitude of production, commerce. d). Any additional relevant information such as plant human affairs, benefits, byproducts, etc., is welcome. e). References in the handout are optional, but they should be included in a slide at the end of the presentation. Every student will have a maximum of 15 minutes to give his/her presentation. It is recommended that the students start concluding their presentation at the 13th. minute to leave a couple of minutes for questions from the audience. This assignment is worth 15% of your final grade. The evaluation of the tutorial presentation will be based on: 1. Peer evaluation, i.e., every student will be provided with an evaluation form, which should be turned in after the speaker. Every student will be evaluated in he following aspects: 2. Quality of the handout, including presentation and synthesis of information. 3. Quality of the oral presentation, including: - Speaking style - Visual presentation – images, data, font size, etc. - Accuracy of information - Information content - Mode of answering questions 6 Know your plants and uses! The following pages include samples of handouts turned in by students from previous years Note: The names of students have been omitted. No editorial changes have been made to these handouts. Current students should review these examples carefully and select the one that they consider the most appropriate. Keep in mind a logical order and summarized way to present the information. You may wish to get some advise from your instructor regarding the organization of the handouts included here as example. The student is advised to check with the instructor about the suitability of the handout. 7 Handout Sample 1 SWEETGRASS Taxonomy: SCIENTIFIC NAME – H IEROCHLOE ODORATA COMMON NAMES – SWEETGRASS, MARY’S GRASS, VANILLA GRASS, HOLY GRASS, BUFFALO GRASS Plant Family – Poaceae Plant Characteristics • sweet smelling perennial • 30-60 cm tall • base usually purplish • flowers from June to August • identified by its sweet vanilla like fragrance • spikelets 3 flowered • leafy shoots spread from long rhizomes, which stabile loose soil on slopes • withstands winter conditions very well Origin and Distribution • circumboreal • common in Northern latitudes of Asia, Europe, and North America • found in areas of partial shade • wet meadows, low prairies, edges of sloughes, marshes and bogs, shaded streambanks • grows among other grasses or shrubs and is rarely found in pure stands History • used widely among the plains First Nations for ceremonial purposes • in France, used for flavoring candy, tobacco, soft drinks, and perfume • basket making Harvesting • late June to early July • care to be taken to cut leaves and not pull up entire plant • weeding the area lessens competition from other plants Uses Cultural and Traditional use by First Nations • burned in prayer and cleansing-smudging • braided, dried and burned • chewed to extend endurance during fasting Medicinal Use • tea brewed for coughs, sore throats, chafing and venereal infections • helped bleeding and expelling of afterbirth • externally, used to treat sore eyes, saddle sores, chapped skin, and kept hair from falling out • smoke inhaled to stop nose bleeds and to relieve colds • fragrance comes from chemical Coumarin, which acts as a potent anticoagulant 8 Student Name and Date Handout Sample 2 Mandrakes Family: Solanaceae Mandragora officinarum (Needs taxonomic authority) Origin The Mediterranean, Africa, Middle East, America (American Mandrake) Currently predominant in Europe, especially Greece. (European Mandrake) Characteritics Dry or moist soil, humus-rich light soil, well-drained soil, acid and neutral soils, semi to no shade, roots carrot-shaped, up to 1.2m, resistant to frost, perennial herbaceous plant, grows in open woodland garden, in leaf from March to July, in flower from July to August, flowers are hermaphrodite, fruit the size of an apple with an apple-like scent, propagation through root cutting, resembles a human Common Names European Mandrake, American Mandrake, Witches Drink, Thieves Root, Mad Apple Love Apple, Satan’s Apple, Devil’s Testicle, Herb of Circe, Sorcerer’s Root, Genie’s eggs Uses • • • • • • • • Food and wine – has an apple-like scent Anesthetic/pain killer – induces oblivion, pre-operative medication Relieve rheumatic pains, ulcers, and scrofulous tumors Narcotic/hallucinogenic – treating melancholy, mania, convulsions Aphrodisiac – symbol of fertility, make love potions and fertility Treats travel sickness Remedy for snake bites Used for incense for its apple-like smell Medieval Folklore • Possesses the magic power to heal a great variety of diseases • To induce a feeling of love, affection and happiness • To inactivate snake poisoning • Roman surgeons used mandrake as anesthetic • Thessalian sorcerers for the composition of philtres • Frequently made into amulets which were believed to bring good fortune • Cure sterility • In legend it is alleged that when the plant is pulled from the ground, it shrieks in pain. Supposedly, this shriek is able to madden, deafen or even kill an unprotected human 9 Other References about General Botany, Economic Botany, and Ethnobotany Allaby, M. 2006. Oxford Dictionary of Plant Sciences. Call. No. QK9.C67.2006. Anderson, E. F. 1996. Peyote: The divine cactus. 2nd. Ed. Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. 1998. An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants. Annals of the Missouri Bot. Garden 85: 531-553. Arber, A. 1990. Herbals, their origin and evolution. 2nd. Ed. Cambridge Univ. Press. Cambridge. Baker, H. G. 1978. Plants and Civilizations. 3rd. Ed. Wadsworth Pub. Co. Belmont, CA. SB107-B16 Balick, M., and P. A. Cox. 1996. Plants, People, and Culture: The science of ethnobotany. Scientific American Library. , N.Y. Berrie, A. M. M. 1977. An Introduction to the Botany of the Major Crop Plants. Hayden & Son, Inc. Bellmawr, New Jersey. SB107.B47. Birckell, C. D. Ed. 1980. International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants – 1980. Regnum Vegetabile 104: 7-32. Brouk, B. 1975. Plants Consumed by Man. Academic Press, N. Y. SB107.B87. Burger, J. C., M. A. Chapman, and J. H. Burke. 2008. Molecular insights into the evolution of crop plants. Amer. J. Bot. 95: 113-122. Chan, H. T. (Ed.). 1983. Handbook of Tropical Foods. Marcel Dekker, New York. Chrispeels, M., and D. E. Sadava. 1994. Plants, Genes and Agriculture. Jones & Bartlett, Boston. Check for new edition. Cotton, C. M. 1996. Ethnobotany: Principles and applications. J. Wiley & Sons, Inc. N. Y. Coon, N. 1974. The Dictionary of Useful Plants. Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA. Cox, P. A., and T. Elmqvist. 1991. Indigenous control of tropical rainforest reserves: An alternative strategy for conservation. Ambio 20: 317-321. Cronquist, A. 1981. An integrated system of classification of flowering plants. Columbia University Press, New York. Cronquist A. 1988. The Evolution and Classification of Flowering Plants. 2nd. Ed. New York Botanical Gardens, Bronx. Das Prajapati, N., S. S. Purohit, A. K. Sharma, and T. Kumar. 2003. A Handbook of Medicinal Plants. Agrobios, India. ISBN: 81-7754-134-X. DeCandolle, A. 1886. Origin of Cultivated Plants. Reprinted 1964, Hafner, N. Y.). SB.107.C21. Decoteau, D. R. 2000. Vegetable Crops. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Duke, J. A. 1992. Handbook of Edible Weeds. CRC Press. QK98.5.U6D85. Dunn, L. C. 1965. Mendel, his work and his place in history. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 109: 189-198. Eboden, W. 1979. Narcotic plants. Collier Books, Macmillan Pub. Co., Inc. New York. Erichsen-Brown, C. 1979. Use of Plants for the Past 50 Years. Breezy Creeks Press. Anrora, Ontario. QK98.4.C2E7. Ethnobotany Research and Applications. Check this multidisciplinary peer reviewed Open Access Journal with numerous interesting research articles. Etkin, N. L. 2006. Edible medicines: An ethnopharmacology of food. Univ. of Aizona Press, Tucson, AZ. ISBN 978-0-8165-2748-9. Call. No. Nat. Sci.. GT 2850.E874. Evans, L. T. 1993. Crop evolution, Adaptation, and Yield. Cambridge Univ. Press, N.Y. Fernald, M. L., A. C. Kinsey, and R. C. Rollins. 1958. Edible Wild Plants of Eastern North America. Harper Rowe. QK98.5.F36. Fuller, D. Q. 2007. Contrasting patterns in crop domestication rates: Recent archaeobotanical insights from the Old World. Annals of Botany 100: 903-924. Glover, J. D., C. M. Cox, J. P. Reganold. 2007. Future farming: A return to roots. Scientific American 297(2): 82-87. 10 Haberl, H., K. H. Erb, F. Krausmann, V. Gaube, A. Bondeau, C. Plutzar, S. Gingrich, W. Lucht, and M. Fischer-Kowalski. 2007. Quantifying and mapping the human appropriation of net primary production in earth’s terrestrial ecosystems. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (U.S.) 104: 12942-12947. Harlan, J. R. 1971. Agricultural origins: centers and non-centres. Science: 174: 468-474. Harlan, J. R. 1992. Crops and Man. American Society of Agronomy and Crop Science Society of America. SB71.H28. Harlan, J. R. 1995. The Living Fields: Our agricultural heritage. Cambridge Univ. Press. GN799.A4H37. Hawkes, J. G. 1983. The Diversity of Crop Plants. Harvard Univ. Press. SB185.75.H38. Hawkes, J. G. 1991. Genetic Conservation of World Crop Plants. Academic Press. SB123.G44. Heiser, C. B. Jr. 1990. Seed to Civilization. New Ed. Freeman. S419.H44. Hill, A. F. 1952. Economic Botany. 2nd. Ed. McGraw-Hill, N.Y. SB107.H64. Hobhouse, H. 1985. Seeds of Change: Five plants that transformed mankind. Sidwick & Jackson. SB71.H63. Hulse, J. H. 1995. Science, Agriculture and Food Security. NRC Research Press. HD9000.5.A1H84. Janick, J. et al. 1981. Plant Science: An introduction to world crops. 3rd. Ed. Freeman. SB91.P71. Journal of Economic Botany. A very nice journal devoted to the subject. Vol. I (1947) to present. Available in the library. Judd, W. S., Campbell, C. S., Kellogg, E. A., Stevens, P. F. and M. J. Donohue. 2008. Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 3nd. Ed. Sinauer Assoc., Inc. ISBN: 0-87893-407-3. Kaye, C., and N. Billington. 1997. Medicinal Plants of the Heartland. Cache River Press, Vienna, IL. Kingsbury, J. M. 1964. Poisonous Plants of the United States and Canada. Prentice-Hall. SB617.K55. Klein, R. M. 1987. The Green World: An introduction to plants and people. 2nd. Ed. Harper & Row, N.Y. QK47.K63. Kumar, B., S. Chandra, K. Bargali, and Y.P.S. Pangteey. 2007. Ethnobotany of Religious Practices in Kumaun (Havan). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India. Langenheim, J. H. 2003. Plant Resins Chemistry, Evolution, Ecology, and Ethnobotany. Timber Press, Portland, OR. 612 pp. ISBN-13: 9780881925746. Lewington, A. 1990. Plants for People. Oxford Univ. Press. SB107.L48. Lewis, W. H. 1982. Plants for Man: Their potential in human health. Can. Journal of Botany: 60: 310-315. Lewis, W. H., and M. P. F. Elvin-Lewis. 2003. Medical Botany: Plants affecting human health. 2nd. Ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New Jersey. Lorenzi, H., S. F. Sartori, L. B. Bacher, M. T. Cortés de Lacerda. 2006. Furtas Brasileiras e Exóticas Cultivadas. Instituto Plantarum de Estudos da Flora LTDA, São Paulo, Brazil. ISBN: 85-86717423-2. Mabberley, D. J. 1997. The Plant Book. A protable dictionary of higher plants. 2nd. Ed. Cambridge University Press. New York. Manning, R. 2000. Food’s Frontier. Univ. of California Press. S494.5.1.5M365. Martinez, M. 1939. Plantas Medicinales de Mexico. 2nd. Ed. SCL. Mexico City, Mexico. McMahon, M., A. M. Kofraneck, and V. E. Rubatzky. 2007. Plant Science: Growth, development and utilization of cultivated plants. 4th Ed. Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Saddle River, New Jersey. Minnis, P. E. 2000. Ethnobotany. Tulsa: University of Oklahoma Press, 384 pp. ISBN-10 0806131802 Moerman, D. E. 1998. Native American Ethnobotany. Timber Press, Portland, OR. ISBN-13: 9780881924534 Munro, D. B., and E. Small. 1997. Vegetables of Canada. NRC Research Press, Ottawa. SB320.8.C3M86. 11 Nicholson et al. 1969. The Oxford book of Food Plants. Oxford Univ. Press. QK98.5.N62. Pinstrup-Anderson, P., R. Pandya-Lorch, and M. W. Rosegrant. 1999. World food prospects: Critical issues for the early twenty-first century. Food Policy Report, International Food Policy Researach Institute. Washington, DC. 30 pp Prajapati, N. D., S. S. Purohit, A. K. Sharma, and T. Kumar. 2003. A Handbook of Medicinal Plants. Agrobios (India). ISBN: 81-7754-134-X. Reed, C. A. Ed. 1977. Origins of Agriculture. Mouton Pub. GN799.A40.74. Rindos, D. 1984. The Origins of Agriculture: An evolutionary perspective. Academic Press, N.Y. GN799A4R56. Rosengarten, F. Jr. 1969. The Book of Spices. Livinston Pub. Co. Wynnewoog, PA. TX406.R81. Rosengarten, F. Jr. 1984. The Book of Edible Nuts. Walker, N. Y. SB401 .A4R67 Sauer, J. D. 1993. Historical Geography of Crop Plants: A selected roster. NRC Research Press. SB71.S38. Schery, R. W. 1972. Plants for Man. 2nd. Ed. Prentice Hall, Inc. Schultes, R. E., and A. Hofmann. 1979. Plants of the Gods: Origins of hallucinogenic use. McGrawHill. QK99.A1S39. Schultes, R. E., and R. F. Raffauf. 2001. The Healing Forest: Medicinal and healing plants of the Northwest Amazonia. Dioscorides Press, Portland, OR. Shultes, R. E. and S. Von Reis. 1995(?). Ethnobotany: Evolution of a discipline. Timber Press, Portland, OR. 416 pp. ISBN-13: 9780931146282. Scott, S., and C. Thomas. 2000. Poisonous Plants of Paradise. Univ. of Hawaii Press. Honolulu, USA. Simmonds, N. W., and J. Smart. 1995. Evolution of Crop Plants. Longman Scientific and Technical, Wiley, New York. Simpson, M. G. 2006. Plant Systematics. Elsevier Acad. Press. New York, USA. Small, E. 1997. Culinary Herbs. NRC Research Press, Ottawa. S351.H5S52. Small, E., and P. M. Catling. 1999. Canadian Medicinal Crops. NRC Research Press, Ottawa. Stakman, E. C., R. Bradfield, and P. C. Manglesdorf. 1967. Campaigns Against Hunger. Belknap Press. S471.M6S78. Summer, J. 2000. The Natural History of Medicinal Plants. Timber Press, Portland, OR. Taylor, R. L. (Ed.). 1981. Plants and the Indigenous Peoples of North America. Symp. By the Can. Bot. Assoc. Can. Journ. Bot. 59: 2175-2357. Thorne, R. F. 2001. The classification and geography of flowering plants: dicotyledons of the class Angiospermae. Botanical Review 66: 441-650. Ucko, G., and G. W. Dimbleby (Eds.) 1968. The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals. Aldine Pub. Co. Chicago. S494.R43. Usher, G. 1974. A Dictionary of Plants Used by Man. Constable Pub. London. SB107.U85. Vaughan, J. G., and C. Geissler. 1997. The New Oxford Book of Food Plants. Illustrated by B. E. Nicholson. Oxford Univ. Press. Oxford. QK98.5.N62. Vaughan, D. A., E. Balázs, and J. S. Heslop-Harrison. 2007. From crop domestication to superdomestication. Annals of Botany 100: 893-901. Vietmeyer, N. 1981. Rediscovering America’s forgotten crops. Nat. Geog. Mag. 159(5): 702-712. Voeks, R. A. 1997. Sacred leaves of Candomblé: African magic, medicine and religion in Brazil. Austin: University of Texas Press, 236 pp. ** Wilkins, G. 2001. Economic Botany: Principles and practices. Kluwer, Academic Press, N.Y. SB107.W47. Young, K. J., and W. G. Hopkins (eds.) 2006. Ethnobotany. Chelsea House Pub. – Green World Series. ISBN: 0791089630. Zohary, M. 1982. Plants of the Bible. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge. BS665.Z64. 12 Zohary, D., and M. Hopf. 1994. Domestication of Plants in the Old World. 2nd. Ed. Clarendon Press, Oxford. GN799.A4Z64. Check out this GREAT Website of Kew Botanical Garden. LOTS of Bibliography! The web interface for the Kew Bibliographic Databases has improved usability and download functions: http://www.kew.org/kbd/searchpage.do KBD is a combined database for Kew Record (plant taxonomy), Plant Micromophology (plant anatomy including pollen & seeds), and (less complete) Economic Botany. Databases can be searched together or singly. Citations can be printed, or downloaded to Endnote and as CSV files. Other websites with ethnobotanical research include: Center for International Ethnobotanical Education and Research: http://www.cieer.org/directory.html Center for Traditional Medicine: http://www.centerfortraditionalmedicine.org/research/ethnobotany.html Courses and Internships in Ethnobotany in Kauai’s National Tropical Botanic Garden, Kalaheo, Hawaii: http://ntbg.org/programs/education-crsint.php Ethnobotanical studies at the University of Hawaii: http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/ethnobotany/questions.htm Ethnobotanical studies at Frostburg tate University: http://www.frostburg.edu/dept/biol/Undergraduate/Ethnobotany.htm Ethnobotany at KEN University: http://www.kent.ac.uk/anthropology/prospective_students/courses/pgethno.html 13 CLASSIFICATION 14 REQUIRED NUTRIENTS IN HUMAN DIET (Source: http://www.life.umd.edu/classroom/bsci124/straney/ds14.doc) A. CALORIES - ENERGY REQUIREMENTS 1. Fuel for respiration- carbohydrates, fats, proteins 2. The unit of measurement = Calorie= amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree C. (e.g., about 15,000 cals to boil one cup of water) - Food energy "calorie" is actually a thousand calories or Kilocalories (kcal) 3. humans require between 1200 and 3200 Calories/day B. MACRONUTRIENTS 1. Carbohydrates: sugars and starches 2. Proteins: polymer of 20 naturally occurring amino acids a. nine essential amino acids b. protein requirements : 40 gm of high quality protein to 65 gm low quality protein 3. Fats- building blocks are fatty acids: a. Three essential fatty acids must be supplied in diet: linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acids -found in vegetable oils. C. MICRONUTRIENTS I. Vitamins: Molecules essential for the function of certain enzymes but can not be synthesized by humans a. Vitamin A - visual pigment and maintenance of lining of internal and external body surfaces - sources: animal liver; beta-carotene in yellow, orange and dark green fruits and vegetables. b. Vitamin D - regulates calcium levels - humans can synthesize on exposure to sunlight. c. Vitamin C - synthesis of collagen- connective tissue - sources: fresh fruits and veggies. d. Vitamin B complex1) Thiamin (B1) -breakdown of carbohydrates - source: meat, whole grains, seeds, nuts and legumes. 2) Niacin- NADH and NADPH - sources: meat, poultry, fish, eggs, nuts, seeds and 3) Vitamin B12- nucleic acid synthesis - sources: animal products only, yeast II. Minerals: Inorganic compounds. 1. Calcium: found in the bones and teeth - Sources: milk, dark-green leafy vegetables and seeds. 2. Iron: - component of hemoglobin in blood cells - Sources: Meat, fish, poultry, dark green vegetables 3. Iodine: Required for the formation of thyroid hormones III. Phytochemicals e.g., Antioxidants: Carotenoids, vitamin E, flavonoids (green tea) 15 INTERESTING NUTRITION FACTS THAT YOU SHOULD KNOW Beware of Filling Up with Junk Food! So-called junk foods are foods that may be high in carbohydrates and fat but do not have many vitamins and minerals. These foods are usually highly processed and contain white flour, refined sugar, and excessive amounts of fat, sodium and preservatives. Potato chips, cheese curls, French fries, candy, soda pop, doughnuts, cookies --- these things may fill you up, but they don’t give your body the nutrition it requires. The calories people get from junk food are “empty calories,” because they contain little or no nutritional value. Excessive consumption of junk food can contribute to certain diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and heart disease. The next time you need a “sugar fix,” reach for a apple, orange, or peach, or some honey drizzled on a rice cake or granola; or if your stomach is grumbling between meals, you can tide yourself over with peanut butter on either a stalk of celery or a whole-wheat cracker – ENJOY! Is Fiber a Nutrient? The cell walls of plants are made of large carbohydrate molecules called cellulose. Cellulose and several other large carbohydrate molecules are known collectively as fiber. Fiber cannot be digested by humans (but can be by cows and other ruminant animals), and so it passes through our digestive system without breaking down the way other foods do. Although not considered a nutrient, the roughage found in fibrous skins and stems of fruits and vegetables is beneficial to our health: Like a broom, giber sweeps away old food particles as it moves through our digestive systems. And because it cannot be metabolized and absorbed into the bloodstream it adds few calories to our diet. That is why people trying to reduce weight are advised to eat an abundance of fruits, vegetable and other foods high in fiber. While providing a full, satisfying feeling, fiber passes right through and adds no fat to the body. 16 COLUMN OF THE AMERICAS Weblog of Gonzales and Rodriguez Source: http://www.voznuestra.com/Americas/_2002/_November/29 SEVEN GUARDIANS OF INDIGENOUS NUTRITION FROM UNIVERSAL PRESS SYNDICATE FOR RELEASE: WEEK OF NOVEMBER 29, 2002 COLUMN OF THE AMERICAS by Patrisia Gonzales and Roberto Rodriguez SEVEN GUARDIANS OF INDIGENOUS NUTRITION Editor's note: This is a first-person column by Patrisia Gonzales When the old ones made the people long ago, they wondered, "What will they eat?" They sent Quetzalcoatl (one of the most powerful and influential Aztec’s Gods) to look for food. One day, he saw a red ant carrying something on its back. It was a kernel of corn. He asked Ant where he got that food. Ant responded, "Over there in sustenance mountain." He turned himself into a black ant and followed the red ant into food mountain. That's how Ant helped Quetzalcoatl find corn. From there, Quetzacoatl brought corn, and also beans and squash. Native cultures call them the three sisters. They are often planted together. Among Mexican indigenous nutrition, there are also the "siete guerreros," or seven warriors. These nutritional guardians are maguey, cactus, chile, beans, squash, corn and amaranth. Amid the holiday season, indigenous peoples today celebrate the harvest feasts and life cycles of the Earth and sun. Many celebrations are based on the agricultural cycle, giving thanks for what the Earth has given us. In indigenous nutrition, we connect to our grandmother Earth by what we eat. We are what we eat. (So stay away from genetically modified corn!) Maiz. The corn tortilla is golden like the sun. We eat a little bit of the sun every day with tortillas de maiz. Tortillas are round like the sun and a woman's skirts. As the woman (or man) pats the tortilla back and forth, the energy of her hands is given to the food. Don Aurelio, a Nahuatl curandero (healer), says this is one way that female energy is passed throughout the family and community. (My grandmother, who of course made the hottest, fattest tamales, ground her own corn until the arrival of the blender. Being a modern woman who loved gadgets, she quickly surrendered her metate grinding stone, which is now mine.) One ceremony still practiced today commemorates the sacred act of eating: when the tortilla is placed on the sacred fire. I have learned much about indigenous nutrition from teachers such as Isabel Quevedo, who teaches about the siete guerreros at Mexico's Nahuatl University. We learn in the place where many teachings are passed -- in the kitchen, while eating. Unlike Western tradition, our kitchens are sacred geography. El tamal is a petate, Quevedo says. In indigenous thought, the petate (or straw mat) is where we're born and where we die. In our ways, nothing is thrown out. "Tira nada," says my chef friend Antonio. Corn silk tea cleanses kidneys, and the husks have several uses as tiny mats and containers. Corn tortillas are a great source of calcium. 17 Squash. In ancestral books, the squash seeds symbolize women's fertility. Like a squash, we're born with all our seeds. Fall squash, in particular, is a great source of vitamin A for the skin and immunity. Squash blossom dishes are a delicacy you can only enjoy in Mexico or if you have your own garden. El frijol. Eat beans five times a week, and you may lower your risk of cancer. El nopal -- God's food. Its slimy baba and leaf hold the medicine to naturally balance insulin, fight off viruses and strengthen the heart. When doctors gave Grandma only months to live because her heart was tired, we cooked her fresh nopales (cactus) every day and fed her chilito and Jell-O. Chiles have lots of vitamin C, and are great for colds, arthritis, depression and pain (when combined with other herbs). And their ability to strengthen circulation is good for the heart. My grandma lived another three years. Food is medicine. Grandmother Maguey is said to be the guardian of all the other vegetation. Her medicine helps people with extreme immune disorders. Finally, amaranth -- the most complete of all grains -- is returning to our kitchens. This grain was outlawed in Mexico by Europeans. Isabel Quevedo says Europeans thought its deep red flower looked like blood. It was so heavily relied upon in indigenous cultures and used in ceremonies that Europeans forbade its growth. It was grown in secret. Quevedo says no one would starve or need meat if they ate this grain. It's great for atole and avena porridges. I eat it for breakfast and add it to Mexican chocolate. It strengthens the heart. Of course, the best ingredient we put in food is "to cook with love." The last time we were at Nahuatl U., we saw where the old stories came from on our way to breakfast. "There's a lot of Quetzalcoatl here," said Quevedo, as we watched in wonder of this blessing. We saw red ants carrying fat kernels of corn. This Page was last update: Sunday, December 1, 2002 at 9:35:14 PM Copyright 2006 COLUMN OF THE AMERICAS IMAGES OF THE AZTEC GOD QUETZALCOATL 18 ORIGIN OF DOMESTICATED WHEAT 19 The banana (Musa Xparadisiaca) is the world’s largest herb. q) Bract with cluster of male flowers. b) Male flower with perianth parts. c) Male flower with perianth removed. d) Female flower. e) Longitudinal section of female flower. f) The banana fruit: an accessory berry (pepo) derived from an inferior ovary. g) Cross-section of fruit showing the edible placental tissue with aborted seeds and three carpels. h) Flowering banana plant with an offshoot. i) Bracts with female flowers. Picture credit: Simpson and Ogorzaly. 2003. Economic Botany: Plants in our world, 3rd. Ed. 20 SLAVE TRADE TRIANGLE Source: http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.colonialcemetery.com/images/slave%2520trade.jpg 21 22 FRUIT AND FRUIT PARTS (SOURCE: www.fruitsinfo.com/ parts_of_fruits.htm) A fruit as a whole is not a single solid product. It is divided into certain parts among itself. Generally, the parts of the fruits are divided into two fruit layers. They are, *Pericarp - which includes: • Exocarp - the outermost layer often consisting of only the epidermis • Mesocarp - or middle layer, which varies in thickness • Endocarp - which shows considerable variation from one species to another *Seed- containing the embryo During the development of the fruit, the wall of the ovary, called the pericarp, usually thickens and becomes differentiated into three layers, which may or may not be easy to distinguish visually. These layers are called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. As an example, in the peach, the exocarp is the skin, the mesocarp is the fleshy part, and the endocarp is the stony pit. The seed, containing the embryo, is inside the pit. Fruit - the matured ovary of the pistil of a flower, containing the seed. After the egg nucleus, or ovum, has been fertilized (see fertilization) and the embryo plantlet begins to form, the surrounding ovule (see pistil) develops into a seed and the ovary wall (pericarp) around the ovule becomes the fruit. The pericarp consists of three layers of tissue: the thin outer exocarp, which becomes the “skin”; the thicker mesocarp; and the inner endocarp, immediately surrounding the ovule. A flower may have one or more simple pistils or a compound pistil made up of two or more fused simple pistils (each called a carpel); different arrangements give rise to different types of fruit. A new variety of fruit is obtained as a hybrid in plant breeding or may develop spontaneously by mutation. The example to describe the parts of the fruits is given below with the tomato fruit. 23 IDENTIFICATION OF MAJOR FRUIT TYPES (Source: http://waynesword.palomar.edu/fruitid1.htm) I. SIMPLE FRUITS: A single ripened ovary from a single flower. A. Fleshy Fruits: All of most of the ovary wall (pericarp) is soft or fleshy at maturity. 1. Berry: Entire pericarp is fleshy, although skin is sometimes tough; may be one or many seeded. E.g. grape, tomato, papaya, pomegranate, sapote, persimmon, guava, banana, and avocado. The latter two fruits are often termed baccate (berry-like). [The banana fruit is a seedless, parthenocarpic berry developing without pollination and fertilization. In the pomegranate, the edible part is the fleshy layer (aril) around each seed.] 2. Pepo: Berry with a hard, thick rind; typical fruit of the gourd family (Cucurbitaceae). E.g., watermelon, cucumber, squash, cantelope and pumpkin. 3. Hesperidium: Berry with a leathery rind and parchment-like partitions between sections; typical fruit of the citrus family (Rutaceae). E.g. orange, lemon, grapefruit, tangelo and kumquat. 24 4. Drupe: Fleshy fruit with hard inner layer (endocarp or stone) surrounding the seed. E.g. peach, plum, nectarine, apricot, cherry, olive, mango and almond. Some botanists also include the fruits of walnuts, pecans, date palms, macadamia nuts, pistachio nuts, tung oil and kukui nuts as drupes because of their outer, green, fleshy husk and stony, seed-bearing endocarp. These latter fruits are also called drupaceous nuts. The coconut is considered a dry drupe with a green, waterproof outer layer (exocarp), a thick, buoyant, fibrous husk (mesocarp) and a hard, woody, inner layer (endocarp) surrounding the large seed. The actual seed embryo is embedded in the coconut meat (endosperm). Nutrient-rich coconut milk is liquid endosperm that has not formed firm tissue with cell walls. There is considerable disagreement among authorities about the classification of some of these fruits. Note: A number of so-called nuts are probably better placed in the drupe category. This is especially true of the walnut family (Juglandaceae), although some older references still consider these fruits to be nuts. In hickory & pecan (Carya) the outer husk splits into four valves, exposing the hard, indehiscent nut . According to many botanists, the outer husk is part of the pericarp, and the hard, inner layer surrounding the seed is the endocarp; therefore, these fruits are technically drupes or drupaceous nuts. Walnut & butternut (Juglans), two members of the walnut family (Juglandaceae), have similar drupe-like fruits. The outer green husk resembles the outer pericarp (exocarp and mesocarp) of a drupe. For this reason, walnuts are sometimes referred to as dry drupes, and the hard shell surrounding the seed is considered to be the endocarp layer as in coconuts. In true nuts, the hard, indehiscent layer surrounding the seed is the entire ovary wall or pericarp, and the outer husk is composed of involucral tissue that is not part of the ovary wall or pericarp. The outer green layer (husk) of the walnut is part of the pericarp and the hard shell surrounding the seed is really the endocarp. Therefore, walnuts and pecans fit best the dry drupe category rather than a true nut. Some authors avoid this dilemma by calling these fruits drupe-like or "drupaceous nuts." 5. Pome: Ovary or core surrounded by edible, fleshy receptacle tissue (hypanthium or fleshy floral tube) that is really not part of the pericarp. The actual ovary or core is usually not eaten, at least by most humans. This is typical fruit of certain members of the rose family (Rosaceae), including apple, pear, quince and loquat. 25 B. DRY FRUITS: Pericarp dry at maturity. 1. Dehiscent Dry Fruits: Pericarp splits open along definite seams. a. Legume: An elongate "bean pod" splitting along two seams; typical fruit of the third largest plant family, the legume family (Leguminosae or Fabaceae). The pod represents one folded modified leaf or carpel that is fused along the edges. E.g. black locust, redbud, acacia, coral tree, orchid tree, wisteria and many more genera. Note: Some legume fruits are indehiscent, including the carob tree, mesquite and honey locust. In addition, some legume fruits are oblong, rounded, kidney-shaped (reniform), or coiled (spiral-shaped), such as sweet clover (Melilotus alba and M. officinalis), black medic (Medicago lupulina), bur clover (M. polymorpha) and alfalfa (M. sativa). Some specialized legume fruits (called loments) break apart into indehiscent one-seeded joints. A good example of a loment is the very effective hitchhiker called stick-tights or beggar's-ticks (Desmodium cuspidatum). b. Silique: A slender, dry, dehiscent fruit that superficially resemble a legume, except the mustard silique is composed of two carpels with a partition or septum down the center (i.e. between the two carpels or valves). [The legume fruit is composed of a single carpel and does not have the central partition or septum.] This is the typical fruit of the mustard family (Cruciferae or Brassicaceae). E.g. field mustard, turnip and cabbage (Brassica species), stock (Mathiola), wallflower (Erysimum) and London rocket (Sisymbrium). The silicle is a shortened (less elongate) version of a silique, including sweet alyssum (Lobularia), peppergrass (Lepidium) and shepherd's purse (Capsella). [Note: As with legumes there are a few exceptions to the typical form of siliques and silicles. In wild radish (Raphanus) the silique does not split lengthwise, but instead it breaks transversely into several seedbearing joints. In lace pod (Thysanocarpus) the silicles are indehiscent.] 26 c. Capsule: Seed pod splits open is various ways and usually along several definite seams. Capsules typically split open into well-defined sections or carpels, which represent modified leaves. This is a very common dry fruit found in many different plant families. E.g. Catalpa, Jacaranda, Pittosporum, Aesculus, Agave, Yucca, Eucalyptus, devil's claw (Proboscidea), floss silk tree (Chorisia), kapok tree (Ceiba) and castor bean (Ricinus communis). Capsules may split open along the locules (loculicidal), along the septa (septicidal), through pores (poricidal), or the entire top of the capsule separates as a single lid-like section (circumscissle). A common landscaping tree in southern California called the golden-rain tree (Koelreuteria) produces bladder-like capsules that are loculicidally dehiscent into three valves. The opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) produces a classic poricidal capsule in which the tiny seeds fall out of the pore-like windows as the capsule shakes in the wind. The edible weed called purslane (Portulaca) has a manyseeded circumscissle capsule. The Mexican jumping bean (Sebastiana pavoniana) produces a 3carpellate capsule, each carpel bearing a seed. Sometimes the carpel is occupied by a special moth larva that eats the seed and moves its one-room carpel container by contorting and hurling its body. In the liquidambar tree (Liquidambar styraciflua) the globose fruiting heads are composed of numerous tiny capsules, each bearing one or two winged seeds and a number of aborted ovules (immature seeds). It should be noted here that some capsules are indehiscent. Their carpels do not separate and release the seeds. Two examples of plants with indehiscent capsules are the South African baobab tree (Adansonia digitata) and two species of South African gardenias (Gardenia thunbergii and G. volkensii). The seed pods of South African gardenias are chewed opened by large herbivores, and the seeds are dispersed in their feces. Septicidal capsule Poricidal capsule 27 d. Follicle: A single ripened ovary (representing a single modified leaf or carpel) that splits open along one seam. The follicle may occur singly (as in milkweed) or in clusters: two in oleander, 2-5 in peony, 3 in larkspur, 5 in columbine and 4-5 in bottle tree (Sterculia or Brachychiton). The cone-like fruit of the magnolia tree is an aggregate of many small follicles, each containing a single bright red seed. The term apocarpous refers to flowers with separate and distinct carpels, such as delphiniums and columbines of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae). Although it also belongs to the buttercup family, the fused (syncarpous) carpels of Nigella form a many-seeded capsule. 2. INDEHISCENT DRY FRUITS: Pericarp does not split open. These fruits usually contain only one seed. a. Achene: Very small, one-seeded fruit, usually produced in clusters. At maturity the pericarp is dry and free from the internal seed, except at the placental attachment. This is the typical fruit of the largest plant family, the sunflower family (Compositae or Asteraceae). Examples of this type of fruit include the sunflower (Helianthus), buttercup (Ranunculus) and sycamore (Platanus). In the sycamore, the globose fruiting heads are composed of tiny, one-seeded achenes interspersed with hairs (some authors refer to these individual fruits as nutlets). [The globose heads of the liquidambar tree are actually composed of numerous tiny capsules.] 28 b. Grain or Caryopsis: A very small, dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit in which the actual seed coat is completely fused to the ovary wall or pericarp. The outer pericarp layer or husk is referred to as the bran, while the inner, seed layer is called the germ. This is the characteristic fruit of the large grass family (Gramineae or Poaceae). The grain is truly a fruit (not a seed) because it came from a separate ripened ovary within the grass inflorescence. This is the number one source of food for people on the earth. E.g. Corn (maize), wheat, rice, rye, barley, oats, Johnson grass, Bermuda grass and many more species. In corn grains, the main white material that explodes when the grains are heated is endosperm tissue within the seed. Pressure (water vapor) builds up within the grains until they literally explode. c. Schizocarp: A small dry fruit composed of two or more sections that break apart; however, each section or carpel (also called a mericarp) remains indehiscent and contains a single seed. Because the seed-bearing sections or carpels (called mericarps) do not split open, this type of fruit is usually placed under indehiscent dry fruits. This is the characteristic fruit of the carrot family (Umbelliferae or Apiaceae). E.g. Carrot (Daucus), celery (Apium) and sweet fennel (Foeniculum vulgare). Other examples of schizocarps include filaree or stork's bill (Erodium) and cheeseweed (Malva), two common weeds in southern California. In these weeds, the seed-bearing carpels (mericarps) separate from each other, but remain indehiscent. Gynoecium is a collective term for the carpels of a flower. Biologists commonly refer to this floral unit as a pistil. Monocarpous flowers are composed of one carpel (a simple pistil). The terms apocarpous and syncarpous refer to compound pistils composed of more than one carpel. Apocarpous flowers contain two or more distinct carpels. In syncarpous flowers, two or more carpels are fused together. In cheeseweed, the carpels are attached to a central, conical connection stalk, but separate from this stalk at maturity. Some authors consider the fruit of the maple (Acer) to be a schizocarp because it splits into two indehiscent, seed-bearing carpels; however, because of the wing on each seed-bearing carpel, other botanists refer to maple fruits as double samaras (see the samara fruit). 29 d. Samara: Small, winged, one-seeded fruit, usually produced in clusters on trees. E.g. Maple (Acer): a double samara, ash (Fraxinus), elm (Ulmus) and tree of heaven (Ailanthus). Samaras resemble the winged seeds of a pine, but they are truly one-seeded fruits with a pericarp layer surrounding the seed. The leguminous tipu tree (Tipuana tipu) has a winged fruit that certainly resembles a samara even though it belongs to the legume family (Leguminosae or Fabaceae). Like auto-rotation of helicopters, the samaras spin as they sail through the air, an effective method of dispersal. Acer (maple) Fraxinus (ash tree) e. Nut: Larger, one-seeded fruit with very hard pericarp, usually enclosed in a husk or cup-like involucre. Many examples. (1) Acorn of oak (Quercus): The actual nut sits in a cup-shaped involucre of imbricate (overlapping) scales. involucre (2) Chestnut (Castanea), beech (Fagus) & chinquapin (Castanopsis): One or more nuts sit in a spiny, cup-shaped involucre. 30 (3) Hazelnut or filbert (Corylus): Nut sits in a leafy (C. americana) or tubular (C. cornuta) involucre. (4) Walnut (Juglans) and pecan (Carya) are placed in the drupe category (section A-4) above, although some botanists maintain that they are true nuts. In true nuts, the hard, indehiscent layer surrounding the seed is the entire ovary wall or pericarp, and the outer husk is composed of involucral tissue that is not part of the ovary wall or pericarp. According to most botanical references, the outer green layer (husk) of the walnut is part of the pericarp and the hard shell surrounding the seed is really the endocarp. Therefore, walnuts and pecans probably fit the dry drupe category rather than a true nut. Other authorities claim that the walnut husk is composed of involucral tissue, perianth and an outer layer of pericarp, but is not totally derived from the pericarp. Because the "shell" is the actual pericarp wall, the walnut should be classified as a true nut. However, since the walnut husk contains pericarp tissue (at least in part), and is not entirely derived from involucral (non-pericarp) tissue, Note: Brazil nuts are seeds produced in a large, woody capsule. Cashews are nuts with a hard shell that is removed before shipment to food stores. The cashew nut is produced at the summit of a fleshy receptacle called the "cashew apple." Pine nuts are actually gymnosperm seeds produced in a woody, ovuliferous seed cone. The peanut (Arachis hypogea) is actually a seed with a papery seed coat, typically two seeds enclosed in a dehiscent pod called a legume. After fertilization, the flower stalk of the peanut curves downward, and the developing fruit (legume) is forced into the ground by the proliferation and elongation of cells under the ovary. The peanut pod subsequently develops underground. f. Utricle: Small, bladderlike, thin-walled, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Although it is seldom seen by casual observers, this is the characteristic fruit of the duckweed family (Lemnaceae). The dehiscent one-seeded fruits of Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae) are often called circumscissle utricles because the top half of the fruit separates, exposing a shiny black seed. II. AGGREGATE FRUITS: A cluster or aggregation of many ripened ovaries (fruits) produced from a single flower. In blackberries and raspberries (Rubus), the individual fruits are tiny, one-seeded drupes or drupelets. Since all the seed-bearing ovaries (carpels) form a fused cluster, the fruit is also called a syncarp. In strawberries (Fragaria), the individual fruits are tiny, one-seeded achenes imbedded in a sweet, fleshy receptacle. Another term for an aggregate cluster of ovaries all derived from a single flower is the "etaerio." In fact, a rose hip (Rosa) eaten as an entire fruit could be considered an etaerio of achenes enclosed by a fleshy receptacle. Fleshy receptacle in Fragaria Aggregate if achenes in Rosa 31 III. MULTIPLE FRUITS: A cluster of many ripened ovaries (fruits) produced by the coalescence of many flowers crowded together in the same inflorescence, typically surrounding a fleshy stem axis. E.g. mulberry, osage orange, pineapple, breadfruit and jackfruit. In the mulberry (Morus), the individual fruits are tiny drupes called drupelets. In the pineapple (Ananas), the individual fruits are berries imbedded in a fleshy, edible stem, each berry subtended by a jagged-edged bract where the original flower was attached. The fleshy spadix of Monstera deliciosa is also a multiple fruit because it is derived from numerous, tightly-packed female flowers. Another term for multiple fruits composed of a fleshy spike or raceme of tightly packed ovaries is the sorosis. Note: Fig trees (Ficus) produce an edible multiple fruit called a syconium. It is a fleshy, flask-shaped structure (inflorescence) lined on the inside with numerous female flowers, each forming a tiny, oneseeded drupelet. Seed formation requires a symbiotic wasp that enters the syconium and pollinates the female flowers. Smyrna and California-grown Calimyrna figs require wasp pollination. Other fig varieties will produce edible, seedless, parthenocarpic syconia without pollination. This is a very complex and fascinating story that is discussed in several sources. Miscellaneous Notes On Fruit Types: Some trees produce seeds and pollen in separate inflorescences called catkins or aments. This includes monoecious species with both male and female catkins on the same tree; and dioecious species with separate male and female trees. In birch (Betula) and alder (Alnus), the seeds (nutlets) are produced in a woody, cone-like catkin. In other trees, such as oak (Quercus), only pollen is produced in the catkins. In true cone-bearing trees, the immature seeds (ovules) are borne at the surface of ovuliferous scales instead of enclosed within an ovary as in flowering plants. Because the ovules are exposed to the wind-blown pollen during the pollination period, these trees are referred to as gymnosperms (which means naked seeds). The ovuliferous scales collectively form a woody seed cone sealed with sticky resin. At maturity (in one or two years depending on the species), the scales dry and separate from each other, thus releasing the winged seeds. In junipers (Juniperus) the scales are fleshy and fused together, and the seed cones superficially resemble berries. In the maidenhair tree (Ginkgo biloba), fern pine (Podocarpus), and the California nutmeg (Torreya californica), the large seed with a fleshy outer coat is borne naked on the branchlets. In the yew tree (Taxus) the naked seed is borne in a fleshy, cup-like structure called an aril. 32 DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR COMMON FRUITS 1A. Fruit from one ovary of one flower ......................................[Simple Fruit].. ........................ 2 1B. Fruit from more than one ovary, or more than one flower .................................................... 17 2A. Fleshy at maturity ................................................................................................................. 3 2B. Dry at maturity ...................................................................................................................... 8 3A. Single large hard seed, a "stone" fruit ............................................................................ Drupe 3B. More than one seed, seed not enlarged and hardened ............................................................ 4 4A. Seeds in a single linear order, separating from ovary wall forming a pod ............... Legume 4B. Seeds not in a single linear order ......................................................................................... 5 5A. Inner layer of ovary (endocarp) papery, forming a core ................................................ Pome 5B. Endocarp fleshy ................................................................................................................... 6 6A. Outer layer (exocarp) thin, easily peeled off, not leathery .......................................... Berry 6B. Exocarp thickened and leathery (modified berries) ............................................................. 7 7A. Divided into sections w/ cross-walls, citrus .................................................... Hesperidium 7B. Interior not divided, exocarp a rind ............................................................................... Pepo 8A. Dehiscent (splits open at maturity), usually many seeds ..................................................... 9 8B. Indehiscent (does not split open), usually one seeded ....................................................... 12 9A. Derived from a pistil with one chamber (locule) .............................................................. 10 9B. Derived from a pistil with more than one locule ............................................................... 11 10A. Dehiscent along one side (suture) ........................................................................... Follicle 10B. Dehiscent along two sutures ................................................................................. Legume 11A. From two locules, separating at maturity .................................................................. Silique 11B. From more than two locules, or lid-like top ............................................................. Capsule 12A. Ovary wall extends to form a wing ............................... ..................................... Samara 12B. Fruit not winged ............................................................................................................. 13 13A. With many seeds in single linear order forming a pod ............................................Legume 13B. Fruit with one seed, or not in single linear order ............................................................. 14 14A. Outer wall not especially thick or hard, fruit small ........................................................ 15 14B. Outer wall hardened, fruit relatively large ..................................................................... 16 15A. Seed not tightly attached to ovary wall .................................................................... Achene 15B. Seed fused to ovary, grains ................................................................................. Caryopsis 16A. Ovary hard throughout ................................................................................................. Nut 16B. Middle of ovary fibrous, seed hardened ................................................................... Drupe 17A. Fruit derived from many ovaries of one flower ........................................ Aggregate Fruit 17B. Fruit derived from many ovaries of more than one flower .......................... Multiple Fruit 33 KEY TERMS FOR STUDENTS Ovary - Contains the female reproductive cell; generally, the ripened ovary together with the seeds form the fruit of a flowering plant Exocarp - the outer wall of the fruit Mesocarp - the middle wall of the fruit; often becomes fleshy Endocarp - the inner wall of the fruit; may be papery or hard and bony Carpel - the female reproductive organ of a flower; comprised of the following structures: a) stigma - a structure upon which pollen grains, containing the male reproductive cells with adhere b) ovary - see above c) style - a stalk-like structure that connects the ovary and the stigma Pistil - composed of the carpel, or carpels, depending on whether they occur alone, or in mulitple, either fused or distinct Placentation - in plants refers to the arragement of the ovules within the ovary Dehiscent - when mature, dehiscent plants will split, opening to discharge seeds Suture - area of fusion between 2 adjacent structures; like a seam i.e. the ventral suture in flowering plants is formed by the line of fusion of the edges of carpel 34 THE SPICE TRADE AND ANCIENT TRADE ROUTES 35 ORIGIN OF AGRICULTURE FROM HUNTERS AND GATHERERS TO CULTIVATED AND DOMESTICATED PLANTS Figure showing the hypothesized proportions of subsistence components in the Tehuacán Valley inhabitants diet. The width of the vertical lines is roughly proportional to the amount of cultivated plants in diet. (From MacNeish 1967: 301). 36 READ BEFORE YOUR FIRST LABORATORY SESSION! IS THIS PLANT DANGEROUS? In the next 11-12 weeks you will be exposed or working with plants. Be aware that like animals, some plant species are dangerous and are best left alone. Get to know your plant before actually working with it or it could heart you. Make sure that the plant you’re working with is safe. In general, plants are not dangerous, but different people may have different reactions to the same plant. Poison ivy and poison oak can cause severe skin rash for even casual contact with any plant part. Singing nettle causes a painful prickly sensation when handled, BUT some people don’t experience even the slight reaction. Other plants can be handled without incident bur are toxic if ingested. Sassafras (Sassafras albidum), has a cancer-causing substance called safrole, and pensyroyal (Mentha pulegium) can cause liver damage or even death. Other plants may be unavailable or illegal to use. Good background research from reputable sources will help you to make solid choices and provide safe lead to your plant hunting. In our lab we don’t use poisonous or toxic plants, but if you have some questions regarding this issues, please talk to your instructor about this, especially if you have an allergic reaction to a plant, fruit, or vegetable. REMEMBER! REMEMBER! REMEMBER! Please let your instructor and TA know whether you are allergic or have adverse reactions to plants, plant products and or plant food or derivatives. 37 BIOL. 324.3 PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 1 CLASSIFICATION EXERCISE AND INTRODUCTION TO PLANT MORPHOLOGY I. CLASSIFICATION EXERCISE. In this exercise students will be provided with fictitious samples of the “plant study group” to “discover” basic ideas about classification. At the end of this exercise the student should understand the following concepts and ideas: • What is classification? • Why do we classify plants? • The principles of classification. How to proceed? 1. Form student groups (3-5 people/group). 2. Classify the plant material provided according to students’ own criteria. Each group should select characters and should be ready to defend the proposed classification. 3. At the end, the class will discuss the basic ideas. II. A SURVEY OF PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PLANT STRUCTURES: THE ANGIOSPERMS For the benefit of those in the class who have no experience in taxonomy, this first tutorial includes a brief introduction to the subject, in particular plant morphology. This is not an exercise requiring a report, and is intended only to introduce you to some of the structures and terms that you will encounter throughout this course. We strongly recommend you to spend time reviewing and recognizing structures in all the material provided. Remember that your instructors will assist you and answer any of your questions. Since this is a “show and tell lab”, feel free to sample the food provided, and while you do so discuss with your instructors and fellow students what plant part you are eating, where the samples come from, is it a tree, shrub, or herb? etc. 38 First, we need to review the flower and flower parts. FLOWER A flower is homologous to a branch bearing four sets of highly specialized or modified leaves or appendages (the floral whorls). These whorls never vary in order or position to one another, even when some whorls are absent. General Terms: Flower Inflorescence (just learn the term for now. We will study them in some detail later). Whorls/series Bract Flower Parts: Peduncle Receptacle Ovule Perianth Androecium Gynoecium Corolla Stamen Carpel Petals Filament Stigma Calyx Anther Style Sepals Ovary Placentation Locule Plant Parts Exercise: Identify the parts of the drawing below. Try to do this exercise on your own before consulting any reference. You may verify your answers in a general botany book, including your textbook. The complete answer to this diagram is found at: http://www.m-w.com/mw/art/flower.htm 39 III. PLANT FAMILIES The student will become familiar with general characteristics of the angiosperms and the distinctive features of several families of economic importance (see below). Please pay close attention to the illustrations, and preserved and live demonstration material. a. Rosaceae: ca. 3,000 spp. Many temperate zone fruits. Also ornamentals. Sepals and petals 5; stamens numerous; carpels 1 to many, free or fused to form a compound pistil. Ovary superior to inferior. Floral tube. Leaves alternate; simple or pinnately compound. b. Fabaceae (Leguminosae): ca. 15,000 spp. Many food and forage plants. Subfamily Papilionoideae: the pea group. Sepals 5, may be fused (=connate); petals 5, zygomorphic (bilaterally symmetrical), partially fused; stamens 10, variously fused filaments; carpel 1. Ovary superior; fruit a legume. Leaves usually pinnately compound, alternate. 40 c. Brassicaceae (Cruciferae): ca. 3,000 spp. Many common vegetable crops. Sepals and petals 4 in a cruciform arrangement; stamens 6 (4 long and 2 short); carpels 2, fused. Ovary superior. Leaves simple, alternate, variously dissected. d. Solanaceae: ca. 2,000 spp. Many contain alkaloids. Also, edible fruits and the potato. Sepals 5, fused; petals 5, fused; stamens usually 5, fused to (=adnate to) corolla, anthers often joined; carpels 2, fused. Ovary superior. Leaves alternate, rarely opposite, simple, dissected or pinnately compound. 41 e. Poaceae (Gramineae): ca. 9,000 spp. Cereals and forage crops. Inflorescence a dense spike or open branching cluster, composed of units called spikelets, each with 1 to several florets, enclosed by 2 glumes. Floret with palea and lemma; 2 lodicules (=perianth); stamens 3; carpels 2, fused. Ovary superior; fruit a caryopsis. Leaves with a conspicuous sheath, distichous. General Morphological Features of Grasses 42 BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 2 CEREALS I – CORN AND WHEAT Major Cereals: each comprises ca. one-fourth of the world’s cereal crops. Wheat: Triticum aestivum L. Maize: Zea mays L. Rice: Oryza sativa L. The objectives of the next two laboratory sessions are to provide an opportunity to examine examples of important plant cereals, some of which are probably familiar to you, but others of which may not be. These will include wheat, rice, maize, barley, oats, rye, sorghum and buckwheat. Today’s lab will focus on wheat and corn. The Poaceae has some unique morphological features, including the ligule (membranaceous structure in the junction of the sheath and the leaf blade). 1. Identify the ligule in each example provided. 2. In each case provided, examine the spikelet structure and identify the glumes, lemma and palea. Refer to drawings from last lab session. 3. With the aid of a model, your lecture notes and the material provided, be sure to understand the structure of the fruit (caryopsis) in the grasses. 4. Determine in which cereals the grains separate freely from the lemma and the palea. 5. Review in detail the origin and domestication of wheat making use of the specimens provided by your instructors. These include samples of einkorn (Triticum monococcum), emmer (T. dicoccum), bread wheat (T. aestivum), a locally grown tetraploid wheat from western Asia (T. timopheevi), and the oat grass (T. tauschii), which is believed to be one of the parental lines of the hexaploid wheat. 6. Examine the spikelets of these plants and note the number of grains in each and the mode of separation from the inflorescence axis. 7. Understand the following concepts: domestication, hybridization, polyploidy, diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid. 43 Corn or maize (Zea mays) is the only major New World domesticated cereal, and can be cultivated in both tropical and temperate areas. It has been the basis of main New World civilizations, such as the Mayas, Aztecs and Incas. The exact origin of maize is still being debated, but one widely supported theory is that it is derived from one type of teosinte (Z. mays subsp. parviglumis), which occurs in the Balsas Valley of southwestern Mexico. In this lab, every student will have a chance to make a real “home-made” tortilla, which you will sample, with whatever food your instructors provide. Have fun and enjoy this experience! You will also answer the following questions: 1. Modern corn has a different and more perplexing morphology than any wild grass. How could the corn ear be derived from a typical grass inflorescence? 2. To what plant part is the corncob homologous? 3. Dissect a corn kernel and observe and differentiate its parts (embryo, endosperm, aleurone, and pericarp), using the dissecting microscope. 4. To what flower parts are the corn kernels homologous? 5. To what flower part is the cob homologous? 6. Examine specimens of abnormal tassels and cobs provided in the laboratory. Such abnormalities are by no means rare and represent ancestral forms of modern corn. 7. Examine the preserved material of teosinte. 8. Where is the putative center of origin of corn? 9. What is the main difference between the origin of wheat and maize? What processes were involved in each? 10. Finally, do you know why pop corn ‘pops’ and why other cereal grains don’t? 44 BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 3 CEREALS II: FERMENTATION, RICE, MINOR CEREALS, MILLETS AND PSEUDOCEREALS Major Cereals: Rice: Oryza sativa L. Minor Cereals: Oats: Avena sativa L. Barley: Hordeum vulgare L. Rye: Secale cereale L. Sorghum: Sorghum bicolor L. Millets: Setaria spp., Pennisetum spp., Panicum spp., Eleusine spp., Eragrostis spp. Job’s Tears: Coix lachryma-jobi L. Wild Rice: Zizania palustris L. Pseudocereals (not grasses): Buckwheat: Fagopyrum esculentum Möench. (Polygonaceae) Quinoa: Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (Chenopodiaceae) Amaranth: Amaranthus caudatus L. (Amaranthaceae) FERMENTATION – see handout in the following pages. Today we will start the beer making process. The time involved in this process will depend on the instructions provided in the package. Beer made from some kits is bottled after a 6-weeks, while others recommend bottling after the mix (wort) has been allowed to stand for a week. In general, a 46-week period is required to complete fermentation. Today we will prepare the worth from the kit and allow to ferment for several weeks. We will sample our beer in either the lab session before or after Spring break, depending on our activities. Don’t miss it! 45 MAJOR CEREALS CONTINUED In today’s lab we will continue our survey of major cereals and we will start studying those species classified within the minor cereals. The objectives of this laboratory session are to study the different types of domesticated rice, oats, and rye, including their main morphological features. RICE Oryza sativa L. This crop is native to China and is believed to have been domesticated in the Yangtze River Valley (1ry. centre of origin), from where it has spread to the rest of the world. Domesticated rice, O. sativa, is the cereal that feeds the world. Although rice world production is exceeded by wheat, rice is the staple food of approximately 1.8 billion people. 1. Review the morphological features of domesticated rice. 2. What is the ploidy level in cultivated rice? 3. Observe the different varieties of rice provided, and compare features such as grain length, thickness, and whether the grain has pointed or blunt ends. 4. What is the difference between brown rice and the white varieties? 5. What is parboiled rice? 6. List the optimal ecological conditions to grow rice. 7. What is the nutritional value of the bran layer in cereals? 8. What are the two major centres of origin of domesticated rice? WILD RICE The only North American cereal plant is wild rice (Zizania palustris L). In fact, it is grown in Saskatchewan (Z. aquatica). This crop, although harvested since long before the arrival of Europeans, has only recently been domesticated. The traditional harvesting and processing of wild rice will be illustrated by slides/drawings in an incoming tutorial presentation. 1. Review the different varieties of wild rice provided by your instructors. 2. What changes will probably occur in this plant if it is brought successfully into cultivation? 46 MINOR CEREALS: OATS Avena sativa L. 1. Review the live and preserved material of A. sativa and study the structure and parts of the inflorescence and spikelet. 2. How many florets are there in the spikelet? 3. From what world region are the oats native? 4. What are the ecological requirements of this cereal plant? BARLEY Hordeum vulgare L. Study the live material provided and: 1. Compare the wild and domesticated specimens. What are the major distinguishing features between these two lines? 2. Identify the two- and six-row barley only (if provided by your instructors). 3. How did domesticated barley develop a six-row spikelet from a two-row ancestor? RYE Secale cereale L. It is an extremely good crop able to withstand drought and cold temperatures. It’s mainly grown in Europe and is source of nutritious bread. 1. From what world region is rye native? 2. Name two products that come from rye. MILLETS (INCLUDING SHORGUM) The term millet refers to several edible plants. In this lab you will be exposed to several species within this category. 1. Review the material provided (Sorghum bicolor L. Setaria spp., Pennisetum spp.,) understanding why these plants are important crops in dry regions o the world. 2. Study the inflorescence type(s) and grain structure. 3. In which areas of the world are these grains a staple food? 47 PSEUDOCEREALS Pseudocereals include grains/fruits produced by plants that do not belong to the grass family (Poaceae), and thus they are not true cereals. Taxonomically, pseudocereals belong to different families (Amaranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae, and Polygonaceae) placed within the Caryophyllidae, a rather large class characterized by a beaked/curved embryo and endosperm, and red and purple pigments known as betalains. In today’s lab, we will learn the basic morphological characters of these plant families and the fruits we eat, and discuss their potential as “miracle crops.” AMARANTH Amaranthus caudatus L. (Amaranthaceae) 1. List one distinguishing feature in the genus Amaranthus. 2. From what world region is amaranth native? 3. In what regions of the world is amaranth most commonly cultivated? QUINOA Chenopodium quinoa Willd., Chenopodium spp. (Chenopodiaceae) 1. List two distinguishing features in the genus Chenopodium. 2. How would you distinguish Chenopodium from Amaranthus just by looking at them? Is there any morphological trait that would tell them apart? 3. From what world region is amaranth native? 4. Could amaranth and/or quinoa become or act as weedy species? Why? 48 BUCKWHEAT Fagopyrum esculentum Möench. (Polygonaceae) 1. Determine what is the fruit type in buckwheat and compare it with that of amaranth and quinoa. 2. List two shared features of these three plant families. 3. Why do the pseudocereals studied in this session have some red/reddish portions in the stem and leaves? 4. Why are buckwheat, quinoa and amaranth called pseudocereals? 49 BEER MAKING – FERMENTATION In this lab we will make beer from a commercial kit. In this exercise we will study the process of fermentation, which involves three important organisms: barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), hops (Humulus lupulus L.), and the active fermenter yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), which produces alcohol. Our beer kit includes a can of malted barley to which hops have already been added. Today, we are going to wash the bottles and start the fermentation process (water + malt syrup + sugar + yeast = wort) for a week, then transfer wort to a 2ry. container and store in cool place for 6-8 weeks. We’ll sample our beer at the beginning and end of the process. The general beer making process is indicated in the flux diagram below. For additional information see references listed below and bibliographic sources cited therein. Clean and grade barley (H. vulgare) grains Adjuncts – unmalted grains (corn, rice, wheat) cleaned & cooked Steep grains for 2-3 days Malting Place grains in germinating rooms (controlled temp. & humidity) with rotating drums to promote hydrolytic enzyme production – 5-6 days Grind Kilning 48 hr. - gradual Temp. increase (1300-2000C) Store 20-30 days, then grind and screen Mashing Water + adjuncts + corn syrup Steep 2-6 hr – mash is saccharified by enzymes from malt – enzymatic digestion Strain mash and rinse in mash filter to obtain liquid wort (simple sugars, some CH, proteins & some AA Add hops (H. lupulus) Enhance beers’ taste & aroma produce sparkling, clear beer Brewing Boil wort and hops for 2-4 hr - sterilization process & inactivate enzymes - concentrate: evaporation of excess water - CARAMELIZATION: PRODUCES DARKENING Strain or centrifuge hop-wort mix and then cool down (370-490C) FERMENTATION (cellars 7-12 days) ADD CULTURED YEAST (SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE) TO WORT Beer: 8-11 days, bottom fermentation – room temp. Ale: 5-6 days, top fermentation – low temp. CO2 is released SKIM Lagering (add beech chips & maintain a low temp.) = sedimentation & maturation Kraeusening Carbonation: add CO 2 or young beer (kraeusen) Packaging References: 1). Kendel, N. 1996. Laboratory Manual for Economic Plants. Botany 1.206. Dept. of Botany. Univ. of Manitoba. 2). Simpson, B. & M. Ogorzaly. 2001. Economic Botany: Plants in our World. 3rd. Ed. McGraw-Hill. 50 BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 4 STARCHY ROOTS, STEMS AND FRUITS Starchy roots and vegetables provide a significant portion of carbohydrates in people’s diets. They are particularly important in the world’s arid regions, where water availability and soil fertility is often a limiting factor Taxonomically, starchy roots and vegetables belong to different plant families. In today’s lab, we will get familiarized with basic morphological characters of these plant families and the parts we eat. STARCHY EDIBLE ROOTS True roots. They anchor the plant and function as the major system for uptake of water and nutrients. In many instances, roots are also reproductive structures. Unlike stems, roots do not have nodes and internodes. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Examine the roots provided and determine the family to which they belong. Where are these roots native from? What is the main chemical compound stored in these edible roots. In what world regions is cassava a staple food? What are some of the toxic compounds found in storage roots? Complete the following activity: make a list (including common, scientific, and familiar names) of ALL edible roots that you find in the produce area of your favourite supermarket. 51 STARCHY EDIBLE STEMS Specialized underground stems. One important modification of stems has been for underground growth. They function as storage organs, and represent plant adaptation to diverse and even adverse ecological conditions. In addition, these structures play an important role in asexual reproduction. Various stem vegetables will be on display in the lab. Examine each and identify the tuber, rhizome, corm, and bulb from the true roots. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Identify the anatomical parts in the potato and ginger. How are the potato and ginger similar to each other? Cut a cross-section of a garlic clove and an onion and identify their parts. Where are these species grown and how are they used? What are some of the toxic compounds found in underground stems? Complete the following activity: make a list (including common, scientific, and familiar names) of ALL edible underground stems that you find in the produce area of your favourite supermarket. Complete the table below with the scientific and familiar names, and the parts used in the examples given. The use of your lecture notes and your textbook (Simpson and Ogorzali, 2001) is strongly recommended to find the botanical names. Common Name Scientific Name Family Banana Cassava, manihot Garlic Ginger Jicama Leek Onion Potato Shallot Sweet potato Taro True Yam 52 Part Used BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 5 SUGAR PLANTS Although there is no requirement for sugar in the human diet (as long as other carbohydrates such as starch are available), the worldwide consumption of sugar is enormous. It is estimated that about 20-30 kg of sugar/person are consumed annually. The technical name of common sugar is a disaccharide (two sugars chemically bonded) known as sucrose. Hence sucrose is made of the monosaccharides glucose + fructose. It is a photosynthetic product and derived from plants in which the usual conversion of sugar to starch does not occur, leaving a high content of soluble carbohydrate which may be extracted. The following are the most important sugar plants: Sugar cane: Saccharum officinarum L. Poaceae/Gramineae Sugar beet: Beta vulgaris L. Chenopodiaceae Sugar maple: Acer saccharum Marsh. Aceraceae Sweet sorghum: Sorghum bicolor L. var. saccharatum - Poaceae Date palm: Phoenix dactylifera – Palmae About one-half of the world’s total sugar production is from sugar cane, and sugar beet is an equally important sugar source. The final product, refined (white) sugar, is identical whether cane or sugar beets are used. Living and preserved material and products of these species are available for examination. See below. SUGAR AND SLAVERY Sugar cultivation had a profound cultural and economic impact in the New and Old Worlds. The history of sugar making and sugar plantations includes one of the most dramatic and sad episodes in human history: slavery and the slave trade. The African slave trade dates back to the 15th century, with the Spanish and Portuguese who were cultivating sugar cane in the Azores, Madeiras and Canary Islands. After Columbus brought sugar cane to Central America during his second voyage in 1493, African slaves were brought to the Americas to work in the New World plantations and were traded for goods, such as alcohol, tobacco, cotton products, firearms and ammunition. The major and massive slave trade took place from 1517-1880, a period of time in which an estimated 1015(20) million Africans were uprooted from their native lands and shipped across the Atlantic in inhumane and extremely cruel conditions. Countless lives were lost during the journey and in the New World as a result of slavery. 1. Review the display material of the Sugar Trade Triangle and understand the three different separate legs of a complete voyage. 2. Indicate the origin, destination and objectives of: a. The Outward Passage b. The Middle Passage c. The Return Passage 53 SUGAR CANE – SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM L. (POACEAE/GRAMINEAE) Sugar cane is a monocot, perennial plant with rhizomatous roots. Most cultivated varieties are high polyploid hybrids, of which S. officinarum is the main common “ingredient” of the cultivated hybrids. At maturity, sugar sap, which is accumulated in pith cells, contains around 1525% sucrose. Cane sugar, cane syrup, molasses, wax, ethyl alcohol, and rum are products of sugar cane. Bagasse is used in the paper industry. 1. 2. 3. 4. Examine the living material and products of sugar cane. Why is sugar cane not allowed to set seed? What are the role of the hard rind and the fibrous center of the cane? Where is sugar cane native from and how did it make its way to the New World from its native region? 5. In what world regions is sugar cane generally cultivated? What are the crop requirements? 6. What is a sett? 7. Sample the sugar cane products provided. Fibrous pith Node Internode Node 54 SWEET SORGHUM - SORGHUM BICOLOR L. VAR. SACCHARATUM (POACEAE/GRAMINEAE) Sweet sorghum is used mostly in African countries and sugar production from this plant is limited. As with most millets, this species develops well in tropical climates. 1. Review the live material and compare it with sugar cane. 2. What plant part is the source of sugar in sweet sorghum? SUGAR BEET- BETA VULGARIS L. (CHENOPODIACEAE) Sugar beet is an important crop of temperate regions. In Canada, it is cultivated in Alberta, Manitoba, and Quebec, and in Europe mainly in Germany, England and Austria. Beet is rotated with wheat, barley or pulse crops to provide organic matter to the soil and prevent the accumulation of disease. Sugar is extracted from the root of B. vulgaris, which contains approx. 15-17% sucrose. The German chemist Andreas Margraff, was the first to extract sugar from beet in 1747. The first sugar beet extraction factory began operation in 1802. 1. Study the living material and products of Beta vulgaris. 2. In what world regions are beets mostly cultivated? What are the crop requirements? 3. Sample the beet products provided. 55 SUGAR MAPLE: ACER SACCHARUM MARSH. (ACERACEAE) Although sugar maple trees extend from Canada to Virginia in the south and from New England to as far west as Wisconsin, most of the production of maple syrup takes place in Vermont, New York, southern Ontario and Quebec. The first people to tap maple trees and boil down the sap to form maple syrup were the Native American Indian tribes. Foremost among these tribes were the Algonquins and the Crees of the Northeastern USA. After the Europeans settled in America, they learned how to harvest and make maple syrup, called “sinzibuckwud” by the Algonquins, which means “drawn from wood,” from the local Indians. The pioneers improved on the Indians’ method of drawing sap (cutting a slash in the bark) by drilling a hole into the tree with an augur and then placing hollow wood taps into the holes to funnel the sap into buckets. After the buckets were filled with sap they were hauled to open kettles to be boiled down in order to evaporate off the water to leave maple syrup behind. This process often took place in a simple wooden structure for protection from the wind, hence the origin of the term, “sugar shack.” Making sugar maple syrup is a labor-intensive process and has not changed much over the centuries, making the mass production of maple syrup difficult. It takes about 40 gallons of maple sap to make just one gallon of pure maple syrup. (Modified from: http://akak.essortment.com/maplesyrupind_rwsn.htm) 1. Study the preserved material and products of sugar maple. 2. Name two distinguishing features of Acer saccharum. Leaves and fruit of sugar maple (A. saccharum) 56 BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 6 LEGUMES/PULSES The main objectives of this laboratory are: 1) to get familiarized with the family Fabaceae, 2) to identify the major legume crops used by humans, and 3) to understand the root nodules (LegumeRhizobium association) and their function. Legumes (Family Fabaceae/Leguminosae) are indispensable components of the world’s food supply because of their high protein content, carbohydrates and fat. In fact, some legumes, such as soybean and peanut, are grown on a large scale for their oil content. Legumes have been the basis of ancient and modern civilizations. The grain-legume combination not only taste good, but makes a nutritious diet, due to the presence of high quality protein. Various grain-legume combinations, e.g., barley/lentils, corn/beans, rice/soybeans, have been part of the support system in human civilizations. Legumes contain eight essential amino acids, i.e., amino acids that humans are unable to manufacture and must be obtained from plant or animal products, which are protein building blocks. Legumes are also among the most important forage crops, and because of their association with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, serve as valuable soil enrichers. The following examples represent some of the mainr legumes used by humans for food. The asterisk indicates those used for fodder, erosion control or soil improvement: Common Name Soybean Peanut Common/Garden bean Lima bean Scarlet runner bean Mung bean Lentil Pea Broad bean Chick pea Carob (St. John’s bread) Mesquite* Alfalfa* Sweet Clover* Tamarind Vetches* Scientific Name Glycine max (L.) Merr. Arachis hypogea L. Phaseolus vulgaris L. Phaseolus lunatus L. Phaseolus coccineus L. Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek Lens culinaris Medik. Pisum sativum L. Vicia faba L. Cicer arietinum L. Ceratonia siliqua L. Prosopis spp. Medicago sativa L. Melilotus alba Desr. Tamarindus indica L. Vicia spp. Area of Origin Southeast Asia South America New World Peru, Brazil Tropical America Tropical America Southwest Asia Southern Europe Algeria or Southwest Asia Near East Syria North America Southwest Asia Western Asia Tropical Africa Various Living plants, herbarium specimens and products of a number of these legumes are available for observation and sampling. 57 TAXONOMY AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEGUMINOSAE/FABACEAE The Leguminosae is the third largest plant family after the Orchidaceae and Asteraceae. It includes approx. 16,000 species distributed worldwide. Familiarize yourself with the members of this family and identify their vegetative and reproductive features. Also, observe roots structures if live or herbarium material is available. Source: www.wildflowers-and-weeds.com/.../ Fabaceae.htm 1. Examine the live and herbarium material and determine the major distinguishing features characterizing the members of this family. 2. Name the subfamilies into which the legume family is divided. 3. Of these subfamilies, what is the most economically important? 4. Be sure that you understand the structure of the legume pod or fruit, technically known as legume. Examine the fresh bean by carefully opening up the pod and examining the distribution of seeds within it. Name ALL the parts of the pod. 5. From what part of the flower are these structures derived? 6. Examine the imbibed (soaked) seed under the microscope, and determine the different parts of the seed. 7. Investigate the nutritional value of legumes and the estimated protein:carbohydrate:fat ratio. 8. Why is soybean often referred to as “poor man’s meat”? 9. If available, dissect a root nodule and observe it under the microscope. 10. What is their role and function in the developing legume plant? 11. Why are root nodules so important to humans? 12. One of the goals of genetic engineering is to develop crops that are able to provide their own supply of nitrogen through symbiosis with Rhizobium, as do legumes. What benefits to 58 agriculture and the environment would be realized if cereals and other staples become nitrogen-fixing crops? 13. What is so particular about the pollination and fruit development in the peanut? 14. Soybeans and soy products are becoming increasingly important components of the human diet. Investigate the health benefits of using soy milk and soy-based cheeses to replace traditional dairy products. Are there any disadvantages to this practice? Source: Molecular Biology of Root Nodule Development (mendel.biol.mu.edu/_faculty/Noel.html) 59 BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 7 FRUITS AND NUTS FROM TEMPERATE AND TROPICAL PLANTS The main objectives of this laboratory are: 1) to review and understand the classification of fruits, 2) to recognize the major morphological features and fruit types in the Rosaceae and Rutaceae, 3) survey the edible fruits and plant parts of other plant families, such as the Solanaceae and Brassicaceae and 4) to recognize the different types of dry fruits classified within the nut category. FRUITS AND VEGETABLES In a sense, any plant is a vegetable, but in common usage the term is applied to a variety of fleshy plant parts which are eaten cooked or raw, but do not constitute staple foods in our diet. The term is ambiguous because many fruits are used as vegetables. Our common vegetables constitute a wide variety of plant parts and it is often interesting (and fun!) to try to determine what we are actually eating. The list provided below includes important fruits and vegetables, some of which are common in our markets, while others are less familiar. Local availability is unpredictable, and often seasonal, but we will try to have as many as possible in the laboratory for study. If anything else of an unusual nature is found, it will also be on display. Living plants, herbarium specimens and products of a number of fruits and vegetables are available for study and sampling. In our lab, we have divided these fruits and vegetables into temperate (crops/plants able to withstand freezing temperatures during their life cycle) and tropical (crops/plants unable to tolerate temperatures below the freezing point) categories. In order to facilitate the learning process, each student should review the fruit classification (in the botanical sense) using the descriptions/keys and material provided. 60 Apples and their relatives (Family Rosaceae) – Temperate zone representative. Apples are the most important temperate fruit tree crop in the world. Apples and their relatives (cherries, peaches, plums, strawberries, etc.) belong to the Rose family. These fruits differ from one another in their structures, and are consequently subdivided into different taxonomic subfamilies. Propagation methods vary, but grafting is preferred. Below are some examples provided for study. In each case: 1. Determine what part of the plant is eaten. 2. Determine the fruit types in the family. 3. Using your textbook, determine the geographical origin of the specimens on display including the ones listed below. Common Name Apple Apricot Cherry Pear Peach Plum Scientific Name Malus pumila Prunus armeniana Prunus cerasus, P. avium Pyrus communis Prunus persica P. domestica, Prunus spp. Native Region Oranges and their relatives (Family Rutaceae) –Tropical zone representative The citrus family (Rutaceae) includes many tropical edible fruits, such as limes, lemons, oranges, grapefruit, etc., which are classified as hesperidia (Sing. hesperidium). This is an Old World family and its arrival to the New World is associated with the Spanish explorers. The domestication of the genus Citrus has involved increasing fruit size, flavour, flesh and rind colour, among other characteristics. Below are some examples provided for study. Of these, the most ancestral species is the pummelo. Review the material and answer the following questions. 1. Make a list of the main distinctive characters of the Rutaceae. 2. Where is the aroma coming from in the hesperidia? 3. Determine the fruit type in the Rutaceae and the main parts of this fruit. 4. What is a navel orange? In what world region does it come from and how did it originate? 5. What are the parental species of the grapefruit? 6. Using your textbook, determine the geographical origin of the specimens on display including the ones listed below. Common Name Scientific Name Native Region Orange Citrus sinensis Grapefruit C. paradisi Lemon C. limon Lime C. aurantifolia Pummelo C. maxima Tangerine C. reticulata Kumquat Fortunella spp. In addition to these important plant families, there are several fruits which deserve consideration, either because of their worldwide significance or because they appear frequently in our markets. 61 Fruit Vegetables from the Family Solanaceae and Family Cucurbitaceae Solanaceae Tomato Pepper Egg plant Cucurbitaceae Cucumber Muskmelon Pumpkin Squash Lycopersicum esculentum Capsicum annuum Solanum melongena Cucumis sativus C. melo Cucurbita pepo Cucurbita spp. Important Fruits from other Plant Families Common Name Avocado Date Fig Grape Mango Olive Pineapple Papaya Scientific Name Persea americana Phoenix dactylifera Ficus carica Vitis vinifera, Vitis spp. Mangifera indica Olea europea Ananas comosus Carica papaya Family Lauraceae Arecaceae/Palmae Moraceae Vitaceae Anacardiaceae Oleaceae Bromeliaceae Caricaceae NUTS Nuts constitute a well-recognized category of food, usually considered by us to be a confection, but they are an important nutritional source in some regions of the world. Some of these fit the botanical definition discussed in lecture, but many do not. For example, peanuts are legumes, and because of their significance as a staple food, have not been included in this list. It is doubtful if the coconut should be listed, but because of its importance in some cultures we must deal with it somewhere. For each specimen provided, determine whether it is a true nut and the area of origin. Common Name Pecan Walnut Almond Brazil nut Chesnut Hazelnut Cashew Pistachio Pine nut Scientific Name Carya illinoiensis Juglans regia Prunus amygdalus Bertholletia excelsa Castanea sativa Corylus avellana Anacardium occidentale Pistacia vera Pinus spp. Family Juglandaceae Juglandaceae Rosaceae Lecythidaceae Fagaceae Betulaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Pinaceae 62 Native Region COCOS NUCIFERA L. (COCONUT) – ARECACEAE/PALMAE The coconut grows in the tropical regions of the world and is one of the most important economic plants. Technically the fruit is a drupe, but it may be considered a nut (a one-seeded, dry, indehiscent fruit with a hard shell or fruit wall). The pericarp (fruit wall) of the coconut consists of three layers: an outer skin or exocarp, a fibrous middle layer or mesocarp, and a hard bony inner layer or endocarp. The middle layer is the source of a commercial fibre called coir. Inside the pericarp, there is a single seed. The edible portion (milk and meat) is the endosperm. Examine the material and dissect the specimen provided if available. Coconut Anatomy: In the picture below, write the names of the structures indicated by the arrows. Foto: H. Cota, 2002 THOUGHT QUESTIONS Answering or discussing with your fellow students and/or instructors the questions below will be important in learning the objectives of this lab. It also provides means to review potential exam material. 1. What is the role of fruits and vegetables in our diet? 2. What type of nutrition do fruits and vegetables provide to humans? 3. Compare fruits and vegetables relative to nuts in terms of chemical and nutritional composition. 4. Why are some fruits called vegetables and some non-nut fruits called nuts? 5. Why is the coconut considered one of the most important economic plants? 6. Give the botanical meaning of the following: berry, legume, nut, grain. 7. What is a seed? What is a fruit? What is a vegetable? What is a fruit vegetable? 8. 63 BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 8 LEAF, STEM AND ROOT VEGETABLES In today’s lab session we will learn more about the different plants from which we use leaves, stems, roots and other parts as vegetables. The list below complements the species for which their parts, other than fruits, that are used as food source either raw or cooked. Some of the species listed below have been discussed in previous lectures/labs, while others represent new class material and we hope to have fresh material for study. Your assignment today consists of: 1. A review of the structures that are modified/selected and that we use as food as you survey the material provided 2. Determining the scientific name of each of the species in the list below using your textbook or those provided by your instructors Common Name Scientific Name Cabbage, Kale, Collards, Broccoli Cauliflower, Bruseel Sprouts, Kohlrabi Beets, chard Spinach Rhubarb Carrot Celery Parsnip Jicama Lettuce Chicory or Withloof Endive or Escarole Artichoke Ginger Asparagus Onion Shallot Garlic Leek 64 Family Plant Part BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 9 SPICES AND HERBS Herbs and spices are derived from various plant families, many of which are of tropical origin. Because they are readily available, we take herbs and spices for granted, and often forget that they played a major role in human history (textbook pp. 196-199). The value placed upon them was once high enough to promote exploration and set into motion a struggle for power between European nations. There is no clear-cut distinction between herbs and spices, but generally we refer to herbs as aromatic leaves or herbaceous parts from plants of temperate origin. Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or other plant parts of tropical origin. Herbs and spices are mainly associated with cooking, but they are widely used in herbal medicine, as natural dyes, and in the perfume and cosmetic industries. Spices and herbs are food additives whose flavour and aroma add to the pleasure derived from food, but not to its nutritional value. In most cases the aromatic quality of spices depends upon their content of essential oils. Chemically, essential oils are terpenes, which are the product of secondary metabolism in plants, i.e., they are not needed in the plant’s basic metabolism. They assist in pollination, dispersal, defense, and some have allelopathic effects. The learning objectives of this laboratory include: 1) To learn distinguishing characters of the families Labiatae/Lamiaceae and Apiaceae/Umbelliferae, 2) To learn the different types of herbs and spices, and the plant parts from which they are derived, 3) To test the antibacterial properties of some spices, and 4) To extract essential oils from two plant species. Herbs & Spices in the Mint Family (Lamiaceae/Labiatae) The Lamiaceae provides numerous herbs used in culinary purposes. A variety of spices are available for examination and tasting, if you wish. Below are some examples provided for study. Prepare a microscope slide (water mount) of a thin section of mint or basil leaf. Observe under medium power with a compound microscope to locate the oil-bearing trichomes. Answer the following questions: 1. List three major distinguishing features of the mint family. 2. What is the general flower shape? 3. Determine the fruit type in the family. 4. Using your textbook, determine the plant part(s) used and the geographical origin of the specimens on display including the ones listed in the following page. 65 Common Name Basil Chevril Lavender Marjoram Peppermint Rosemary Thyme (common) Thyme (lemon) Scientific Name Native Region Ocimum basilicum Anthriscus cerefolium Lavandula angustifolia, L. officinalis Origanum majorana Mentha piperita Rosemarinus officinalis Thymus vulgaris T. citriodirus Plant Part Herbs & Spices in the Celery Family (Apiaceae/Umbelliferae) The Apiaceae produces numerous spices, which are appreciated their fruits contain aromatic oils. Below are some examples provided for study. Review the material and answer the following questions: 3. Make a list of the main distinctive characters of the Apiaceae. 4. What is the inflorescence type in this family? 5. Determine the fruit type in the family and the main parts of this fruit. 6. Using your textbook, determine the geographical origin of the specimens on display including the ones listed below. Common Name Anise Caraway Celery seed Coriander Cumin Dill Parsley Scientific Name Pimpinella anisum Carum carvi Apium graveolens Coriandrum sativum Cuminum cyminum Anethum graveolens Petroselinum crispum 66 Native Region Other Important Spices and Herbs and their Plant Families For each species listed below determine the plant part used and the native region. Use your textbook to complete this exercise. Common Name Allspice Cloves Eucalyptus Bay Cassia Cinnamon Mace Nutmeg Black pepper Saffron Scientific Name Pimenta dioica Syzygium aromaticum Eucalyptus spp. Laurus nobilis Cinnamomum cassia Cinnamomum zeylanicum Myristica fragrans Myristica fragrans Piper nigrum Crocus sativus Family Part Used Myrtaceae Myrtaceae Myrtaceae Lauraceae Lauraceae Lauraceae Myristicaceae Myristicaceae Piperaceae Iridaceae Native Region Common Name Vanilla Caper Cardamon Ginger Turmeric Chili Cayene pepper Paprika Scientific Name Vanilla fragrans, V. planifolia Capparis spinosa Elletaria cardamomum Zingiber officinale Curcuma domestica Capsicum annuum Capsicum frutescens Capsicum annum Family Part Used Orchidaceae Capparaceae Zingiberaceae Zingiberaceae Zingiberaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Native Region 67 EXERCISE: Testing the Antibacterial/Antifungal Properties of Spices Today we will be testing the antibacterial/antifungal properties of a variety of spices. You will be splitting up into four groups of seven to eight. Each group will be given seven petri dishes containing agar medium (a bacterial/fungal growth medium) that have already been prepared by your TA. You will use these plates to test the antibacterial/fungal properties of various spices. The plate contains a rich, highly nutritious medium that favours bacterial/fungal growth. It consists of the following ingredients: • • • • • 2.5 g Tryptone 1.25 g Yeast extract 1.25 g NaCl 4.5 g Agar 250 mL Distilled water Instructions: 1. Each group will be given a specific perishable food item, which you will add to your petri dishes. 2. One plate is to be used as a control only, which means that you will add only food (i.e., no spices) to see the extent of decay attributed to bacterial/fungal growth. 3. Each of the other plates will have a spice (see below). 4. Grind the spice(s) finely with the aid of the mortar and pestle and spread it over the food. 5. Label and set up your plates as follows: • • • • • • • Plate #1: Control plate (food only) Plate #2: Cinnamon plate (food + freshly ground cinnamon) Plate #3: Garlic plate (food + freshly ground garlic) Plate #4: Clove plate (food + freshly ground cloves) Plate #5: Black pepper plate (food + freshly ground black pepper) Plate #6: Mint plate (food + freshly ground mint leaves) Plate #7: Chili pepper plate (food + freshly ground HOT chili peppers) Your TAs will collect the plates at the end of this session. In next week’s lab, we will check the results of our experiment. Stay tuned… 68 Reporting your results: 1. Use the microscope to observe the colonies in the different plates. 2. Report your results in the following table and indicate with a plus (+) or minus (-) symbol whether bacterial and/or fungal growth is present or absent. 3. Provide individual team results in the blackboard as indicated. Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Plate # 1 (Control) Plate # 2 Plate # 3 Plate # 4 Plate # 5 Plate # 6 Plate # 7 Answer the following questions: 1. How do you explain your results? 2. Why do some spices prevent bacterial/fungal growth? 3. Describe the structure/form of the bacterial/fungal colonies observed. Can you tell them apart? 4. Which of the spices used in this experiment would you recommend to preserve perishables? 69 EXTRACTING ESSENTIAL OILS FROM LEAVES (OPTIONAL) Essential oils (EO) are stored in glandular structures on the epidermal surface or in subepidermal cavities of the leaves. In many cases the active ingredient (EO) in plant material is extracted using solvent extraction or distillation. Such extracts are used as flavourings in foods and other preparations. Extraction Methods of Essential Oils & Resins There are several extraction methods for making resins and extracts from plants, and each will be discussed briefly below. Some plants contain alkaloids as part of their chemical composition, and these different alkaloids will extract into different solvents. For example, Blue Lotus contains alkaloids that will only extract into alcohol, whereas Amanita muscaria contains an alkaloid that will extract into water, but will be destroyed in alcohol. When doing resin extractions from plants, it is important to know what chemical compounds will extract into what solvents. The Merck Index is the perfect book for this; it lists every known chemical compound, and can be a great help for plant alchemists and modern-day shamans. Strangely enough, indigenous tribes never needed such references; their knowledge of plants and the effective use of them is now being scientifically documented. Steam Distillation: Used mainly to extract essential oils from plants. The plant material is placed into a still (very similar to a pressure cooker) where pressurized steam passes through the plant material. The heat from the steam causes globules of oil in the plant to burst and the oil then evaporates. The essential oil vapor and the steam then pass out the top of the still into a water-cooled pipe where the vapors are condensed back to liquids. At this point, the essential oil separates from the water and floats to the top. Now, this doesn't sound like a particularly complicated process but did you know that it takes more than 8 million Jasmine flowers to produce just 2 pounds of jasmine oil? No wonder pure essential oils are expensive! Maceration: Maceration actually creates more of an "infused oil" rather than an "essential oil" and is most often used for creating extracts and resins. The plant matter is soaked in vegetable oil, water, or another solvent. If it's soaked in vegetable oil, and then heated and strained, it can be used for massage. Soaked in water or another solvent such as alcohol will create a much thicker extract or resin. Cold Pressing: Cold pressing is used to extract the essential oils from citrus rinds such as orange, lemon, grapefruit and bergamot. The rinds are separated from the fruit, are ground or chopped and are then pressed. The result is a watery mixture of essential oil and liquid, which will separate given time. Source: Plant resins and natural plant extracts (http://www.iamshaman.com/resins/howmade.htm). 70 Assignment: In this part you are required to follow the process outlined below for extraction of essential oils from the plant assigned by your instructors. A simple distillation is easily accomplished (see illustration below). Whole leaves are loosely packed in the bottom of a pot, cover with a wire rack or other support, and place a small bowl in the middle of the rack. Add enough water to cover the leaves, cover the pot with a lid, and place on a heat source. As the water is brought to a boil, place ice on the inverted lid. The EO will vapourize and drip from the low point of the lid into the bowl. Some moisture also condenses, but the lighter oil will float to the top. Try to determine the smell/aroma of the oils extracted. Monitor this experiment and document your observations/results. Source: Laboratory Manual. Botany 1.206 – Economic Plants. Dept. of Botany, Univ. of Manitoba. Six or seven different groups will conduct extraction of essential oils using a different plant or a combination of plants. Team 1: Rosemary Team 2: Lemmon Team 3: Eucalyptus Team 4: Rose petals Team 5: Mint leaves Team 6: Lavender leaves Collect your extract in a labeled vial. Store for a couple of days (we’ll do it for a week – next lab) and the separate the oil phase and transfer it to a clean vial. Report your results to the rest of the class. It is important to note that oils extracted with this method have a relatively short shelf life. Thus, make or purchase only what you will be using within the next six months in water or another solvent such as alcohol, which will create a much thicker extract or resin. Note: You may adapt this method of extraction for any plant with high content of aromatic oils. 71 Results: THOUGHT QUESTIONS Answering or discussing with your fellow students and/or instructors the questions below will be important in learning the objectives of this lab. It also provides means to review potential exam material. 1. Speculate how primitive cultures would learn about the culinary and medicinal properties of plants. 2. Of all the spices & herbs listed above, indicate which of those played a major role in the spice trade. 3. How would you investigate whether a plant extract can be used as antiseptic? 4. Understand the history and different stages of the spice trade. 72 BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 10 PLANT FIBERS AND PAPER MAKING The learning objectives of this laboratory include: 1) familiarization with major plant species used as sources of fibers, 2) understanding the basic classification of plant fibers and the plant parts from which they are derived, and 3) familiarization with major timber and pulp species in Saskatchewan and Canada. Plant Fibers Plant and animal fibers have provided humans with shelter, cooking items and clothing since ancient times. Plant fibers differ from animal fibers primarily because of their chemical composition (cellulose instead of proteins), which has a differential reaction to heat and less affinity to dyes. In addition, plant fibers have a higher affinity for water and are thus more absorbent. In spite of the widespread substitution of synthetic fibers in industrialized countries, natural fibers remain an economically important commodity. A vast number of plant species are or have been used as fiber sources, particularly when primitive societies are included in this survey. Below is a list of major species that are sources of natural fibers. Using your textbook determine the family name for each. Common Name Coir Cotton Kapok Flax Hemp Jute Ramie Manila hemp Pineapple Henequén Sisal Scientific Name Cocos nucifera Gossypium hirsutum Ceiba pentandra Linum usitassisimum Cannabis sativa Corchorus spp. Boehmeria nivea Musa textilis Ananas comosus Agave furcroydes Agave sisalana Family 73 Plant Part Surface Surface Surface Bast Bast Bast Bast Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Use Filling,cordage Clothing Filling Clothing/linen Clothing,canvas Burlap Clothing Cordage Clothing Cordage, matting Cordage, matting Major Timber Plant Species in Saskatchewan and Canada Numerous woody species are used as sources of timber and pulp for paper. Among these, the conifers (Pinaceae), and members of the Salicaceae (willow family) and Betulaceae (birch family) are used commercially in Saskatchewan and all over the world. The cortex of the cut trees is stripped off in the mills and sawn in boards of different sizes, inspected, graded and shipped to companies. Wood chips, on the other hand, are collected for pulp and paper manufacturing. Sometimes, the entire tree (log) is chipped for pulp or paper. The wood chips are then steamed and cooked to separate the wood fibers. Chemical treatment is used to bleach the fibers and the bleached pulp (which contains softwood and hardwood) is sold to domestic and international paper-producing companies. In Saskatchewan and Canada the most important and highly appreciated tree species in the forest industry, in particular in paper mills, are listed below. Common Name Trembling Aspen Birch White birch Fir Balsam fir Black spruce White spruce Engelmann pine* Jack pine Tamarack * Outside Saskatchewan Scientific Name Populus tremuloides Betula papyrifera B. pendula Abies spp. A. balsamifera Picea mariana P. glauca Pinus engelmannii P. banksiana Larix laricina Family Salicaceae Betulaceae Betulaceae Pinaceae Pinaceae Pinaceae Pinaceae Pinaceae Pinaceae Pinaceae Wood Type Hardwood Hardwood Hardwood Softwood Softwood Softwood Softwood Softwood Softwood Softwood Making Paper by Hand (From: Botany 1.206-Economic Plants – Laboratory Manual.1996. Department of Botany, University of Manitoba). The following equipment will be required to make paper: blender, iron, plastic wash basin or sink area, two towels, sponges, fiber supply (paper scraps, vegetable matter), and paper mold. A drying oven will also be used. 1. Soak some paper scraps (preferably without ink) in hot water for half an hour. Your TA has already done this and has the material ready for you to move into the next steps. In addition to paper scraps, we have collected from our greenhouse banana (Musa spp.) leaves, papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) stems and Monstera deliciosa leaves to add more of the natural feeling to our paper. In addition, your TA has kindly pressed various plant parts to decorate your paper, such as variegated and non-varigated leaves with unusual shapes, colourful flowers, petals, etc. Use them to add a final, personalized touch to your paper. 2. Add a small handful of wet paper to the blender, and half fill with warm water. Blend at moderate speed. Then add some vegetable matter, and blend again completely. 74 3. Repeat until there is sufficient pulp, adding warm water as necessary (the final mix should be about 1 part pulp to 100 parts water). 4. Dip paper mold into the basin of pulp, and scoop some up. Gently shake to wet an even layer of fibers on the screen. At this point you may personalize your paper sheet adding some colourful plant parts. 5. Once the water has drained through, carefully lift off the screen. Gently turn the mold over and lay it face down on a cloth. Soak up the excess of water from the back of the screen with a sponge, then carefully lift the mold from the sheet. 6. Place another cloth over the sheet of paper. With a hot iron, press the sheet between the two cloths to dry the fibers. Pull gently on either side of the cloth to stretch it (this helps loosen the paper). Then gently peel the paper off. Note: In step # 5 we will drain/dry the excess water from the screen and the screen with the pulp will then be taken to a drying oven at 60-700C for about 30-40 min. THOUGHT QUESTIONS 1. What are bast, leaf, and surface fibers? Name the common and scientific names of two of each. 2. Describe the steps involved in fiber extraction. 75 LIST OF SOME ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT PLANTS This plant list includes wild edible, poisonous, and survival plants. Next time you’re out there in the field check them out! You never know when you will need to know what they are and what they are used for. Common name Allspice Almond Amaranth Annatto/achiote Arrowhead Artichoke Avocado Banana Barley Blackberry Black pepper Blueberry Broad bean Broccoli Buckwheat Candelilla Capers Cassava, Tapioca Cattail Cherry Chocolate Chokecherry Chicory Coconut Coffee Common bean Common chickweed Corn Crab apple Cranberry Dandelion Douglas fir Durian Evening primrose Ferns Fig Ginger Gooseberry Grapes Grasses Highbush cranberry Huckleberry Indian paintbrush Scientific name Pimenta dioidca Prunus dulcis Amaranthus Bixa orellana Sagittaria latifolia Cynara scolymus Persea americana Musa spp. Hordeum vulgare Rubus Pepper nigrum Vaccinium Vicia faba Brassica oleracea Fagopyron esculentum Euphorbia antisyphyllitica Capparis spinosa Manihot esculentum Typha Prunus cerasus Theobroma cacao Prunus virginiana Chicorium intybus Cocosu nucifera Coffea arabica, C. canphora, C. liberica Phaseolus vulgaris Stellaria media Zea mays Pyrus Vaccinium spp. Taraxacum officinale Pseudotsuga menziesii Durio zibethinus Oenothera hookeri & spp. Most species Ficus carica Asarum Ribes Vitis vinifera Many species Viburnum trilobum Vaccinium Castilleja Use Fruit Seed, oil, extracts Edible leaves; flour is obtained from seeds Seeds – food/fabric colouring/dye Tubers are edible Edible bracts/inflorescence Edible mesocarp Fruit - Edible placenta Fruit (caryopsis) Edible fruits Fruit Edible fruits Seed Flower buds/inflorescence Fruit Wax Flower buds Edible root Young leaves are edible Fruit Seeds Edible fruits Coffee substitute/adulterant Edible endosperm (liquid & hard) Coffee beans (seeds) Seed Edible plants (cooked) Edible kernels; leaves for forage Edible fruit Edible fruit Edible leaves, young flowers used to make wine Fresh leaves for tea Edible fruit (aril) Edible young roots cooked Young fiddleheads may be cooked Edible fruit Rhizomes used as ginger substitute Edible fruits Fruit Dry roots, leaves and grains used to make flour Edible fruits Edible fruits Edible flowers 76 Common name Indian pipe Jasmine Jicama Jojoba/Jojoba oil Juniper Labrador tea Lamb’s quarters Mango Manzanita Maple Mint Mormom tea Mulberrry Mustard Nutgrass Oak Olive Onion Opium poppy Orange (seewt) Oregano Peanut Pear Pepper (sweet/red) Pine Pineapple Plantain Pomegranate Potato Prickly pear Pummelo Purslane, Portulaca Quince Quinoa Radish Rambutan Raspberry Rose Rosemary Rice Rubber tree Rutabaga Rye Safflower Saffron Sage Sapote Sesame Scientific name Monotropa Jasminum grandiflorum Pachyrrhus erosus Simmondsia chinensis Juniperus Rododendron/Ledum Chenopodium album Mangifera indica Arctostaphylos Acer Mentha spp. Ephedra Morus Brassica spp. Cyperus spp. Quercus Olea europea Allium spp. Papaver somniferum Citrus sinensis Origanum vulgare Arachis hypogea Pyrus communis Capsicum annuum Pinus spp. Ananas comosus Plantago spp. Punica granatum Solanum tuberosum Opuntia spp. Citrus grandis Potulaca oleracea Cydonia oblonga Chenopodium chinoa Raphanus sativus Nephelium lappaceae Rubus Rosa Rosemarinus officinalis Oryza sativa Hevea brasiliensis Brassica napus Secale cereale Carthamus tinctorius Crocus sativus Salvia officinalis Pouteria sapota Sesamum indicum Use Edible plant Leaves Edible root Seeds Edible dry berries Tea from young leaves Edible young leaves and stems Edible Edible fruits Rich in sugars; sugar maples Leaves useful to make tea Useful to make tea Edible fruits Edible leaves Edible tubers Edible fruits; used to make flour Fruit, oil Edible bulbs Latex Fruit Leaves Edible cotyledons Fruit (pomme) Fruit Tea from young leaves Edible mature inflorescence Edible young leaves Seeds and mesocarp/aril Tuber (stem) Edible fruits and stems. Peel them before eating! Edible Edible plant Fruit - pomme Fruit Fleshy root Fruit – mesocarp/aril Edible fruits Edible fruits Fresh leaves for cooking, stimulant, astringent Fruit (caryopsis) Sap Fleshy root Fruit (caryopsis) Fruit/flower – dye, oil Stigmas - dye Leaves Fruit Seed 77 Common name Shallot Shepherd’s purse Solomon’s seal Sorghum Soybean Spatterdock Spearmint Spinach Spring beauty Squash Star fruit Strawberry Sugar Sunflower Sweet flag Sweet potato Tamarind Tangerine Tapioca, Cassava Taro Tea plant Tef Tobacco Tomato Turmeric Turnip Vanilla Walnut Watermelon Wheat Wild rice Yam Scientific name Allium cepa Capsella bursa-pastoris Polygonatum sp. Sorghum bicolor Glycine max Nuphar polysepalum Mentha spicata Spinacia oleracea Claytonia spp. Cucurbita sp. Averrhoa carambola Fragaria spp. Saccharum officinarum Helianthus annuus Acorus calamus Ipomoea batatas Tamarindus indica Citrus reticulata Manihot esculentum Colocasia esculenta Camellia sinensis Eragrostis tef Nicotiana tabacum Solanum esculentum Curcuma domestica Brassica campestris Vanilla fragrans Juglans spp. Citrullus lanatus Tritricum spp. Zizania palustris Dioscorea spp. Use Bulb – storage leaves Edible leaves; seeds for flour Roots used to make flour Fruit (caryopsis) Seed Edible roasted seeds leaves Leaves Edible bulbs Fruit (pepo) Fruit Edible fruits Juice Edible seeds Edible roots and young shoots Root Fruit/mesocarp Fruit Root Edible stem/tuber Leaves for tea, infusions, appetizer, digestive Fruit (cryopsis) Leaves Edible fruit Root Root Fruits and seeds Edible cotyledon Fruit (pepo) Fruit (caryopsis) Fruit (caryopsis) Rot 78 LIST OF MEDICINAL PLANTS Common name Scientific name Aloe vera, Aloe spp. Uses Juice from leaves heals burns, skin problems Anemone Balsam poplar Camomille Canada’s Snake Root Anemone canadensis Populus spp. Root used as antiseptic in wounds Buds used to relieve congestion & cough Asarum canadense Castor bean Cinchona Cranberry Ricinus communis Cinchona officinalis Vaccinium spp. Cuckoo pint Damiana Echinacea Eucalyptus Evening primrose Ginkgo Gingseng Mandrake Mints Onion, leeks, garlic Tuber of Yanhusuo Valerian root Willow Arum maculatum Turnera diffusa Echinacea purpurea Eucalyptus sp. Oenothera biennis Ginkgo biloba Panax gingseng Mandragora officinarum Mentha spp. Allium spp. Coydalis yanhusuo Valeriana officinalis Salix sp. Tuber and rhizomes for abdominal pain, cough, tooth ache, cold. Oil used as purgative, skin inflamations Malaria treatment Diarrhea, circulatory problems, dietary supplement Expectorant, excellent for paralysis Tonic, stimulant, antidepressant. Cold, respiratory tract infections Antiseptic oil from leaves Arthritis, dietary supplement Memory loss, depression Loss of energy, stress Hallucinogen, poisonous Medicinal, spice/cooking Eyesight, cold, acne, arthritis, hypertension Head ache, abdominal pain, menstrual cramps Sleep disorders Bark contains salicylic acid; aspirin Aloe 79 A SHORT LIST OF POISONOUS PLANTS. Some of them can be DEADLY!!! Note: the list includes just a small representation. Often, the effects and reactions vary from people to people, but cases of toxicity have been reported for the species below. Common name Angel’s trumpet Baneberry Bloodroot Buckeye Castor bean Dieffenbachia Dutchman’s breech English ivy Jimson weed Mandrake Marihuana Mescal bean Opium poppy Philodendron Poinsettia Poison ivy Poison oak Poison sumac Poke Water hemlock Yew Scientific name Datura suavolens Actea rubra Sanguinaria canadensis Aesculus spp. Ricinus communis Dieffenbachia spp. Dicentra cucullaria Hedera helix Datura spp. Mandragora officinarum Cannabis sativa Sophora secundiflora Papaver somniferum Philodendron spp. Euphorbia pulcherrima Toxicodendron radicans Toxicodendron diversilobum Toxicodendron vernix Phytolacca americana Cicuta spp. Taxus spp. And many, many other species… 80 Plant Part All parts Berries All parts All parts Seeds All parts All parts Berries and leaves All parts, especially seeds Hallucinogen, poisonous All parts Seeds Unripe fruits Leaves, stems. Milky latex Leaves Leaves Leaves Roots and mature stem Roots All parts, except fruit pulp