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LECTURE RESOURCE AND
LABORATORY MANUAL FOR BIOL. 324
PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS
A tray with spices, herbs, nuts and seeds. Photo credit: www.cjpetrow.co.uk/
J. HUGO COTA-SÁNCHEZ
Winter 2009
GENERAL INFORMATION
BIOLOGY 324.3.2 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS – SPRING 2009
INSTRUCTOR:
Office:
Office hours:
E-mail:
Lectures:
Laboratory:
TAs:
J. Hugo Cota-Sánchez, Ph.D.
Room 141, Biology Building. Tel. 966-4405
TR 9:30 am -11:00 am, Biol. 141
[email protected]
MWF 9:30-10:20 am, Room 125 Biology
Lab & Tutorial - Monday 1:30 - 4 pm, Room 213 Biology.
TBA
COURSE STRUCTURE
• This is a 3-credit course open to any student of the U of S interested in human-plant interactions,
not just biologists but also anthropologists, environmentalists, historians and people interested in
the biological basis of human society.
• This course has no prerequisites. Class meets three times a week, 1hr/meeting. In addition, a
laboratory/tutorial session is scheduled weekly.
• This course is designed for anyone who is interested in knowing the origin of current crop plants,
and broadening their understanding on how plants have evolved throughout domestication
processes according to numerous human needs, including enjoyment to daily human life. Though
botanical terminology is desirable (and will be learned throughout the semester) technical terms
are kept to a minimum but a botanical dictionary is highly recommended.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
• To learn the principles about the origin and domestication of plants, and the major centers of
origin and diversification of agriculture in the world.
• To introduce the students to the major plant families, plant parts, and plant products used as food
by human cultures around the world and have close encounters with food, textiles, medicines,
perfumes, and oils derived from numerous plant species.
• To learn what plant parts/products have been industrialized, and the importance of genetic
engineering in the plant production and crop improvement.
Please note that students with food allergies and/or strong reactions to plants or plant products are
advised not to register to this course. The lectures and lab sessions often include demonstrations with
live plants or plant products or derivatives.
BOOK RESOURCES
LECTURE RESOURCE AND LABORATORY MANUAL FOR BIOL. 324 BY J. H. COTA-SÁNCHEZ. Available
in instructor’s website only to registered students:
http://www.usask.ca/biology/cota-sanchez/courses/courses324.html
SUGGESTED TEXTBOOK
Simpson B. B. and M. M. Ogorzaly. 2001. Economic Botany: Plants in our World. 3nd. Ed.
MacGraw-Hill Publishers, New York. ISBN: 0-07-290938-2.
RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS
Prance, G. and M. Nesbitt. 2005. The Cultural History of Plants. Routledge, New York. ISBN: 0415-92746-3.
Levetin, E., and K. McMahon. 2008. Plants and Society. 6nd. Ed. MacGraw-Hill Publishers, New
York. ISBN: 978-0-07-722125-6.
For more references see list for supplemental resources in pages 10z-13.
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BIOL. 324
LECTURE SCHEDULE FOR PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS
-
SPRING 2009
INSTRUCTOR: J. HUGO COTA-SÁNCHEZ, PH.D.
DATE
Jan. 5
Jan. 7
Jan. 9
Jan. 12
Jan. 12
Jan. 14
Jan. 16
Jan. 19
Jan. 19
Jan. 21
Jan. 23
Jan. 26
Jan. 26
Jan. 28
Jan. 30
Feb. 2
Feb. 2
Feb. 4
Feb. 6
Feb. 9
Feb. 9
Feb. 11
Feb. 13
Feb.16-20
Feb. 23
Feb. 23
Feb. 25
Feb. 27
March 2
March 2
March 4
March 6
March 9
March 9
March 11
March 13
March 16
March 16
March 18
March 20
March 23
March 23
March 25
March 27
March 30
March 30
April 1
April 3
Lecture Topic
Introduction and Course Overview
Plants and People and Classification
How to be a Plant
Food and Population
Laboratory Session 1
Major Cereals I – Wheat origin - Montreal – no class?
Major Cereals II – Maize origin - No class? montreal
Major Cereal III - Rice
Laboratory Session 2 – Major Cereals I
Minor Cereals I
Minor Cereals II
Pseudocereals
Laboratory Session 3 – Major Cereals II
Edible Plant Parts
Starchy Plants I
Starchy Plants II: Banana
Laboratory Session 4
Midterm 1 through Feb. 2
Sugar Plants I: Sugar Cane and Slave Trade
Sugar Plants II: Sugar Beet and Sugar Maple
Laboratory Session 5
Legumes – Types and biological importance
Pulse/Legume Crops I
No Class – Reading Week
Pulse/Legume Crops II
Laboratory Session 6
Flower and Fruit Parts I - The Dance
Flower and Fruit Parts II
Fruits and Vegetables I
Laboratory Session 7
Fruits and Vegetables II
Midterm 2 through March 4
Spices I – Historical Uses and Spice Trade
Laboratory Session 8
Spices II – Survey of Spices
Plant Fibers I
Plant Fibers II – Agave Plant and Tequila
Laboratory Session 9
Origin of Agriculture - Overview
Domestication and Selection
Major Centres of Agriculture in the World
Laboratory Session 10
Medicinal Plants – Historical Use and Chemistry
Medicinal Plants - Examples
Stimulant Beverages I
Laboratory Session 11
Stimulant Beverages II
Review
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Suggested Reading / Lab Topic
Chapter 1, pp 2-20
Chapter 1, 21-38
Chapter 19, pp 458-476
Classification and Plant Morphology
Chapter 5, pp 108-118
Chapter 5, pp 126-134
Chapter 5, pp 119
Wheat/Corn Evolution – Tortilla making
Chapter 5, pp 119-134
Chapter 5, pp 119-134
Chapter 5, pp 119-134
Rice, Minor Cereals & Pseudocereals
Chapter 7, pp 155-178
Chapter 7, pp 180-186
Chapter 7, pp 180-186
Starchy Plant Parts
Chapter 7, pp 187-191
Chapter 7, pp 187-191
Sugar Plants
Chapter 6, pp 136-154
Chapter 6, pp 136-154
Chapter 6, pp 136-154
Legumes / Pulse Crops
Chapter 5, pp 53-74
Chapter 6 pp 75-104
Chapter 7
Temperate and Tropical Fruits & Nuts
Chapter 8, 172-217
Leaf, Stem & Root vegetables
Chapter 8, 172-217
Chapter 15, pp 355-376
Spices & Herbs
Chapter 2, pp 40-52
Chapter 2, pp 40-52
Chapter 2, pp 40-52
Supermarket Safari
Chapter 11, pp 262-285
Chapter 11, pp 262-285
Chapter 13, pp 313-330
Group/Class Assignment
REQUIRED EXAMINATION , COURSE WORK, AND GRADING SYSTEM
INPUT
% OF GRADE
IMPORTANT DATES & DEADLINES
Theory Mid-term I
20%
February 4, 2009
Midterm II
20%
March 6, 2009
Laboratory Tutorial (presentation)
15%
Starting Jan. 19, 2009
Lab attendance, participation and exercises
15%
Weekly
Comprehensive Theory Final Exam
30%
April ???, 2009
Mid-term and final exams: The mid-term and final exams will test material covered in lecture and
any of the assigned readings. The exams will include a combination of fill-in-the-blank, short answer
questions and essay questions. Material covered from the start of the course up to the date of the
exam is eligible to be included on an exam.
Missed exams / Make-up policy: You must take examinations during their scheduled periods.
Make-up tests will be allowed only if there are extenuating circumstances, in which case the test will
be given orally. If there is a medical problem that causes a student to miss an exam, the student must
contact the instructor within 3 days of the exam to provide documentation of the illness and make
arrangements for a make-up exam. Failure to do so will result in a zero grade for the exam.
Late assignments: Assignments handed in late will be penalized/deducted 5 points (out of a total
100 points) per day that they are handed in late. If there is a medical reason for the delay, the student
must contact the instructor within 3 days of the assignment due date to provide documentation of
illness and make arrangements for a new due date for the assignment. Students who are struggling
with unexpected, major life issues that conflict with an assignment due date are advised to contact the
instructor BEFORE the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of arranging a new due date.
The Laboratory sessions are very important because is where you will learn a great deal of
information about uses and cultural issues of plants. They will consist of demonstration and study of
plant material related to the class, reports prepared by class members, and discussion of lecture
material, and reading assignments. Most labs are fun, cultural and illustrative. We often prepare and
taste food made from the plants or families discussed. We may have international feasts depending
on the class cultural enrollment. I strongly recommend you to attend the labs and cover all the
material provided. Please share with us your heritage/cultural experiences. Note that your
attendance, participation and completion of lab assignments will be worth 15% of your final grade.
Remember that this is an integrative course and that lecture and laboratory sessions make up the
entire content of this course. Hence, the exams will include material from both components.
Note: Because of the amount of material and students’ presentations, some lab sessions may run a
little bit longer than the expected length if the session.
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ACADEMIC HONESTY
The Guidelines for Academic Conduct from University of Saskatchewan Council (found at:
http://www.usask.ca/honesty/aca_honesty.shtml) give the following description of honest behaviour
at the university:
Honesty and integrity are expected in class participation, examinations, assignments, patient care and
other academic work.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Perform your own work unless specifically instructed otherwise.
Use your own work to complete assignments and exams.
Cite the source when quoting or paraphrasing someone else’s work.
Follow examination rules.
Be truthful on all university forms.
Discuss with your professor if you are using the same material for assignments in two
different courses.
Discuss with your professor if you have any questions about whether sources require
citation.
Use the same standard of honesty with fellow students, lab instructors, teaching assistants,
sessional instructors and administrative staff as you do with faculty.
Beware of plagiarism!!!! Academic honesty is a must in our institution and plagiarism will be
strictly penalized.
For more information on academic honesty visit the above website and the Guidelines for Academic
Conduct found at: http://www.usask.ca/university_council/reports/archives/guide_conduct.shtml
The above information has been taken from the U of S website
(http://www.usask.ca/honesty/aca_honesty.shtml)
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LABORATORY TUTORIAL
The Laboratory Tutorial consists of a two-components assignment. It will consist of an
individual oral presentation and a one-page handout/report on a subject chosen after consultation
with your instructor. The tutorials will start on January 18th. There will be three to four presentations
at the beginning of the lab session. It is important that the selection of topics be made early in the
term. Each student should sign up with the TA to schedule his/her presentation. The handout should
be quite concise and should be handed in at the end of your oral presentation (see below).
The presentation style is optional. You may use the blackboard, slides, overheads, or
powerpoint presentations. Please advise your instructor or TA about your choice to make the
necessary arrangements for the required equipment. You are encouraged to enhance your report by
bringing material for observation or sampling.
The handout should be written in font size no smaller than 11 and contain the following
information:
a). Taxonomy. Scientific and common names, plant family, related economic species, and general
plant characteristics.
b). Origin and Distribution. Area of origin, history of domestication and spread (if applicable),
present distribution, and major centers of production, climate and soil preferences.
c). Production and Processing. Methods of cultivation (if domesticated) and harvesting, part of the
plant used, processing, uses, byproducts, magnitude of production, commerce.
d). Any additional relevant information such as plant human affairs, benefits, byproducts, etc., is
welcome.
e). References in the handout are optional, but they should be included in a slide at the end of the
presentation.
Every student will have a maximum of 15 minutes to give his/her presentation. It is
recommended that the students start concluding their presentation at the 13th. minute to leave a
couple of minutes for questions from the audience. This assignment is worth 15% of your final
grade.
The evaluation of the tutorial presentation will be based on:
1. Peer evaluation, i.e., every student will be provided with an evaluation form, which should be
turned in after the speaker. Every student will be evaluated in he following aspects:
2. Quality of the handout, including presentation and synthesis of information.
3. Quality of the oral presentation, including:
- Speaking style
- Visual presentation – images, data, font size, etc.
- Accuracy of information
- Information content
- Mode of answering questions
6
Know your
plants and
uses!
The following pages include samples of
handouts turned in by students from
previous years
Note: The names of students have been omitted. No editorial changes have been made to these
handouts.
Current students should review these examples carefully and select the one that they consider the
most appropriate. Keep in mind a logical order and summarized way to present the information.
You may wish to get some advise from your instructor regarding the organization of the handouts
included here as example.
The student is advised to check with the instructor about the suitability of the handout.
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Handout Sample 1
SWEETGRASS
Taxonomy:
SCIENTIFIC NAME – H IEROCHLOE ODORATA
COMMON NAMES – SWEETGRASS, MARY’S GRASS, VANILLA GRASS, HOLY GRASS, BUFFALO GRASS
Plant Family – Poaceae
Plant Characteristics
• sweet smelling perennial
• 30-60 cm tall
• base usually purplish
• flowers from June to August
• identified by its sweet vanilla like fragrance
• spikelets 3 flowered
• leafy shoots spread from long rhizomes, which stabile loose soil on slopes
• withstands winter conditions very well
Origin and Distribution
• circumboreal
• common in Northern latitudes of Asia, Europe, and North America
• found in areas of partial shade
• wet meadows, low prairies, edges of sloughes, marshes and bogs, shaded streambanks
• grows among other grasses or shrubs and is rarely found in pure stands
History
• used widely among the plains First Nations for ceremonial purposes
• in France, used for flavoring candy, tobacco, soft drinks, and perfume
• basket making
Harvesting
• late June to early July
• care to be taken to cut leaves and not pull up entire plant
• weeding the area lessens competition from other plants
Uses
Cultural and Traditional use by First Nations
• burned in prayer and cleansing-smudging
• braided, dried and burned
• chewed to extend endurance during fasting
Medicinal Use
• tea brewed for coughs, sore throats, chafing and venereal infections
• helped bleeding and expelling of afterbirth
• externally, used to treat sore eyes, saddle sores, chapped skin, and kept hair from falling out
• smoke inhaled to stop nose bleeds and to relieve colds
• fragrance comes from chemical Coumarin, which acts as a potent anticoagulant
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Student Name and Date
Handout Sample 2
Mandrakes
Family: Solanaceae
Mandragora officinarum (Needs taxonomic authority)
Origin
The Mediterranean, Africa, Middle East, America (American Mandrake)
Currently predominant in Europe, especially Greece. (European Mandrake)
Characteritics
Dry or moist soil, humus-rich light soil, well-drained soil, acid and neutral soils, semi to no
shade, roots carrot-shaped, up to 1.2m, resistant to frost, perennial herbaceous plant, grows in
open woodland garden, in leaf from March to July, in flower from July to August, flowers are
hermaphrodite, fruit the size of an apple with an apple-like scent, propagation through root
cutting, resembles a human
Common Names
European Mandrake, American Mandrake, Witches Drink, Thieves Root, Mad Apple Love
Apple, Satan’s Apple, Devil’s Testicle, Herb of Circe, Sorcerer’s Root, Genie’s eggs
Uses
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Food and wine – has an apple-like scent
Anesthetic/pain killer – induces oblivion, pre-operative medication
Relieve rheumatic pains, ulcers, and scrofulous tumors
Narcotic/hallucinogenic – treating melancholy, mania, convulsions
Aphrodisiac – symbol of fertility, make love potions and fertility
Treats travel sickness
Remedy for snake bites
Used for incense for its apple-like smell
Medieval Folklore
• Possesses the magic power to heal a great variety of diseases
• To induce a feeling of love, affection and happiness
• To inactivate snake poisoning
• Roman surgeons used mandrake as anesthetic
• Thessalian sorcerers for the composition of philtres
• Frequently made into amulets which were believed to bring good fortune
• Cure sterility
• In legend it is alleged that when the plant is pulled from the ground, it shrieks in pain.
Supposedly, this shriek is able to madden, deafen or even kill an unprotected human
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Other References about General Botany, Economic Botany, and Ethnobotany
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Arber, A. 1990. Herbals, their origin and evolution. 2nd. Ed. Cambridge Univ. Press. Cambridge.
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11
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Nicholson. Oxford Univ. Press. Oxford. QK98.5.N62.
Vaughan, D. A., E. Balázs, and J. S. Heslop-Harrison. 2007. From crop domestication to superdomestication. Annals of Botany 100: 893-901.
Vietmeyer, N. 1981. Rediscovering America’s forgotten crops. Nat. Geog. Mag. 159(5): 702-712.
Voeks, R. A. 1997. Sacred leaves of Candomblé: African magic, medicine and religion in Brazil.
Austin: University of Texas Press, 236 pp. **
Wilkins, G. 2001. Economic Botany: Principles and practices. Kluwer, Academic Press, N.Y.
SB107.W47.
Young, K. J., and W. G. Hopkins (eds.) 2006. Ethnobotany. Chelsea House Pub. – Green World
Series. ISBN: 0791089630.
Zohary, M. 1982. Plants of the Bible. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge. BS665.Z64.
12
Zohary, D., and M. Hopf. 1994. Domestication of Plants in the Old World. 2nd. Ed. Clarendon Press,
Oxford. GN799.A4Z64.
Check out this GREAT Website of Kew Botanical Garden. LOTS of Bibliography!
The web interface for the Kew Bibliographic Databases has improved usability and download
functions:
http://www.kew.org/kbd/searchpage.do
KBD is a combined database for Kew Record (plant taxonomy), Plant Micromophology (plant
anatomy including pollen & seeds), and (less complete)
Economic Botany. Databases can be searched together or singly. Citations can be printed, or
downloaded to Endnote and as CSV files.
Other websites with ethnobotanical research include:
Center for International Ethnobotanical Education and Research: http://www.cieer.org/directory.html
Center for Traditional Medicine:
http://www.centerfortraditionalmedicine.org/research/ethnobotany.html
Courses and Internships in Ethnobotany in Kauai’s National Tropical Botanic Garden, Kalaheo,
Hawaii: http://ntbg.org/programs/education-crsint.php
Ethnobotanical studies at the University of Hawaii:
http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/ethnobotany/questions.htm
Ethnobotanical studies at Frostburg tate University:
http://www.frostburg.edu/dept/biol/Undergraduate/Ethnobotany.htm
Ethnobotany at KEN University:
http://www.kent.ac.uk/anthropology/prospective_students/courses/pgethno.html
13
CLASSIFICATION
14
REQUIRED NUTRIENTS IN HUMAN DIET
(Source: http://www.life.umd.edu/classroom/bsci124/straney/ds14.doc)
A. CALORIES - ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
1. Fuel for respiration- carbohydrates, fats, proteins
2. The unit of measurement = Calorie= amount of energy required to raise the temperature of
one gram of water one degree C. (e.g., about 15,000 cals to boil one cup of water)
- Food energy "calorie" is actually a thousand calories or Kilocalories (kcal)
3. humans require between 1200 and 3200 Calories/day
B. MACRONUTRIENTS
1. Carbohydrates: sugars and starches
2. Proteins: polymer of 20 naturally occurring amino acids
a. nine essential amino acids
b. protein requirements : 40 gm of high quality protein to 65 gm low quality protein
3. Fats- building blocks are fatty acids:
a. Three essential fatty acids must be supplied in diet: linoleic, linolenic, and
arachidonic acids -found in vegetable oils.
C. MICRONUTRIENTS
I. Vitamins: Molecules essential for the function of certain enzymes but can not be synthesized
by humans
a. Vitamin A - visual pigment and maintenance of lining of internal and external body
surfaces - sources: animal liver; beta-carotene in yellow, orange and dark
green fruits and vegetables.
b. Vitamin D - regulates calcium levels - humans can synthesize on exposure to sunlight.
c. Vitamin C - synthesis of collagen- connective tissue - sources: fresh fruits and veggies.
d. Vitamin B complex1) Thiamin (B1) -breakdown of carbohydrates - source: meat, whole grains, seeds,
nuts and legumes.
2) Niacin- NADH and NADPH - sources: meat, poultry, fish, eggs, nuts, seeds and
3) Vitamin B12- nucleic acid synthesis - sources: animal products only, yeast
II. Minerals: Inorganic compounds.
1. Calcium: found in the bones and teeth - Sources: milk, dark-green leafy vegetables and
seeds.
2. Iron: - component of hemoglobin in blood cells - Sources: Meat, fish, poultry, dark
green vegetables
3. Iodine: Required for the formation of thyroid hormones
III. Phytochemicals
e.g., Antioxidants: Carotenoids, vitamin E, flavonoids (green tea)
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INTERESTING NUTRITION FACTS THAT YOU SHOULD KNOW
Beware of Filling Up with Junk Food!
So-called junk foods are foods that may be high in carbohydrates and fat but do not have
many vitamins and minerals. These foods are usually highly processed and contain white flour,
refined sugar, and excessive amounts of fat, sodium and preservatives. Potato chips, cheese curls,
French fries, candy, soda pop, doughnuts, cookies --- these things may fill you up, but they don’t
give your body the nutrition it requires. The calories people get from junk food are “empty calories,”
because they contain little or no nutritional value. Excessive consumption of junk food can
contribute to certain diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and heart disease.
The next time you need a “sugar fix,” reach for a apple, orange, or peach, or some honey
drizzled on a rice cake or granola; or if your stomach is grumbling between meals, you can tide
yourself over with peanut butter on either a stalk of celery or a whole-wheat cracker – ENJOY!
Is Fiber a Nutrient?
The cell walls of plants are made of large carbohydrate molecules called cellulose. Cellulose
and several other large carbohydrate molecules are known collectively as fiber. Fiber cannot be
digested by humans (but can be by cows and other ruminant animals), and so it passes through our
digestive system without breaking down the way other foods do. Although not considered a nutrient,
the roughage found in fibrous skins and stems of fruits and vegetables is beneficial to our health:
Like a broom, giber sweeps away old food particles as it moves through our digestive systems. And
because it cannot be metabolized and absorbed into the bloodstream it adds few calories to our diet.
That is why people trying to reduce weight are advised to eat an abundance of fruits, vegetable and
other foods high in fiber. While providing a full, satisfying feeling, fiber passes right through and
adds no fat to the body.
16
COLUMN OF THE AMERICAS
Weblog of Gonzales and Rodriguez
Source: http://www.voznuestra.com/Americas/_2002/_November/29
SEVEN GUARDIANS OF INDIGENOUS NUTRITION
FROM UNIVERSAL PRESS SYNDICATE
FOR RELEASE: WEEK OF NOVEMBER 29, 2002
COLUMN OF THE AMERICAS by Patrisia Gonzales and Roberto Rodriguez
SEVEN GUARDIANS OF INDIGENOUS NUTRITION
Editor's note: This is a first-person column by Patrisia Gonzales
When the old ones made the people long ago, they wondered, "What will they eat?" They sent
Quetzalcoatl (one of the most powerful and influential Aztec’s Gods) to look for food. One day, he
saw a red ant carrying something on its back. It was a kernel of corn. He asked Ant where he got that
food. Ant responded, "Over there in sustenance mountain." He turned himself into a black ant and
followed the red ant into food mountain. That's how Ant helped Quetzalcoatl find corn.
From there, Quetzacoatl brought corn, and also beans and squash. Native cultures call them the three
sisters. They are often planted together. Among Mexican indigenous nutrition, there are also the
"siete guerreros," or seven warriors. These nutritional guardians are maguey, cactus, chile, beans,
squash, corn and amaranth.
Amid the holiday season, indigenous peoples today celebrate the harvest feasts and life cycles of the
Earth and sun. Many celebrations are based on the agricultural cycle, giving thanks for what the
Earth has given us. In indigenous nutrition, we connect to our grandmother Earth by what we eat. We
are what we eat. (So stay away from genetically modified corn!)
Maiz. The corn tortilla is golden like the sun. We eat a little bit of the sun every day with tortillas de
maiz. Tortillas are round like the sun and a woman's skirts. As the woman (or man) pats the tortilla
back and forth, the energy of her hands is given to the food. Don Aurelio, a Nahuatl curandero
(healer), says this is one way that female energy is passed throughout the family and community.
(My grandmother, who of course made the hottest, fattest tamales, ground her own corn until the
arrival of the blender. Being a modern woman who loved gadgets, she quickly surrendered her
metate grinding stone, which is now mine.)
One ceremony still practiced today commemorates the sacred act of eating: when the tortilla is placed
on the sacred fire. I have learned much about indigenous nutrition from teachers such as Isabel
Quevedo, who teaches about the siete guerreros at Mexico's Nahuatl University. We learn in the
place where many teachings are passed -- in the kitchen, while eating. Unlike Western tradition, our
kitchens are sacred geography.
El tamal is a petate, Quevedo says. In indigenous thought, the petate (or straw mat) is where we're
born and where we die. In our ways, nothing is thrown out. "Tira nada," says my chef friend Antonio.
Corn silk tea cleanses kidneys, and the husks have several uses as tiny mats and containers. Corn
tortillas are a great source of calcium.
17
Squash. In ancestral books, the squash seeds symbolize women's fertility. Like a squash, we're born
with all our seeds. Fall squash, in particular, is a great source of vitamin A for the skin and immunity.
Squash blossom dishes are a delicacy you can only enjoy in Mexico or if you have your own garden.
El frijol. Eat beans five times a week, and you may lower your risk of cancer.
El nopal -- God's food. Its slimy baba and leaf hold the medicine to naturally balance insulin, fight
off viruses and strengthen the heart. When doctors gave Grandma only months to live because her
heart was tired, we cooked her fresh nopales (cactus) every day and fed her chilito and Jell-O.
Chiles have lots of vitamin C, and are great for colds, arthritis, depression and pain (when combined
with other herbs). And their ability to strengthen circulation is good for the heart. My grandma lived
another three years. Food is medicine.
Grandmother Maguey is said to be the guardian of all the other vegetation. Her medicine helps
people with extreme immune disorders.
Finally, amaranth -- the most complete of all grains -- is returning to our kitchens. This grain was
outlawed in Mexico by Europeans. Isabel Quevedo says Europeans thought its deep red flower
looked like blood. It was so heavily relied upon in indigenous cultures and used in ceremonies that
Europeans forbade its growth. It was grown in secret. Quevedo says no one would starve or need
meat if they ate this grain. It's great for atole and avena porridges. I eat it for breakfast and add it to
Mexican chocolate. It strengthens the heart.
Of course, the best ingredient we put in food is "to cook with love."
The last time we were at Nahuatl U., we saw where the old stories came from on our way to
breakfast. "There's a lot of Quetzalcoatl here," said Quevedo, as we watched in wonder of this
blessing. We saw red ants carrying fat kernels of corn.
This Page was last update: Sunday, December 1, 2002 at 9:35:14 PM
Copyright 2006 COLUMN OF THE AMERICAS
IMAGES OF THE AZTEC GOD QUETZALCOATL
18
ORIGIN OF DOMESTICATED WHEAT
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The banana (Musa Xparadisiaca) is the world’s largest herb. q) Bract with cluster of male flowers. b)
Male flower with perianth parts. c) Male flower with perianth removed. d) Female flower. e)
Longitudinal section of female flower. f) The banana fruit: an accessory berry (pepo) derived from an
inferior ovary. g) Cross-section of fruit showing the edible placental tissue with aborted seeds and
three carpels. h) Flowering banana plant with an offshoot. i) Bracts with female flowers. Picture
credit: Simpson and Ogorzaly. 2003. Economic Botany: Plants in our world, 3rd. Ed.
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SLAVE TRADE TRIANGLE
Source: http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.colonialcemetery.com/images/slave%2520trade.jpg
21
22
FRUIT AND FRUIT PARTS
(SOURCE: www.fruitsinfo.com/ parts_of_fruits.htm)
A fruit as a whole is not a single solid product. It is divided into certain parts among itself. Generally,
the parts of the fruits are divided into two fruit layers. They are,
*Pericarp - which includes:
• Exocarp - the outermost layer often consisting of only the epidermis
• Mesocarp - or middle layer, which varies in thickness
• Endocarp - which shows considerable variation from one species to another
*Seed- containing the embryo
During the development of the fruit, the wall of the ovary, called the pericarp, usually thickens and
becomes differentiated into three layers, which may or may not be easy to distinguish visually. These
layers are called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. As an example, in the peach, the exocarp is
the skin, the mesocarp is the fleshy part, and the endocarp is the stony pit. The seed, containing the
embryo, is inside the pit.
Fruit - the matured ovary of the pistil of a flower, containing the seed. After the egg nucleus, or
ovum, has been fertilized (see fertilization) and the embryo plantlet begins to form, the surrounding
ovule (see pistil) develops into a seed and the ovary wall (pericarp) around the ovule becomes the
fruit. The pericarp consists of three layers of tissue: the thin outer exocarp, which becomes the
“skin”; the thicker mesocarp; and the inner endocarp, immediately surrounding the ovule. A flower
may have one or more simple pistils or a compound pistil made up of two or more fused simple
pistils (each called a carpel); different arrangements give rise to different types of fruit. A new
variety of fruit is obtained as a hybrid in plant breeding or may develop spontaneously by mutation.
The example to describe the parts of the fruits is given below with the tomato fruit.
23
IDENTIFICATION OF MAJOR FRUIT TYPES
(Source: http://waynesword.palomar.edu/fruitid1.htm)
I. SIMPLE FRUITS: A single ripened ovary from a single flower.
A. Fleshy Fruits: All of most of the ovary wall (pericarp) is soft or fleshy at maturity.
1. Berry: Entire pericarp is fleshy, although skin is sometimes tough; may be one or many seeded.
E.g. grape, tomato, papaya, pomegranate, sapote, persimmon, guava, banana, and avocado. The latter
two fruits are often termed baccate (berry-like). [The banana fruit is a seedless, parthenocarpic berry
developing without pollination and fertilization. In the pomegranate, the edible part is the fleshy
layer (aril) around each seed.]
2. Pepo: Berry with a hard, thick rind; typical fruit of the gourd family (Cucurbitaceae). E.g.,
watermelon, cucumber, squash, cantelope and pumpkin.
3. Hesperidium: Berry with a leathery rind and parchment-like partitions between sections; typical
fruit of the citrus family (Rutaceae). E.g. orange, lemon, grapefruit, tangelo and kumquat.
24
4. Drupe: Fleshy fruit with hard inner layer (endocarp or stone) surrounding the seed. E.g. peach,
plum, nectarine, apricot, cherry, olive, mango and almond. Some botanists also include the fruits of
walnuts, pecans, date palms, macadamia nuts, pistachio nuts, tung oil and kukui nuts as drupes
because of their outer, green, fleshy husk and stony, seed-bearing endocarp. These latter fruits are
also called drupaceous nuts. The coconut is considered a dry drupe with a green, waterproof outer
layer (exocarp), a thick, buoyant, fibrous husk (mesocarp) and a hard, woody, inner layer (endocarp)
surrounding the large seed. The actual seed embryo is embedded in the coconut meat (endosperm).
Nutrient-rich coconut milk is liquid endosperm that has not formed firm tissue with cell walls. There
is considerable disagreement among authorities about the classification of some of these fruits.
Note: A number of so-called nuts are probably better placed in the drupe category. This is especially
true of the walnut family (Juglandaceae), although some older references still consider these fruits to
be nuts. In hickory & pecan (Carya) the outer husk splits into four valves, exposing the hard,
indehiscent nut . According to many botanists, the outer husk is part of the pericarp, and the hard,
inner layer surrounding the seed is the endocarp; therefore, these fruits are technically drupes or
drupaceous nuts. Walnut & butternut (Juglans), two members of the walnut family (Juglandaceae),
have similar drupe-like fruits. The outer green husk resembles the outer pericarp (exocarp and
mesocarp) of a drupe. For this reason, walnuts are sometimes referred to as dry drupes, and the hard
shell surrounding the seed is considered to be the endocarp layer as in coconuts. In true nuts, the
hard, indehiscent layer surrounding the seed is the entire ovary wall or pericarp, and the outer husk is
composed of involucral tissue that is not part of the ovary wall or pericarp. The outer green layer
(husk) of the walnut is part of the pericarp and the hard shell surrounding the seed is really the
endocarp. Therefore, walnuts and pecans fit best the dry drupe category rather than a true nut. Some
authors avoid this dilemma by calling these fruits drupe-like or "drupaceous nuts."
5. Pome: Ovary or core surrounded by edible, fleshy receptacle tissue (hypanthium or fleshy floral
tube) that is really not part of the pericarp. The actual ovary or core is usually not eaten, at least by
most humans. This is typical fruit of certain members of the rose family (Rosaceae), including apple,
pear, quince and loquat.
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B. DRY FRUITS: Pericarp dry at maturity.
1. Dehiscent Dry Fruits: Pericarp splits open along definite seams.
a. Legume: An elongate "bean pod" splitting along two seams; typical fruit of the third largest plant
family, the legume family (Leguminosae or Fabaceae). The pod represents one folded modified leaf
or carpel that is fused along the edges. E.g. black locust, redbud, acacia, coral tree, orchid tree,
wisteria and many more genera. Note: Some legume fruits are indehiscent, including the carob tree,
mesquite and honey locust. In addition, some legume fruits are oblong, rounded, kidney-shaped
(reniform), or coiled (spiral-shaped), such as sweet clover (Melilotus alba and M. officinalis), black
medic (Medicago lupulina), bur clover (M. polymorpha) and alfalfa (M. sativa). Some specialized
legume fruits (called loments) break apart into indehiscent one-seeded joints. A good example of a
loment is the very effective hitchhiker called stick-tights or beggar's-ticks (Desmodium cuspidatum).
b. Silique: A slender, dry, dehiscent fruit that superficially resemble a legume, except the mustard
silique is composed of two carpels with a partition or septum down the center (i.e. between the two
carpels or valves). [The legume fruit is composed of a single carpel and does not have the central
partition or septum.] This is the typical fruit of the mustard family (Cruciferae or Brassicaceae). E.g.
field mustard, turnip and cabbage (Brassica species), stock (Mathiola), wallflower (Erysimum) and
London rocket (Sisymbrium). The silicle is a shortened (less elongate) version of a silique, including
sweet alyssum (Lobularia), peppergrass (Lepidium) and shepherd's purse (Capsella). [Note: As with
legumes there are a few exceptions to the typical form of siliques and silicles. In wild radish
(Raphanus) the silique does not split lengthwise, but instead it breaks transversely into several seedbearing joints. In lace pod (Thysanocarpus) the silicles are indehiscent.]
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c. Capsule: Seed pod splits open is various ways and usually along several definite seams. Capsules
typically split open into well-defined sections or carpels, which represent modified leaves. This is a
very common dry fruit found in many different plant families. E.g. Catalpa, Jacaranda, Pittosporum,
Aesculus, Agave, Yucca, Eucalyptus, devil's claw (Proboscidea), floss silk tree (Chorisia), kapok tree
(Ceiba) and castor bean (Ricinus communis).
Capsules may split open along the locules (loculicidal), along the septa (septicidal), through pores
(poricidal), or the entire top of the capsule separates as a single lid-like section (circumscissle). A
common landscaping tree in southern California called the golden-rain tree (Koelreuteria) produces
bladder-like capsules that are loculicidally dehiscent into three valves. The opium poppy (Papaver
somniferum) produces a classic poricidal capsule in which the tiny seeds fall out of the pore-like
windows as the capsule shakes in the wind. The edible weed called purslane (Portulaca) has a manyseeded circumscissle capsule. The Mexican jumping bean (Sebastiana pavoniana) produces a 3carpellate capsule, each carpel bearing a seed. Sometimes the carpel is occupied by a special moth
larva that eats the seed and moves its one-room carpel container by contorting and hurling its body.
In the liquidambar tree (Liquidambar styraciflua) the globose fruiting heads are composed of
numerous tiny capsules, each bearing one or two winged seeds and a number of aborted ovules
(immature seeds). It should be noted here that some capsules are indehiscent. Their carpels do not
separate and release the seeds. Two examples of plants with indehiscent capsules are the South
African baobab tree (Adansonia digitata) and two species of South African gardenias (Gardenia
thunbergii and G. volkensii). The seed pods of South African gardenias are chewed opened by large
herbivores, and the seeds are dispersed in their feces.
Septicidal capsule
Poricidal capsule
27
d. Follicle: A single ripened ovary (representing a single modified leaf or carpel) that splits open
along one seam. The follicle may occur singly (as in milkweed) or in clusters: two in oleander, 2-5 in
peony, 3 in larkspur, 5 in columbine and 4-5 in bottle tree (Sterculia or Brachychiton). The cone-like
fruit of the magnolia tree is an aggregate of many small follicles, each containing a single bright red
seed. The term apocarpous refers to flowers with separate and distinct carpels, such as delphiniums
and columbines of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae). Although it also belongs to the buttercup
family, the fused (syncarpous) carpels of Nigella form a many-seeded capsule.
2. INDEHISCENT DRY FRUITS: Pericarp does not split open. These fruits usually contain only one
seed.
a. Achene: Very small, one-seeded fruit, usually produced in clusters. At maturity the pericarp is dry
and free from the internal seed, except at the placental attachment. This is the typical fruit of the
largest plant family, the sunflower family (Compositae or Asteraceae). Examples of this type of fruit
include the sunflower (Helianthus), buttercup (Ranunculus) and sycamore (Platanus). In the
sycamore, the globose fruiting heads are composed of tiny, one-seeded achenes interspersed with
hairs (some authors refer to these individual fruits as nutlets). [The globose heads of the liquidambar
tree are actually composed of numerous tiny capsules.]
28
b. Grain or Caryopsis: A very small, dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit in which the actual seed
coat is completely fused to the ovary wall or pericarp. The outer pericarp layer or husk is referred to
as the bran, while the inner, seed layer is called the germ. This is the characteristic fruit of the large
grass family (Gramineae or Poaceae). The grain is truly a fruit (not a seed) because it came from a
separate ripened ovary within the grass inflorescence. This is the number one source of food for
people on the earth. E.g. Corn (maize), wheat, rice, rye, barley, oats, Johnson grass, Bermuda grass
and many more species. In corn grains, the main white material that explodes when the grains are
heated is endosperm tissue within the seed. Pressure (water vapor) builds up within the grains until
they literally explode.
c. Schizocarp: A small dry fruit composed of two or more sections that break apart; however, each
section or carpel (also called a mericarp) remains indehiscent and contains a single seed. Because the
seed-bearing sections or carpels (called mericarps) do not split open, this type of fruit is usually
placed under indehiscent dry fruits. This is the characteristic fruit of the carrot family (Umbelliferae
or Apiaceae). E.g. Carrot (Daucus), celery (Apium) and sweet fennel (Foeniculum vulgare). Other
examples of schizocarps include filaree or stork's bill (Erodium) and cheeseweed (Malva), two
common weeds in southern California. In these weeds, the seed-bearing carpels (mericarps) separate
from each other, but remain indehiscent. Gynoecium is a collective term for the carpels of a flower.
Biologists commonly refer to this floral unit as a pistil. Monocarpous flowers are composed of one
carpel (a simple pistil). The terms apocarpous and syncarpous refer to compound pistils composed of
more than one carpel. Apocarpous flowers contain two or more distinct carpels. In syncarpous
flowers, two or more carpels are fused together. In cheeseweed, the carpels are attached to a central,
conical connection stalk, but separate from this stalk at maturity. Some authors consider the fruit of
the maple (Acer) to be a schizocarp because it splits into two indehiscent, seed-bearing carpels;
however, because of the wing on each seed-bearing carpel, other botanists refer to maple fruits as
double samaras (see the samara fruit).
29
d. Samara: Small, winged, one-seeded fruit, usually produced in clusters on trees. E.g. Maple
(Acer): a double samara, ash (Fraxinus), elm (Ulmus) and tree of heaven (Ailanthus). Samaras
resemble the winged seeds of a pine, but they are truly one-seeded fruits with a pericarp layer
surrounding the seed. The leguminous tipu tree (Tipuana tipu) has a winged fruit that certainly
resembles a samara even though it belongs to the legume family (Leguminosae or Fabaceae). Like
auto-rotation of helicopters, the samaras spin as they sail through the air, an effective method of
dispersal.
Acer (maple)
Fraxinus (ash tree)
e. Nut: Larger, one-seeded fruit with very hard pericarp, usually enclosed in a husk or cup-like
involucre. Many examples.
(1) Acorn of oak (Quercus): The actual nut sits in a cup-shaped involucre of imbricate (overlapping)
scales.
involucre
(2) Chestnut (Castanea), beech (Fagus) & chinquapin (Castanopsis): One or more nuts sit in a
spiny, cup-shaped involucre.
30
(3) Hazelnut or filbert (Corylus): Nut sits in a leafy (C. americana) or tubular (C. cornuta)
involucre.
(4) Walnut (Juglans) and pecan (Carya) are placed in the drupe category (section A-4) above,
although some botanists maintain that they are true nuts. In true nuts, the hard, indehiscent layer
surrounding the seed is the entire ovary wall or pericarp, and the outer husk is composed of
involucral tissue that is not part of the ovary wall or pericarp. According to most botanical
references, the outer green layer (husk) of the walnut is part of the pericarp and the hard shell
surrounding the seed is really the endocarp. Therefore, walnuts and pecans probably fit the dry drupe
category rather than a true nut. Other authorities claim that the walnut husk is composed of involucral
tissue, perianth and an outer layer of pericarp, but is not totally derived from the pericarp. Because
the "shell" is the actual pericarp wall, the walnut should be classified as a true nut. However, since
the walnut husk contains pericarp tissue (at least in part), and is not entirely derived from involucral
(non-pericarp) tissue, Note: Brazil nuts are seeds produced in a large, woody capsule. Cashews are
nuts with a hard shell that is removed before shipment to food stores. The cashew nut is produced at
the summit of a fleshy receptacle called the "cashew apple." Pine nuts are actually gymnosperm
seeds produced in a woody, ovuliferous seed cone. The peanut (Arachis hypogea) is actually a seed
with a papery seed coat, typically two seeds enclosed in a dehiscent pod called a legume. After
fertilization, the flower stalk of the peanut curves downward, and the developing fruit (legume) is
forced into the ground by the proliferation and elongation of cells under the ovary. The peanut pod
subsequently develops underground.
f. Utricle: Small, bladderlike, thin-walled, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Although it is seldom seen
by casual observers, this is the characteristic fruit of the duckweed family (Lemnaceae). The
dehiscent one-seeded fruits of Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae) are often called circumscissle utricles
because the top half of the fruit separates, exposing a shiny black seed.
II. AGGREGATE FRUITS: A cluster or aggregation of many ripened ovaries (fruits) produced from a
single flower. In blackberries and raspberries (Rubus), the individual fruits are tiny, one-seeded
drupes or drupelets. Since all the seed-bearing ovaries (carpels) form a fused cluster, the fruit is also
called a syncarp. In strawberries (Fragaria), the individual fruits are tiny, one-seeded achenes
imbedded in a sweet, fleshy receptacle. Another term for an aggregate cluster of ovaries all derived
from a single flower is the "etaerio." In fact, a rose hip (Rosa) eaten as an entire fruit could be
considered an etaerio of achenes enclosed by a fleshy receptacle.
Fleshy receptacle in Fragaria
Aggregate if achenes in Rosa
31
III. MULTIPLE FRUITS: A cluster of many ripened ovaries (fruits) produced by the coalescence of
many flowers crowded together in the same inflorescence, typically surrounding a fleshy stem axis.
E.g. mulberry, osage orange, pineapple, breadfruit and jackfruit. In the mulberry (Morus), the
individual fruits are tiny drupes called drupelets. In the pineapple (Ananas), the individual fruits are
berries imbedded in a fleshy, edible stem, each berry subtended by a jagged-edged bract where the
original flower was attached. The fleshy spadix of Monstera deliciosa is also a multiple fruit because
it is derived from numerous, tightly-packed female flowers. Another term for multiple fruits
composed of a fleshy spike or raceme of tightly packed ovaries is the sorosis.
Note: Fig trees (Ficus) produce an edible multiple fruit called a syconium. It is a fleshy, flask-shaped
structure (inflorescence) lined on the inside with numerous female flowers, each forming a tiny, oneseeded drupelet. Seed formation requires a symbiotic wasp that enters the syconium and pollinates
the female flowers. Smyrna and California-grown Calimyrna figs require wasp pollination. Other fig
varieties will produce edible, seedless, parthenocarpic syconia without pollination. This is a very
complex and fascinating story that is discussed in several sources.
Miscellaneous Notes On Fruit Types: Some trees produce seeds and pollen in separate
inflorescences called catkins or aments. This includes monoecious species with both male and female
catkins on the same tree; and dioecious species with separate male and female trees. In birch (Betula)
and alder (Alnus), the seeds (nutlets) are produced in a woody, cone-like catkin. In other trees, such
as oak (Quercus), only pollen is produced in the catkins.
In true cone-bearing trees, the immature seeds (ovules) are borne at the surface of ovuliferous scales
instead of enclosed within an ovary as in flowering plants. Because the ovules are exposed to the
wind-blown pollen during the pollination period, these trees are referred to as gymnosperms (which
means naked seeds). The ovuliferous scales collectively form a woody seed cone sealed with sticky
resin. At maturity (in one or two years depending on the species), the scales dry and separate from
each other, thus releasing the winged seeds. In junipers (Juniperus) the scales are fleshy and fused
together, and the seed cones superficially resemble berries. In the maidenhair tree (Ginkgo biloba),
fern pine (Podocarpus), and the California nutmeg (Torreya californica), the large seed with a fleshy
outer coat is borne naked on the branchlets. In the yew tree (Taxus) the naked seed is borne in a
fleshy, cup-like structure called an aril.
32
DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR COMMON FRUITS
1A. Fruit from one ovary of one flower ......................................[Simple Fruit].. ........................ 2
1B. Fruit from more than one ovary, or more than one flower .................................................... 17
2A. Fleshy at maturity ................................................................................................................. 3
2B. Dry at maturity ...................................................................................................................... 8
3A. Single large hard seed, a "stone" fruit ............................................................................ Drupe
3B. More than one seed, seed not enlarged and hardened ............................................................ 4
4A. Seeds in a single linear order, separating from ovary wall forming a pod ............... Legume
4B. Seeds not in a single linear order ......................................................................................... 5
5A. Inner layer of ovary (endocarp) papery, forming a core ................................................ Pome
5B. Endocarp fleshy ................................................................................................................... 6
6A. Outer layer (exocarp) thin, easily peeled off, not leathery .......................................... Berry
6B. Exocarp thickened and leathery (modified berries) ............................................................. 7
7A. Divided into sections w/ cross-walls, citrus .................................................... Hesperidium
7B. Interior not divided, exocarp a rind ............................................................................... Pepo
8A. Dehiscent (splits open at maturity), usually many seeds ..................................................... 9
8B. Indehiscent (does not split open), usually one seeded ....................................................... 12
9A. Derived from a pistil with one chamber (locule) .............................................................. 10
9B. Derived from a pistil with more than one locule ............................................................... 11
10A. Dehiscent along one side (suture) ........................................................................... Follicle
10B. Dehiscent along two sutures ................................................................................. Legume
11A. From two locules, separating at maturity .................................................................. Silique
11B. From more than two locules, or lid-like top ............................................................. Capsule
12A. Ovary wall extends to form a wing ............................... ..................................... Samara
12B. Fruit not winged ............................................................................................................. 13
13A. With many seeds in single linear order forming a pod ............................................Legume
13B. Fruit with one seed, or not in single linear order ............................................................. 14
14A. Outer wall not especially thick or hard, fruit small ........................................................ 15
14B. Outer wall hardened, fruit relatively large ..................................................................... 16
15A. Seed not tightly attached to ovary wall .................................................................... Achene
15B. Seed fused to ovary, grains ................................................................................. Caryopsis
16A. Ovary hard throughout ................................................................................................. Nut
16B. Middle of ovary fibrous, seed hardened ................................................................... Drupe
17A. Fruit derived from many ovaries of one flower ........................................ Aggregate Fruit
17B. Fruit derived from many ovaries of more than one flower .......................... Multiple Fruit
33
KEY TERMS FOR STUDENTS
Ovary
-
Contains the female reproductive cell; generally,
the ripened ovary together with the seeds form the fruit of a flowering
plant
Exocarp
-
the outer wall of the fruit
Mesocarp
-
the middle wall of the fruit; often becomes fleshy
Endocarp
-
the inner wall of the fruit; may be papery or hard and
bony
Carpel
-
the female reproductive organ of a flower; comprised of
the following structures:
a) stigma - a structure upon which pollen grains, containing the
male reproductive cells with adhere
b) ovary - see above
c) style - a stalk-like structure that connects the
ovary and the stigma
Pistil
-
composed of the carpel, or carpels, depending on whether
they occur alone, or in mulitple, either fused or distinct
Placentation -
in plants refers to the arragement of the ovules within the ovary
Dehiscent
-
when mature, dehiscent plants will split, opening to
discharge seeds
Suture
-
area of fusion between 2 adjacent structures; like a seam
i.e. the ventral suture in flowering plants is formed by the line of fusion of
the edges of carpel
34
THE SPICE TRADE AND ANCIENT TRADE ROUTES
35
ORIGIN OF AGRICULTURE
FROM HUNTERS AND GATHERERS TO CULTIVATED AND DOMESTICATED PLANTS
Figure showing the hypothesized proportions of subsistence components in the
Tehuacán Valley inhabitants diet. The width of the vertical lines is roughly
proportional to the amount of cultivated plants in diet. (From MacNeish 1967:
301).
36
READ BEFORE YOUR FIRST LABORATORY SESSION!
IS THIS PLANT DANGEROUS?
In the next 11-12 weeks you will be exposed or working with plants. Be aware that like
animals, some plant species are dangerous and are best left alone. Get to know your plant
before actually working with it or it could heart you. Make sure that the plant you’re working
with is safe. In general, plants are not dangerous, but different people may have different
reactions to the same plant. Poison ivy and poison oak can cause severe skin rash for even
casual contact with any plant part. Singing nettle causes a painful prickly sensation when
handled, BUT some people don’t experience even the slight reaction.
Other plants can be handled without incident bur are toxic if ingested. Sassafras (Sassafras
albidum), has a cancer-causing substance called safrole, and pensyroyal (Mentha pulegium) can
cause liver damage or even death. Other plants may be unavailable or illegal to use. Good
background research from reputable sources will help you to make solid choices and provide safe
lead to your plant hunting. In our lab we don’t use poisonous or toxic plants, but if you have
some questions regarding this issues, please talk to your instructor about this, especially if
you have an allergic reaction to a plant, fruit, or vegetable.
REMEMBER!
REMEMBER!
REMEMBER!
Please let your instructor and TA know whether you are allergic or have adverse
reactions to plants, plant products and or plant food or derivatives.
37
BIOL. 324.3 PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS
LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 1
CLASSIFICATION EXERCISE AND INTRODUCTION TO PLANT MORPHOLOGY
I. CLASSIFICATION EXERCISE.
In this exercise students will be provided with fictitious samples of the “plant study group” to
“discover” basic ideas about classification.
At the end of this exercise the student should understand the following concepts and ideas:
• What is classification?
• Why do we classify plants?
• The principles of classification.
How to proceed?
1. Form student groups (3-5 people/group).
2. Classify the plant material provided according to students’ own criteria. Each group should
select characters and should be ready to defend the proposed classification.
3. At the end, the class will discuss the basic ideas.
II. A SURVEY OF PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PLANT STRUCTURES: THE ANGIOSPERMS
For the benefit of those in the class who have no experience in taxonomy, this first tutorial
includes a brief introduction to the subject, in particular plant morphology.
This is not an exercise requiring a report, and is intended only to introduce you to some of the
structures and terms that you will encounter throughout this course.
We strongly recommend you to spend time reviewing and recognizing structures in all the
material provided. Remember that your instructors will assist you and answer any of your questions.
Since this is a “show and tell lab”, feel free to sample the food provided, and while you do so
discuss with your instructors and fellow students what plant part you are eating, where the samples
come from, is it a tree, shrub, or herb? etc.
38
First, we need to review the flower and flower parts.
FLOWER
A flower is homologous to a branch bearing four sets of highly specialized or modified leaves or
appendages (the floral whorls). These whorls never vary in order or position to one another, even
when some whorls are absent.
General Terms:
Flower
Inflorescence (just learn the term for now. We will study them in some detail later).
Whorls/series
Bract
Flower Parts:
Peduncle
Receptacle
Ovule
Perianth
Androecium
Gynoecium
Corolla
Stamen
Carpel
Petals
Filament
Stigma
Calyx
Anther
Style
Sepals
Ovary
Placentation
Locule
Plant Parts Exercise: Identify the parts of the drawing below. Try to do this exercise on your own
before consulting any reference. You may verify your answers in a general botany book, including
your textbook. The complete answer to this diagram is found at:
http://www.m-w.com/mw/art/flower.htm
39
III. PLANT FAMILIES
The student will become familiar with general characteristics of the angiosperms and the distinctive
features of several families of economic importance (see below). Please pay close attention to the
illustrations, and preserved and live demonstration material.
a. Rosaceae: ca. 3,000 spp. Many temperate zone fruits. Also ornamentals. Sepals and petals
5; stamens numerous; carpels 1 to many, free or fused to form a compound pistil. Ovary
superior to inferior. Floral tube. Leaves alternate; simple or pinnately compound.
b. Fabaceae (Leguminosae): ca. 15,000 spp. Many food and forage plants.
Subfamily Papilionoideae: the pea group. Sepals 5, may be fused (=connate); petals 5,
zygomorphic (bilaterally symmetrical), partially fused; stamens 10, variously fused
filaments; carpel 1. Ovary superior; fruit a legume. Leaves usually pinnately compound,
alternate.
40
c. Brassicaceae (Cruciferae): ca. 3,000 spp. Many common vegetable crops. Sepals and
petals 4 in a cruciform arrangement; stamens 6 (4 long and 2 short); carpels 2, fused.
Ovary superior. Leaves simple, alternate, variously dissected.
d. Solanaceae: ca. 2,000 spp. Many contain alkaloids. Also, edible fruits and the potato.
Sepals 5, fused; petals 5, fused; stamens usually 5, fused to (=adnate to) corolla, anthers
often joined; carpels 2, fused. Ovary superior. Leaves alternate, rarely opposite, simple,
dissected or pinnately compound.
41
e. Poaceae (Gramineae): ca. 9,000 spp. Cereals and forage crops. Inflorescence a dense
spike or open branching cluster, composed of units called spikelets, each with 1 to several
florets, enclosed by 2 glumes. Floret with palea and lemma; 2 lodicules (=perianth); stamens
3; carpels 2, fused. Ovary superior; fruit a caryopsis. Leaves with a conspicuous sheath,
distichous.
General Morphological Features of Grasses
42
BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS
LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 2
CEREALS I – CORN AND WHEAT
Major Cereals: each comprises ca. one-fourth of the world’s cereal crops.
Wheat: Triticum aestivum L.
Maize: Zea mays L.
Rice: Oryza sativa L.
The objectives of the next two laboratory sessions are to provide an opportunity to examine
examples of important plant cereals, some of which are probably familiar to you, but others of which
may not be. These will include wheat, rice, maize, barley, oats, rye, sorghum and buckwheat.
Today’s lab will focus on wheat and corn.
The Poaceae has some unique morphological features, including the ligule (membranaceous
structure in the junction of the sheath and the leaf blade).
1. Identify the ligule in each example provided.
2. In each case provided, examine the spikelet structure and identify the glumes, lemma and
palea. Refer to drawings from last lab session.
3. With the aid of a model, your lecture notes and the material provided, be sure to understand
the structure of the fruit (caryopsis) in the grasses.
4. Determine in which cereals the grains separate freely from the lemma and the palea.
5. Review in detail the origin and domestication of wheat making use of the specimens provided
by your instructors. These include samples of einkorn (Triticum monococcum), emmer (T.
dicoccum), bread wheat (T. aestivum), a locally grown tetraploid wheat from western Asia (T.
timopheevi), and the oat grass (T. tauschii), which is believed to be one of the parental lines
of the hexaploid wheat.
6. Examine the spikelets of these plants and note the number of grains in each and the mode of
separation from the inflorescence axis.
7. Understand the following concepts: domestication, hybridization, polyploidy, diploid,
tetraploid and hexaploid.
43
Corn or maize (Zea mays) is the only major New World domesticated cereal, and can be
cultivated in both tropical and temperate areas. It has been the basis of main New World
civilizations, such as the Mayas, Aztecs and Incas. The exact origin of maize is still being debated,
but one widely supported theory is that it is derived from one type of teosinte (Z. mays subsp.
parviglumis), which occurs in the Balsas Valley of southwestern Mexico.
In this lab, every student will have a chance to make a real “home-made” tortilla, which you will
sample, with whatever food your instructors provide. Have fun and enjoy this experience!
You will also answer the following questions:
1. Modern corn has a different and more perplexing morphology than any wild grass. How
could the corn ear be derived from a typical grass inflorescence?
2. To what plant part is the corncob homologous?
3. Dissect a corn kernel and observe and differentiate its parts (embryo, endosperm, aleurone,
and pericarp), using the dissecting microscope.
4. To what flower parts are the corn kernels homologous?
5. To what flower part is the cob homologous?
6. Examine specimens of abnormal tassels and cobs provided in the laboratory. Such
abnormalities are by no means rare and represent ancestral forms of modern corn.
7. Examine the preserved material of teosinte.
8. Where is the putative center of origin of corn?
9. What is the main difference between the origin of wheat and maize? What processes were
involved in each?
10. Finally, do you know why pop corn ‘pops’ and why other cereal grains don’t?
44
BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS
LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 3
CEREALS II:
FERMENTATION, RICE, MINOR CEREALS, MILLETS AND PSEUDOCEREALS
Major Cereals:
Rice: Oryza sativa L.
Minor Cereals:
Oats: Avena sativa L.
Barley: Hordeum vulgare L.
Rye: Secale cereale L.
Sorghum: Sorghum bicolor L.
Millets: Setaria spp., Pennisetum spp., Panicum spp., Eleusine spp., Eragrostis spp.
Job’s Tears: Coix lachryma-jobi L.
Wild Rice: Zizania palustris L.
Pseudocereals (not grasses):
Buckwheat: Fagopyrum esculentum Möench. (Polygonaceae)
Quinoa: Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (Chenopodiaceae)
Amaranth: Amaranthus caudatus L. (Amaranthaceae)
FERMENTATION – see handout in the following pages.
Today we will start the beer making process. The time involved in this process will depend on
the instructions provided in the package. Beer made from some kits is bottled after a 6-weeks, while
others recommend bottling after the mix (wort) has been allowed to stand for a week. In general, a 46-week period is required to complete fermentation. Today we will prepare the worth from the kit
and allow to ferment for several weeks. We will sample our beer in either the lab session before or
after Spring break, depending on our activities. Don’t miss it!
45
MAJOR CEREALS CONTINUED
In today’s lab we will continue our survey of major cereals and we will start studying those
species classified within the minor cereals. The objectives of this laboratory session are to study the
different types of domesticated rice, oats, and rye, including their main morphological features.
RICE
Oryza sativa L.
This crop is native to China and is believed to have been domesticated in the Yangtze River
Valley (1ry. centre of origin), from where it has spread to the rest of the world. Domesticated rice,
O. sativa, is the cereal that feeds the world. Although rice world production is exceeded by wheat,
rice is the staple food of approximately 1.8 billion people.
1. Review the morphological features of domesticated rice.
2. What is the ploidy level in cultivated rice?
3. Observe the different varieties of rice provided, and compare features such as grain
length, thickness, and whether the grain has pointed or blunt ends.
4. What is the difference between brown rice and the white varieties?
5. What is parboiled rice?
6. List the optimal ecological conditions to grow rice.
7. What is the nutritional value of the bran layer in cereals?
8. What are the two major centres of origin of domesticated rice?
WILD RICE
The only North American cereal plant is wild rice (Zizania palustris L). In fact, it is grown in
Saskatchewan (Z. aquatica). This crop, although harvested since long before the arrival of
Europeans, has only recently been domesticated. The traditional harvesting and processing of wild
rice will be illustrated by slides/drawings in an incoming tutorial presentation.
1. Review the different varieties of wild rice provided by your instructors.
2. What changes will probably occur in this plant if it is brought successfully into
cultivation?
46
MINOR CEREALS:
OATS
Avena sativa L.
1. Review the live and preserved material of A. sativa and study the structure and parts of
the inflorescence and spikelet.
2. How many florets are there in the spikelet?
3. From what world region are the oats native?
4. What are the ecological requirements of this cereal plant?
BARLEY
Hordeum vulgare L.
Study the live material provided and:
1. Compare the wild and domesticated specimens. What are the major distinguishing
features between these two lines?
2. Identify the two- and six-row barley only (if provided by your instructors).
3. How did domesticated barley develop a six-row spikelet from a two-row ancestor?
RYE
Secale cereale L.
It is an extremely good crop able to withstand drought and cold temperatures. It’s mainly grown
in Europe and is source of nutritious bread.
1. From what world region is rye native?
2. Name two products that come from rye.
MILLETS (INCLUDING SHORGUM)
The term millet refers to several edible plants. In this lab you will be exposed to several
species within this category.
1. Review the material provided (Sorghum bicolor L. Setaria spp., Pennisetum spp.,)
understanding why these plants are important crops in dry regions o the world.
2. Study the inflorescence type(s) and grain structure.
3. In which areas of the world are these grains a staple food?
47
PSEUDOCEREALS
Pseudocereals include grains/fruits produced by plants that do not belong to the grass family
(Poaceae), and thus they are not true cereals.
Taxonomically, pseudocereals belong to different families (Amaranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae,
and Polygonaceae) placed within the Caryophyllidae, a rather large class characterized by a
beaked/curved embryo and endosperm, and red and purple pigments known as betalains.
In today’s lab, we will learn the basic morphological characters of these plant families and
the fruits we eat, and discuss their potential as “miracle crops.”
AMARANTH
Amaranthus caudatus L. (Amaranthaceae)
1. List one distinguishing feature in the genus Amaranthus.
2. From what world region is amaranth native?
3. In what regions of the world is amaranth most commonly cultivated?
QUINOA
Chenopodium quinoa Willd., Chenopodium spp. (Chenopodiaceae)
1. List two distinguishing features in the genus Chenopodium.
2. How would you distinguish Chenopodium from Amaranthus just by looking at them? Is
there any morphological trait that would tell them apart?
3. From what world region is amaranth native?
4. Could amaranth and/or quinoa become or act as weedy species? Why?
48
BUCKWHEAT
Fagopyrum esculentum Möench. (Polygonaceae)
1. Determine what is the fruit type in buckwheat and compare it with that of amaranth and
quinoa.
2. List two shared features of these three plant families.
3. Why do the pseudocereals studied in this session have some red/reddish portions in the
stem and leaves?
4. Why are buckwheat, quinoa and amaranth called pseudocereals?
49
BEER MAKING – FERMENTATION
In this lab we will make beer from a commercial kit. In this exercise we will study the process of
fermentation, which involves three important organisms: barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), hops (Humulus
lupulus L.), and the active fermenter yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), which produces alcohol.
Our beer kit includes a can of malted barley to which hops have already been added. Today, we are going
to wash the bottles and start the fermentation process (water + malt syrup + sugar + yeast = wort) for a
week, then transfer wort to a 2ry. container and store in cool place for 6-8 weeks. We’ll sample our beer
at the beginning and end of the process. The general beer making process is indicated in the flux diagram
below. For additional information see references listed below and bibliographic sources cited therein.
Clean and grade barley (H. vulgare) grains
Adjuncts – unmalted grains (corn, rice, wheat)
cleaned & cooked
Steep grains for 2-3 days
Malting
Place grains in germinating rooms (controlled
temp. & humidity) with rotating drums to promote
hydrolytic enzyme production – 5-6 days
Grind
Kilning 48 hr. - gradual Temp. increase (1300-2000C)
Store 20-30 days, then grind and screen
Mashing
Water + adjuncts + corn syrup
Steep 2-6 hr – mash is saccharified by enzymes from malt – enzymatic digestion
Strain mash and rinse in mash filter to obtain liquid wort (simple sugars, some CH, proteins & some AA
Add hops (H. lupulus)
Enhance beers’ taste & aroma
produce sparkling, clear beer
Brewing
Boil wort and hops for 2-4 hr
- sterilization process & inactivate enzymes
- concentrate: evaporation of excess water
- CARAMELIZATION: PRODUCES DARKENING
Strain or centrifuge hop-wort mix and then cool down (370-490C)
FERMENTATION
(cellars 7-12 days)
ADD CULTURED YEAST (SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE) TO WORT
Beer: 8-11 days, bottom fermentation – room temp.
Ale: 5-6 days, top fermentation – low temp.
CO2 is released
SKIM
Lagering (add beech chips & maintain a low temp.)
= sedimentation & maturation
Kraeusening
Carbonation: add CO 2 or young beer (kraeusen)
Packaging
References: 1). Kendel, N. 1996. Laboratory Manual for Economic Plants. Botany 1.206. Dept. of Botany. Univ. of Manitoba.
2). Simpson, B. & M. Ogorzaly. 2001. Economic Botany: Plants in our World. 3rd. Ed. McGraw-Hill.
50
BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS
LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 4
STARCHY ROOTS, STEMS AND FRUITS
Starchy roots and vegetables provide a significant portion of carbohydrates in people’s diets.
They are particularly important in the world’s arid regions, where water availability and soil fertility
is often a limiting factor
Taxonomically, starchy roots and vegetables belong to different plant families. In today’s
lab, we will get familiarized with basic morphological characters of these plant families and the parts
we eat.
STARCHY EDIBLE ROOTS
True roots. They anchor the plant and function as the major system for uptake of water and
nutrients. In many instances, roots are also reproductive structures. Unlike stems, roots do not have
nodes and internodes.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Examine the roots provided and determine the family to which they belong.
Where are these roots native from?
What is the main chemical compound stored in these edible roots.
In what world regions is cassava a staple food?
What are some of the toxic compounds found in storage roots?
Complete the following activity: make a list (including common, scientific, and familiar
names) of ALL edible roots that you find in the produce area of your favourite
supermarket.
51
STARCHY EDIBLE STEMS
Specialized underground stems. One important modification of stems has been for
underground growth. They function as storage organs, and represent plant adaptation to diverse and
even adverse ecological conditions. In addition, these structures play an important role in asexual
reproduction.
Various stem vegetables will be on display in the lab. Examine each and identify the tuber,
rhizome, corm, and bulb from the true roots.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Identify the anatomical parts in the potato and ginger.
How are the potato and ginger similar to each other?
Cut a cross-section of a garlic clove and an onion and identify their parts.
Where are these species grown and how are they used?
What are some of the toxic compounds found in underground stems?
Complete the following activity: make a list (including common, scientific, and familiar
names) of ALL edible underground stems that you find in the produce area of your
favourite supermarket.
Complete the table below with the scientific and familiar names, and the parts used in the examples
given. The use of your lecture notes and your textbook (Simpson and Ogorzali, 2001) is strongly
recommended to find the botanical names.
Common Name
Scientific Name
Family
Banana
Cassava, manihot
Garlic
Ginger
Jicama
Leek
Onion
Potato
Shallot
Sweet potato
Taro
True Yam
52
Part Used
BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS
LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 5
SUGAR PLANTS
Although there is no requirement for sugar in the human diet (as long as other carbohydrates such
as starch are available), the worldwide consumption of sugar is enormous. It is estimated that about
20-30 kg of sugar/person are consumed annually.
The technical name of common sugar is a disaccharide (two sugars chemically bonded) known as
sucrose. Hence sucrose is made of the monosaccharides glucose + fructose. It is a photosynthetic
product and derived from plants in which the usual conversion of sugar to starch does not occur,
leaving a high content of soluble carbohydrate which may be extracted.
The following are the most important sugar plants:
Sugar cane: Saccharum officinarum L. Poaceae/Gramineae
Sugar beet: Beta vulgaris L. Chenopodiaceae
Sugar maple: Acer saccharum Marsh. Aceraceae
Sweet sorghum: Sorghum bicolor L. var. saccharatum - Poaceae
Date palm: Phoenix dactylifera – Palmae
About one-half of the world’s total sugar production is from sugar cane, and sugar beet is an
equally important sugar source. The final product, refined (white) sugar, is identical whether cane or
sugar beets are used. Living and preserved material and products of these species are available for
examination. See below.
SUGAR AND SLAVERY
Sugar cultivation had a profound cultural and economic impact in the New and Old Worlds.
The history of sugar making and sugar plantations includes one of the most dramatic and sad
episodes in human history: slavery and the slave trade. The African slave trade dates back to the 15th
century, with the Spanish and Portuguese who were cultivating sugar cane in the Azores, Madeiras
and Canary Islands. After Columbus brought sugar cane to Central America during his second
voyage in 1493, African slaves were brought to the Americas to work in the New World plantations
and were traded for goods, such as alcohol, tobacco, cotton products, firearms and ammunition. The
major and massive slave trade took place from 1517-1880, a period of time in which an estimated 1015(20) million Africans were uprooted from their native lands and shipped across the Atlantic in
inhumane and extremely cruel conditions. Countless lives were lost during the journey and in the
New World as a result of slavery.
1. Review the display material of the Sugar Trade Triangle and understand the three different
separate legs of a complete voyage.
2. Indicate the origin, destination and objectives of:
a. The Outward Passage
b. The Middle Passage
c. The Return Passage
53
SUGAR CANE – SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM L. (POACEAE/GRAMINEAE)
Sugar cane is a monocot, perennial plant with rhizomatous roots. Most cultivated varieties
are high polyploid hybrids, of which S. officinarum is the main common “ingredient” of the
cultivated hybrids. At maturity, sugar sap, which is accumulated in pith cells, contains around 1525% sucrose. Cane sugar, cane syrup, molasses, wax, ethyl alcohol, and rum are products of sugar
cane. Bagasse is used in the paper industry.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Examine the living material and products of sugar cane.
Why is sugar cane not allowed to set seed?
What are the role of the hard rind and the fibrous center of the cane?
Where is sugar cane native from and how did it make its way to the New World from its native
region?
5. In what world regions is sugar cane generally cultivated? What are the crop requirements?
6. What is a sett?
7. Sample the sugar cane products provided.
Fibrous pith
Node
Internode
Node
54
SWEET SORGHUM - SORGHUM BICOLOR L. VAR. SACCHARATUM (POACEAE/GRAMINEAE)
Sweet sorghum is used mostly in African countries and sugar production from this plant is
limited. As with most millets, this species develops well in tropical climates.
1. Review the live material and compare it with sugar cane.
2. What plant part is the source of sugar in sweet sorghum?
SUGAR BEET- BETA VULGARIS L. (CHENOPODIACEAE)
Sugar beet is an important crop of temperate regions. In Canada, it is cultivated in Alberta,
Manitoba, and Quebec, and in Europe mainly in Germany, England and Austria. Beet is rotated with
wheat, barley or pulse crops to provide organic matter to the soil and prevent the accumulation of
disease. Sugar is extracted from the root of B. vulgaris, which contains approx. 15-17% sucrose.
The German chemist Andreas Margraff, was the first to extract sugar from beet in 1747. The first
sugar beet extraction factory began operation in 1802.
1. Study the living material and products of Beta vulgaris.
2. In what world regions are beets mostly cultivated? What are the crop requirements?
3. Sample the beet products provided.
55
SUGAR MAPLE: ACER SACCHARUM MARSH. (ACERACEAE)
Although sugar maple trees extend from Canada to Virginia in the south and from New England
to as far west as Wisconsin, most of the production of maple syrup takes place in Vermont, New
York, southern Ontario and Quebec. The first people to tap maple trees and boil down the sap to
form maple syrup were the Native American Indian tribes. Foremost among these tribes were the
Algonquins and the Crees of the Northeastern USA.
After the Europeans settled in America, they learned how to harvest and make maple syrup, called
“sinzibuckwud” by the Algonquins, which means “drawn from wood,” from the local Indians.
The pioneers improved on the Indians’ method of drawing sap (cutting a slash in the bark) by
drilling a hole into the tree with an augur and then placing hollow wood taps into the holes to
funnel the sap into buckets. After the buckets were filled with sap they were hauled to open
kettles to be boiled down in order to evaporate off the water to leave maple syrup behind. This
process often took place in a simple wooden structure for protection from the wind, hence the
origin of the term, “sugar shack.”
Making sugar maple syrup is a labor-intensive process and has not changed much over the
centuries, making the mass production of maple syrup difficult. It takes about 40 gallons of maple
sap to make just one gallon of pure maple syrup. (Modified from:
http://akak.essortment.com/maplesyrupind_rwsn.htm)
1. Study the preserved material and products of sugar maple.
2. Name two distinguishing features of Acer saccharum.
Leaves and fruit of sugar maple (A. saccharum)
56
BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS
LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 6
LEGUMES/PULSES
The main objectives of this laboratory are: 1) to get familiarized with the family Fabaceae, 2) to
identify the major legume crops used by humans, and 3) to understand the root nodules (LegumeRhizobium association) and their function.
Legumes (Family Fabaceae/Leguminosae) are indispensable components of the world’s food
supply because of their high protein content, carbohydrates and fat. In fact, some legumes, such as
soybean and peanut, are grown on a large scale for their oil content.
Legumes have been the basis of ancient and modern civilizations. The grain-legume
combination not only taste good, but makes a nutritious diet, due to the presence of high quality
protein. Various grain-legume combinations, e.g., barley/lentils, corn/beans, rice/soybeans, have
been part of the support system in human civilizations. Legumes contain eight essential amino acids,
i.e., amino acids that humans are unable to manufacture and must be obtained from plant or animal
products, which are protein building blocks. Legumes are also among the most important forage
crops, and because of their association with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, serve as valuable soil enrichers.
The following examples represent some of the mainr legumes used by humans for food. The
asterisk indicates those used for fodder, erosion control or soil improvement:
Common Name
Soybean
Peanut
Common/Garden bean
Lima bean
Scarlet runner bean
Mung bean
Lentil
Pea
Broad bean
Chick pea
Carob (St. John’s bread)
Mesquite*
Alfalfa*
Sweet Clover*
Tamarind
Vetches*
Scientific Name
Glycine max (L.) Merr.
Arachis hypogea L.
Phaseolus vulgaris L.
Phaseolus lunatus L.
Phaseolus coccineus L.
Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek
Lens culinaris Medik.
Pisum sativum L.
Vicia faba L.
Cicer arietinum L.
Ceratonia siliqua L.
Prosopis spp.
Medicago sativa L.
Melilotus alba Desr.
Tamarindus indica L.
Vicia spp.
Area of Origin
Southeast Asia
South America
New World
Peru, Brazil
Tropical America
Tropical America
Southwest Asia
Southern Europe
Algeria or Southwest Asia
Near East
Syria
North America
Southwest Asia
Western Asia
Tropical Africa
Various
Living plants, herbarium specimens and products of a number of these legumes are available
for observation and sampling.
57
TAXONOMY AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEGUMINOSAE/FABACEAE
The Leguminosae is the third largest plant family after the Orchidaceae and Asteraceae. It
includes approx. 16,000 species distributed worldwide. Familiarize yourself with the members of
this family and identify their vegetative and reproductive features. Also, observe roots structures if
live or herbarium material is available.
Source: www.wildflowers-and-weeds.com/.../ Fabaceae.htm
1. Examine the live and herbarium material and determine the major distinguishing features
characterizing the members of this family.
2. Name the subfamilies into which the legume family is divided.
3. Of these subfamilies, what is the most economically important?
4. Be sure that you understand the structure of the legume pod or fruit, technically known as
legume. Examine the fresh bean by carefully opening up the pod and examining the
distribution of seeds within it. Name ALL the parts of the pod.
5. From what part of the flower are these structures derived?
6. Examine the imbibed (soaked) seed under the microscope, and determine the different parts
of the seed.
7. Investigate the nutritional value of legumes and the estimated protein:carbohydrate:fat ratio.
8. Why is soybean often referred to as “poor man’s meat”?
9. If available, dissect a root nodule and observe it under the microscope.
10. What is their role and function in the developing legume plant?
11. Why are root nodules so important to humans?
12. One of the goals of genetic engineering is to develop crops that are able to provide their own
supply of nitrogen through symbiosis with Rhizobium, as do legumes. What benefits to
58
agriculture and the environment would be realized if cereals and other staples become
nitrogen-fixing crops?
13. What is so particular about the pollination and fruit development in the peanut?
14. Soybeans and soy products are becoming increasingly important components of the human
diet. Investigate the health benefits of using soy milk and soy-based cheeses to replace
traditional dairy products. Are there any disadvantages to this practice?
Source: Molecular Biology of Root Nodule Development (mendel.biol.mu.edu/_faculty/Noel.html)
59
BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS
LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 7
FRUITS AND NUTS FROM TEMPERATE AND TROPICAL PLANTS
The main objectives of this laboratory are: 1) to review and understand the classification of fruits,
2) to recognize the major morphological features and fruit types in the Rosaceae and Rutaceae, 3)
survey the edible fruits and plant parts of other plant families, such as the Solanaceae and
Brassicaceae and 4) to recognize the different types of dry fruits classified within the nut category.
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
In a sense, any plant is a vegetable, but in common usage the term is applied to a variety of
fleshy plant parts which are eaten cooked or raw, but do not constitute staple foods in our diet. The
term is ambiguous because many fruits are used as vegetables. Our common vegetables constitute a
wide variety of plant parts and it is often interesting (and fun!) to try to determine what we are
actually eating.
The list provided below includes important fruits and vegetables, some of which are common in
our markets, while others are less familiar. Local availability is unpredictable, and often seasonal,
but we will try to have as many as possible in the laboratory for study. If anything else of an unusual
nature is found, it will also be on display. Living plants, herbarium specimens and products of a
number of fruits and vegetables are available for study and sampling. In our lab, we have divided
these fruits and vegetables into temperate (crops/plants able to withstand freezing temperatures
during their life cycle) and tropical (crops/plants unable to tolerate temperatures below the freezing
point) categories.
In order to facilitate the learning process, each student should review the fruit classification
(in the botanical sense) using the descriptions/keys and material provided.
60
Apples and their relatives (Family Rosaceae) – Temperate zone representative.
Apples are the most important temperate fruit tree crop in the world. Apples and their relatives
(cherries, peaches, plums, strawberries, etc.) belong to the Rose family. These fruits differ from one
another in their structures, and are consequently subdivided into different taxonomic subfamilies.
Propagation methods vary, but grafting is preferred.
Below are some examples provided for study. In each case:
1. Determine what part of the plant is eaten.
2. Determine the fruit types in the family.
3. Using your textbook, determine the geographical origin of the specimens on display
including the ones listed below.
Common Name
Apple
Apricot
Cherry
Pear
Peach
Plum
Scientific Name
Malus pumila
Prunus armeniana
Prunus cerasus, P. avium
Pyrus communis
Prunus persica
P. domestica, Prunus spp.
Native Region
Oranges and their relatives (Family Rutaceae) –Tropical zone representative
The citrus family (Rutaceae) includes many tropical edible fruits, such as limes, lemons,
oranges, grapefruit, etc., which are classified as hesperidia (Sing. hesperidium). This is an Old World
family and its arrival to the New World is associated with the Spanish explorers. The domestication
of the genus Citrus has involved increasing fruit size, flavour, flesh and rind colour, among other
characteristics.
Below are some examples provided for study. Of these, the most ancestral species is the
pummelo. Review the material and answer the following questions.
1. Make a list of the main distinctive characters of the Rutaceae.
2. Where is the aroma coming from in the hesperidia?
3. Determine the fruit type in the Rutaceae and the main parts of this fruit.
4. What is a navel orange? In what world region does it come from and how did it originate?
5. What are the parental species of the grapefruit?
6. Using your textbook, determine the geographical origin of the specimens on display
including the ones listed below.
Common Name
Scientific Name
Native Region
Orange
Citrus sinensis
Grapefruit
C. paradisi
Lemon
C. limon
Lime
C. aurantifolia
Pummelo
C. maxima
Tangerine
C. reticulata
Kumquat
Fortunella spp.
In addition to these important plant families, there are several fruits which deserve
consideration, either because of their worldwide significance or because they appear frequently in
our markets.
61
Fruit Vegetables from the Family Solanaceae and Family Cucurbitaceae
Solanaceae
Tomato
Pepper
Egg plant
Cucurbitaceae
Cucumber
Muskmelon
Pumpkin
Squash
Lycopersicum esculentum
Capsicum annuum
Solanum melongena
Cucumis sativus
C. melo
Cucurbita pepo
Cucurbita spp.
Important Fruits from other Plant Families
Common Name
Avocado
Date
Fig
Grape
Mango
Olive
Pineapple
Papaya
Scientific Name
Persea americana
Phoenix dactylifera
Ficus carica
Vitis vinifera, Vitis spp.
Mangifera indica
Olea europea
Ananas comosus
Carica papaya
Family
Lauraceae
Arecaceae/Palmae
Moraceae
Vitaceae
Anacardiaceae
Oleaceae
Bromeliaceae
Caricaceae
NUTS
Nuts constitute a well-recognized category of food, usually considered by us to be a
confection, but they are an important nutritional source in some regions of the world. Some of these
fit the botanical definition discussed in lecture, but many do not. For example, peanuts are legumes,
and because of their significance as a staple food, have not been included in this list. It is doubtful if
the coconut should be listed, but because of its importance in some cultures we must deal with it
somewhere. For each specimen provided, determine whether it is a true nut and the area of origin.
Common Name
Pecan
Walnut
Almond
Brazil nut
Chesnut
Hazelnut
Cashew
Pistachio
Pine nut
Scientific Name
Carya illinoiensis
Juglans regia
Prunus amygdalus
Bertholletia excelsa
Castanea sativa
Corylus avellana
Anacardium occidentale
Pistacia vera
Pinus spp.
Family
Juglandaceae
Juglandaceae
Rosaceae
Lecythidaceae
Fagaceae
Betulaceae
Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Pinaceae
62
Native Region
COCOS NUCIFERA L. (COCONUT) – ARECACEAE/PALMAE
The coconut grows in the tropical regions of the world and is one of the most important
economic plants. Technically the fruit is a drupe, but it may be considered a nut (a one-seeded, dry,
indehiscent fruit with a hard shell or fruit wall). The pericarp (fruit wall) of the coconut consists of
three layers: an outer skin or exocarp, a fibrous middle layer or mesocarp, and a hard bony inner
layer or endocarp. The middle layer is the source of a commercial fibre called coir. Inside the
pericarp, there is a single seed. The edible portion (milk and meat) is the endosperm. Examine the
material and dissect the specimen provided if available.
Coconut Anatomy: In the picture below, write the names of the structures indicated by the arrows.
Foto: H. Cota, 2002
THOUGHT QUESTIONS
Answering or discussing with your fellow students and/or instructors the questions below will be
important in learning the objectives of this lab. It also provides means to review potential exam
material.
1. What is the role of fruits and vegetables in our diet?
2. What type of nutrition do fruits and vegetables provide to humans?
3. Compare fruits and vegetables relative to nuts in terms of chemical and nutritional
composition.
4. Why are some fruits called vegetables and some non-nut fruits called nuts?
5. Why is the coconut considered one of the most important economic plants?
6. Give the botanical meaning of the following: berry, legume, nut, grain.
7. What is a seed? What is a fruit? What is a vegetable? What is a fruit vegetable?
8.
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BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS
LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 8
LEAF, STEM AND ROOT VEGETABLES
In today’s lab session we will learn more about the different plants from which we use
leaves, stems, roots and other parts as vegetables.
The list below complements the species for which their parts, other than fruits, that are used as food
source either raw or cooked. Some of the species listed below have been discussed in previous
lectures/labs, while others represent new class material and we hope to have fresh material for study.
Your assignment today consists of:
1. A review of the structures that are modified/selected and that we use as food as you
survey the material provided
2. Determining the scientific name of each of the species in the list below using your
textbook or those provided by your instructors
Common Name
Scientific Name
Cabbage, Kale, Collards, Broccoli
Cauliflower, Bruseel Sprouts, Kohlrabi
Beets, chard
Spinach
Rhubarb
Carrot
Celery
Parsnip
Jicama
Lettuce
Chicory or Withloof
Endive or Escarole
Artichoke
Ginger
Asparagus
Onion
Shallot
Garlic
Leek
64
Family
Plant Part
BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS
LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 9
SPICES AND HERBS
Herbs and spices are derived from various plant families, many of which are of tropical origin.
Because they are readily available, we take herbs and spices for granted, and often forget that they
played a major role in human history (textbook pp. 196-199). The value placed upon them was once
high enough to promote exploration and set into motion a struggle for power between European
nations.
There is no clear-cut distinction between herbs and spices, but generally we refer to herbs as
aromatic leaves or herbaceous parts from plants of temperate origin. Spices are aromatic fruits,
flowers, bark or other plant parts of tropical origin. Herbs and spices are mainly associated with
cooking, but they are widely used in herbal medicine, as natural dyes, and in the perfume and
cosmetic industries.
Spices and herbs are food additives whose flavour and aroma add to the pleasure derived from
food, but not to its nutritional value. In most cases the aromatic quality of spices depends upon their
content of essential oils. Chemically, essential oils are terpenes, which are the product of secondary
metabolism in plants, i.e., they are not needed in the plant’s basic metabolism. They assist in
pollination, dispersal, defense, and some have allelopathic effects.
The learning objectives of this laboratory include:
1) To learn distinguishing characters of the families Labiatae/Lamiaceae and
Apiaceae/Umbelliferae,
2) To learn the different types of herbs and spices, and the plant parts from which they are
derived,
3) To test the antibacterial properties of some spices, and
4) To extract essential oils from two plant species.
Herbs & Spices in the Mint Family (Lamiaceae/Labiatae)
The Lamiaceae provides numerous herbs used in culinary purposes. A variety of spices are
available for examination and tasting, if you wish. Below are some examples provided for study.
Prepare a microscope slide (water mount) of a thin section of mint or basil leaf. Observe under
medium power with a compound microscope to locate the oil-bearing trichomes.
Answer the following questions:
1. List three major distinguishing features of the mint family.
2. What is the general flower shape?
3. Determine the fruit type in the family.
4. Using your textbook, determine the plant part(s) used and the geographical origin of the
specimens on display including the ones listed in the following page.
65
Common Name
Basil
Chevril
Lavender
Marjoram
Peppermint
Rosemary
Thyme (common)
Thyme (lemon)
Scientific Name
Native Region
Ocimum basilicum
Anthriscus cerefolium
Lavandula angustifolia, L. officinalis
Origanum majorana
Mentha piperita
Rosemarinus officinalis
Thymus vulgaris
T. citriodirus
Plant Part
Herbs & Spices in the Celery Family (Apiaceae/Umbelliferae)
The Apiaceae produces numerous spices, which are appreciated their fruits contain aromatic oils.
Below are some examples provided for study. Review the material and answer the following
questions:
3. Make a list of the main distinctive characters of the Apiaceae.
4. What is the inflorescence type in this family?
5. Determine the fruit type in the family and the main parts of this fruit.
6. Using your textbook, determine the geographical origin of the specimens on display
including the ones listed below.
Common Name
Anise
Caraway
Celery seed
Coriander
Cumin
Dill
Parsley
Scientific Name
Pimpinella anisum
Carum carvi
Apium graveolens
Coriandrum sativum
Cuminum cyminum
Anethum graveolens
Petroselinum crispum
66
Native Region
Other Important Spices and Herbs and their Plant Families
For each species listed below determine the plant part used and the native region. Use your
textbook to complete this exercise.
Common Name
Allspice
Cloves
Eucalyptus
Bay
Cassia
Cinnamon
Mace
Nutmeg
Black pepper
Saffron
Scientific Name
Pimenta dioica
Syzygium aromaticum
Eucalyptus spp.
Laurus nobilis
Cinnamomum cassia
Cinnamomum zeylanicum
Myristica fragrans
Myristica fragrans
Piper nigrum
Crocus sativus
Family
Part Used
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Myristicaceae
Myristicaceae
Piperaceae
Iridaceae
Native Region
Common Name
Vanilla
Caper
Cardamon
Ginger
Turmeric
Chili
Cayene pepper
Paprika
Scientific Name
Vanilla fragrans, V. planifolia
Capparis spinosa
Elletaria cardamomum
Zingiber officinale
Curcuma domestica
Capsicum annuum
Capsicum frutescens
Capsicum annum
Family
Part Used
Orchidaceae
Capparaceae
Zingiberaceae
Zingiberaceae
Zingiberaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Native Region
67
EXERCISE: Testing the Antibacterial/Antifungal Properties of Spices
Today we will be testing the antibacterial/antifungal properties of a variety of spices. You will be
splitting up into four groups of seven to eight. Each group will be given seven petri dishes
containing agar medium (a bacterial/fungal growth medium) that have already been prepared by your
TA. You will use these plates to test the antibacterial/fungal properties of various spices.
The plate contains a rich, highly nutritious medium that favours bacterial/fungal growth. It consists
of the following ingredients:
•
•
•
•
•
2.5 g Tryptone
1.25 g Yeast extract
1.25 g NaCl
4.5 g Agar
250 mL Distilled water
Instructions:
1. Each group will be given a specific perishable food item, which you will add to your petri dishes.
2. One plate is to be used as a control only, which means that you will add only food (i.e., no
spices) to see the extent of decay attributed to bacterial/fungal growth.
3. Each of the other plates will have a spice (see below).
4. Grind the spice(s) finely with the aid of the mortar and pestle and spread it over the food.
5. Label and set up your plates as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Plate #1: Control plate (food only)
Plate #2: Cinnamon plate (food + freshly ground cinnamon)
Plate #3: Garlic plate (food + freshly ground garlic)
Plate #4: Clove plate (food + freshly ground cloves)
Plate #5: Black pepper plate (food + freshly ground black pepper)
Plate #6: Mint plate (food + freshly ground mint leaves)
Plate #7: Chili pepper plate (food + freshly ground HOT chili peppers)
Your TAs will collect the plates at the end of this session. In next week’s lab, we will check the
results of our experiment. Stay tuned…
68
Reporting your results:
1. Use the microscope to observe the colonies in the different plates.
2. Report your results in the following table and indicate with a plus (+) or minus (-) symbol
whether bacterial and/or fungal growth is present or absent.
3. Provide individual team results in the blackboard as indicated.
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4
Group 5
Group 6
Plate # 1
(Control)
Plate # 2
Plate # 3
Plate # 4
Plate # 5
Plate # 6
Plate # 7
Answer the following questions:
1. How do you explain your results?
2. Why do some spices prevent bacterial/fungal growth?
3. Describe the structure/form of the bacterial/fungal colonies observed. Can you tell them apart?
4. Which of the spices used in this experiment would you recommend to preserve perishables?
69
EXTRACTING ESSENTIAL OILS FROM LEAVES (OPTIONAL)
Essential oils (EO) are stored in glandular structures on the epidermal surface or in subepidermal cavities of the leaves. In many cases the active ingredient (EO) in plant material is
extracted using solvent extraction or distillation. Such extracts are used as flavourings in foods and
other preparations.
Extraction Methods of Essential Oils & Resins
There are several extraction methods for making resins and extracts from plants, and each
will be discussed briefly below. Some plants contain alkaloids as part of their chemical composition,
and these different alkaloids will extract into different solvents. For example, Blue Lotus contains
alkaloids that will only extract into alcohol, whereas Amanita muscaria contains an alkaloid that will
extract into water, but will be destroyed in alcohol. When doing resin extractions from plants, it is
important to know what chemical compounds will extract into what solvents. The Merck Index is the
perfect book for this; it lists every known chemical compound, and can be a great help for plant
alchemists and modern-day shamans. Strangely enough, indigenous tribes never needed such
references; their knowledge of plants and the effective use of them is now being scientifically
documented.
Steam Distillation: Used mainly to extract essential oils from plants. The plant material is placed
into a still (very similar to a pressure cooker) where pressurized steam passes through the plant
material. The heat from the steam causes globules of oil in the plant to burst and the oil then
evaporates. The essential oil vapor and the steam then pass out the top of the still into a water-cooled
pipe where the vapors are condensed back to liquids. At this point, the essential oil separates from the
water and floats to the top. Now, this doesn't sound like a particularly complicated process but did
you know that it takes more than 8 million Jasmine flowers to produce just 2 pounds of jasmine oil?
No wonder pure essential oils are expensive!
Maceration: Maceration actually creates more of an "infused oil" rather than an "essential oil" and is
most often used for creating extracts and resins. The plant matter is soaked in vegetable oil, water, or
another solvent. If it's soaked in vegetable oil, and then heated and strained, it can be used for
massage. Soaked in water or another solvent such as alcohol will create a much thicker extract or
resin.
Cold Pressing: Cold pressing is used to extract the essential oils from citrus rinds such as orange,
lemon, grapefruit and bergamot. The rinds are separated from the fruit, are ground or chopped and
are then pressed. The result is a watery mixture of essential oil and liquid, which will separate given
time.
Source: Plant resins and natural plant extracts (http://www.iamshaman.com/resins/howmade.htm).
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Assignment:
In this part you are required to follow the process outlined below for extraction of essential oils from
the plant assigned by your instructors.
A simple distillation is easily accomplished (see illustration below). Whole leaves are
loosely packed in the bottom of a pot, cover with a wire rack or other support, and place a small bowl
in the middle of the rack. Add enough water to cover the leaves, cover the pot with a lid, and place
on a heat source. As the water is brought to a boil, place ice on the inverted lid. The EO will
vapourize and drip from the low point of the lid into the bowl. Some moisture also condenses, but
the lighter oil will float to the top. Try to determine the smell/aroma of the oils extracted. Monitor
this experiment and document your observations/results.
Source: Laboratory Manual. Botany 1.206 – Economic Plants. Dept. of Botany, Univ. of Manitoba.
Six or seven different groups will conduct extraction of essential oils using a different plant or a
combination of plants.
Team 1: Rosemary
Team 2: Lemmon
Team 3: Eucalyptus
Team 4: Rose petals
Team 5: Mint leaves
Team 6: Lavender leaves
Collect your extract in a labeled vial. Store for a couple of days (we’ll do it for a week – next lab)
and the separate the oil phase and transfer it to a clean vial. Report your results to the rest of the
class.
It is important to note that oils extracted with this method have a relatively short shelf life. Thus,
make or purchase only what you will be using within the next six months in water or another solvent
such as alcohol, which will create a much thicker extract or resin.
Note: You may adapt this method of extraction for any plant with high content of aromatic oils.
71
Results:
THOUGHT QUESTIONS
Answering or discussing with your fellow students and/or instructors the questions below will be
important in learning the objectives of this lab. It also provides means to review potential exam
material.
1. Speculate how primitive cultures would learn about the culinary and medicinal
properties of plants.
2. Of all the spices & herbs listed above, indicate which of those played a major role in
the spice trade.
3. How would you investigate whether a plant extract can be used as antiseptic?
4. Understand the history and different stages of the spice trade.
72
BIOL. 324.3 – PLANTS AND HUMAN AFFAIRS
LABORATORY TUTORIAL NO. 10
PLANT FIBERS AND PAPER MAKING
The learning objectives of this laboratory include: 1) familiarization with major plant
species used as sources of fibers, 2) understanding the basic classification of plant fibers and the
plant parts from which they are derived, and 3) familiarization with major timber and pulp species in
Saskatchewan and Canada.
Plant Fibers
Plant and animal fibers have provided humans with shelter, cooking items and clothing since
ancient times. Plant fibers differ from animal fibers primarily because of their chemical composition
(cellulose instead of proteins), which has a differential reaction to heat and less affinity to dyes. In
addition, plant fibers have a higher affinity for water and are thus more absorbent.
In spite of the widespread substitution of synthetic fibers in industrialized countries, natural
fibers remain an economically important commodity. A vast number of plant species are or have
been used as fiber sources, particularly when primitive societies are included in this survey. Below
is a list of major species that are sources of natural fibers. Using your textbook determine the
family name for each.
Common Name
Coir
Cotton
Kapok
Flax
Hemp
Jute
Ramie
Manila hemp
Pineapple
Henequén
Sisal
Scientific Name
Cocos nucifera
Gossypium hirsutum
Ceiba pentandra
Linum usitassisimum
Cannabis sativa
Corchorus spp.
Boehmeria nivea
Musa textilis
Ananas comosus
Agave furcroydes
Agave sisalana
Family
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Plant Part
Surface
Surface
Surface
Bast
Bast
Bast
Bast
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Use
Filling,cordage
Clothing
Filling
Clothing/linen
Clothing,canvas
Burlap
Clothing
Cordage
Clothing
Cordage, matting
Cordage, matting
Major Timber Plant Species in Saskatchewan and Canada
Numerous woody species are used as sources of timber and pulp for paper. Among these, the
conifers (Pinaceae), and members of the Salicaceae (willow family) and Betulaceae (birch family)
are used commercially in Saskatchewan and all over the world.
The cortex of the cut trees is stripped off in the mills and sawn in boards of different sizes,
inspected, graded and shipped to companies. Wood chips, on the other hand, are collected for pulp
and paper manufacturing. Sometimes, the entire tree (log) is chipped for pulp or paper. The wood
chips are then steamed and cooked to separate the wood fibers. Chemical treatment is used to bleach
the fibers and the bleached pulp (which contains softwood and hardwood) is sold to domestic and
international paper-producing companies.
In Saskatchewan and Canada the most important and highly appreciated tree species in the forest
industry, in particular in paper mills, are listed below.
Common Name
Trembling Aspen
Birch
White birch
Fir
Balsam fir
Black spruce
White spruce
Engelmann pine*
Jack pine
Tamarack
* Outside Saskatchewan
Scientific Name
Populus tremuloides
Betula papyrifera
B. pendula
Abies spp.
A. balsamifera
Picea mariana
P. glauca
Pinus engelmannii
P. banksiana
Larix laricina
Family
Salicaceae
Betulaceae
Betulaceae
Pinaceae
Pinaceae
Pinaceae
Pinaceae
Pinaceae
Pinaceae
Pinaceae
Wood Type
Hardwood
Hardwood
Hardwood
Softwood
Softwood
Softwood
Softwood
Softwood
Softwood
Softwood
Making Paper by Hand
(From: Botany 1.206-Economic Plants – Laboratory Manual.1996. Department of Botany, University
of Manitoba).
The following equipment will be required to make paper: blender, iron, plastic wash basin or
sink area, two towels, sponges, fiber supply (paper scraps, vegetable matter), and paper mold. A
drying oven will also be used.
1. Soak some paper scraps (preferably without ink) in hot water for half an hour. Your TA has
already done this and has the material ready for you to move into the next steps. In addition
to paper scraps, we have collected from our greenhouse banana (Musa spp.) leaves, papyrus
(Cyperus papyrus) stems and Monstera deliciosa leaves to add more of the natural feeling to
our paper. In addition, your TA has kindly pressed various plant parts to decorate your
paper, such as variegated and non-varigated leaves with unusual shapes, colourful flowers,
petals, etc. Use them to add a final, personalized touch to your paper.
2. Add a small handful of wet paper to the blender, and half fill with warm water. Blend at
moderate speed. Then add some vegetable matter, and blend again completely.
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3. Repeat until there is sufficient pulp, adding warm water as necessary (the final mix should be
about 1 part pulp to 100 parts water).
4. Dip paper mold into the basin of pulp, and scoop some up. Gently shake to wet an even layer
of fibers on the screen. At this point you may personalize your paper sheet adding some
colourful plant parts.
5. Once the water has drained through, carefully lift off the screen. Gently turn the mold over
and lay it face down on a cloth. Soak up the excess of water from the back of the screen with
a sponge, then carefully lift the mold from the sheet.
6. Place another cloth over the sheet of paper. With a hot iron, press the sheet between the two
cloths to dry the fibers. Pull gently on either side of the cloth to stretch it (this helps loosen
the paper). Then gently peel the paper off.
Note: In step # 5 we will drain/dry the excess water from the screen and the screen with the pulp
will then be taken to a drying oven at 60-700C for about 30-40 min.
THOUGHT QUESTIONS
1. What are bast, leaf, and surface fibers? Name the common and scientific names of two of
each.
2. Describe the steps involved in fiber extraction.
75
LIST OF SOME ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT PLANTS
This plant list includes wild edible, poisonous, and survival plants. Next time you’re out there in the field
check them out! You never know when you will need to know what they are and what they are used for.
Common name
Allspice
Almond
Amaranth
Annatto/achiote
Arrowhead
Artichoke
Avocado
Banana
Barley
Blackberry
Black pepper
Blueberry
Broad bean
Broccoli
Buckwheat
Candelilla
Capers
Cassava, Tapioca
Cattail
Cherry
Chocolate
Chokecherry
Chicory
Coconut
Coffee
Common bean
Common chickweed
Corn
Crab apple
Cranberry
Dandelion
Douglas fir
Durian
Evening primrose
Ferns
Fig
Ginger
Gooseberry
Grapes
Grasses
Highbush cranberry
Huckleberry
Indian paintbrush
Scientific name
Pimenta dioidca
Prunus dulcis
Amaranthus
Bixa orellana
Sagittaria latifolia
Cynara scolymus
Persea americana
Musa spp.
Hordeum vulgare
Rubus
Pepper nigrum
Vaccinium
Vicia faba
Brassica oleracea
Fagopyron esculentum
Euphorbia antisyphyllitica
Capparis spinosa
Manihot esculentum
Typha
Prunus cerasus
Theobroma cacao
Prunus virginiana
Chicorium intybus
Cocosu nucifera
Coffea arabica,
C. canphora, C. liberica
Phaseolus vulgaris
Stellaria media
Zea mays
Pyrus
Vaccinium spp.
Taraxacum officinale
Pseudotsuga menziesii
Durio zibethinus
Oenothera hookeri & spp.
Most species
Ficus carica
Asarum
Ribes
Vitis vinifera
Many species
Viburnum trilobum
Vaccinium
Castilleja
Use
Fruit
Seed, oil, extracts
Edible leaves; flour is obtained from seeds
Seeds – food/fabric colouring/dye
Tubers are edible
Edible bracts/inflorescence
Edible mesocarp
Fruit - Edible placenta
Fruit (caryopsis)
Edible fruits
Fruit
Edible fruits
Seed
Flower buds/inflorescence
Fruit
Wax
Flower buds
Edible root
Young leaves are edible
Fruit
Seeds
Edible fruits
Coffee substitute/adulterant
Edible endosperm (liquid & hard)
Coffee beans (seeds)
Seed
Edible plants (cooked)
Edible kernels; leaves for forage
Edible fruit
Edible fruit
Edible leaves, young flowers used to make wine
Fresh leaves for tea
Edible fruit (aril)
Edible young roots cooked
Young fiddleheads may be cooked
Edible fruit
Rhizomes used as ginger substitute
Edible fruits
Fruit
Dry roots, leaves and grains used to make flour
Edible fruits
Edible fruits
Edible flowers
76
Common name
Indian pipe
Jasmine
Jicama
Jojoba/Jojoba oil
Juniper
Labrador tea
Lamb’s quarters
Mango
Manzanita
Maple
Mint
Mormom tea
Mulberrry
Mustard
Nutgrass
Oak
Olive
Onion
Opium poppy
Orange (seewt)
Oregano
Peanut
Pear
Pepper (sweet/red)
Pine
Pineapple
Plantain
Pomegranate
Potato
Prickly pear
Pummelo
Purslane, Portulaca
Quince
Quinoa
Radish
Rambutan
Raspberry
Rose
Rosemary
Rice
Rubber tree
Rutabaga
Rye
Safflower
Saffron
Sage
Sapote
Sesame
Scientific name
Monotropa
Jasminum grandiflorum
Pachyrrhus erosus
Simmondsia chinensis
Juniperus
Rododendron/Ledum
Chenopodium album
Mangifera indica
Arctostaphylos
Acer
Mentha spp.
Ephedra
Morus
Brassica spp.
Cyperus spp.
Quercus
Olea europea
Allium spp.
Papaver somniferum
Citrus sinensis
Origanum vulgare
Arachis hypogea
Pyrus communis
Capsicum annuum
Pinus spp.
Ananas comosus
Plantago spp.
Punica granatum
Solanum tuberosum
Opuntia spp.
Citrus grandis
Potulaca oleracea
Cydonia oblonga
Chenopodium chinoa
Raphanus sativus
Nephelium lappaceae
Rubus
Rosa
Rosemarinus officinalis
Oryza sativa
Hevea brasiliensis
Brassica napus
Secale cereale
Carthamus tinctorius
Crocus sativus
Salvia officinalis
Pouteria sapota
Sesamum indicum
Use
Edible plant
Leaves
Edible root
Seeds
Edible dry berries
Tea from young leaves
Edible young leaves and stems
Edible
Edible fruits
Rich in sugars; sugar maples
Leaves useful to make tea
Useful to make tea
Edible fruits
Edible leaves
Edible tubers
Edible fruits; used to make flour
Fruit, oil
Edible bulbs
Latex
Fruit
Leaves
Edible cotyledons
Fruit (pomme)
Fruit
Tea from young leaves
Edible mature inflorescence
Edible young leaves
Seeds and mesocarp/aril
Tuber (stem)
Edible fruits and stems. Peel them before eating!
Edible
Edible plant
Fruit - pomme
Fruit
Fleshy root
Fruit – mesocarp/aril
Edible fruits
Edible fruits
Fresh leaves for cooking, stimulant, astringent
Fruit (caryopsis)
Sap
Fleshy root
Fruit (caryopsis)
Fruit/flower – dye, oil
Stigmas - dye
Leaves
Fruit
Seed
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Common name
Shallot
Shepherd’s purse
Solomon’s seal
Sorghum
Soybean
Spatterdock
Spearmint
Spinach
Spring beauty
Squash
Star fruit
Strawberry
Sugar
Sunflower
Sweet flag
Sweet potato
Tamarind
Tangerine
Tapioca, Cassava
Taro
Tea plant
Tef
Tobacco
Tomato
Turmeric
Turnip
Vanilla
Walnut
Watermelon
Wheat
Wild rice
Yam
Scientific name
Allium cepa
Capsella bursa-pastoris
Polygonatum sp.
Sorghum bicolor
Glycine max
Nuphar polysepalum
Mentha spicata
Spinacia oleracea
Claytonia spp.
Cucurbita sp.
Averrhoa carambola
Fragaria spp.
Saccharum officinarum
Helianthus annuus
Acorus calamus
Ipomoea batatas
Tamarindus indica
Citrus reticulata
Manihot esculentum
Colocasia esculenta
Camellia sinensis
Eragrostis tef
Nicotiana tabacum
Solanum esculentum
Curcuma domestica
Brassica campestris
Vanilla fragrans
Juglans spp.
Citrullus lanatus
Tritricum spp.
Zizania palustris
Dioscorea spp.
Use
Bulb – storage leaves
Edible leaves; seeds for flour
Roots used to make flour
Fruit (caryopsis)
Seed
Edible roasted seeds
leaves
Leaves
Edible bulbs
Fruit (pepo)
Fruit
Edible fruits
Juice
Edible seeds
Edible roots and young shoots
Root
Fruit/mesocarp
Fruit
Root
Edible stem/tuber
Leaves for tea, infusions, appetizer, digestive
Fruit (cryopsis)
Leaves
Edible fruit
Root
Root
Fruits and seeds
Edible cotyledon
Fruit (pepo)
Fruit (caryopsis)
Fruit (caryopsis)
Rot
78
LIST OF MEDICINAL PLANTS
Common name
Scientific name
Aloe vera, Aloe spp.
Uses
Juice from leaves heals burns, skin problems
Anemone
Balsam poplar
Camomille
Canada’s Snake Root
Anemone canadensis
Populus spp.
Root used as antiseptic in wounds
Buds used to relieve congestion & cough
Asarum canadense
Castor bean
Cinchona
Cranberry
Ricinus communis
Cinchona officinalis
Vaccinium spp.
Cuckoo pint
Damiana
Echinacea
Eucalyptus
Evening primrose
Ginkgo
Gingseng
Mandrake
Mints
Onion, leeks, garlic
Tuber of Yanhusuo
Valerian root
Willow
Arum maculatum
Turnera diffusa
Echinacea purpurea
Eucalyptus sp.
Oenothera biennis
Ginkgo biloba
Panax gingseng
Mandragora officinarum
Mentha spp.
Allium spp.
Coydalis yanhusuo
Valeriana officinalis
Salix sp.
Tuber and rhizomes for abdominal pain,
cough, tooth ache, cold.
Oil used as purgative, skin inflamations
Malaria treatment
Diarrhea, circulatory problems, dietary
supplement
Expectorant, excellent for paralysis
Tonic, stimulant, antidepressant.
Cold, respiratory tract infections
Antiseptic oil from leaves
Arthritis, dietary supplement
Memory loss, depression
Loss of energy, stress
Hallucinogen, poisonous
Medicinal, spice/cooking
Eyesight, cold, acne, arthritis, hypertension
Head ache, abdominal pain, menstrual cramps
Sleep disorders
Bark contains salicylic acid; aspirin
Aloe
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A SHORT LIST OF POISONOUS PLANTS. Some of them can be DEADLY!!!
Note: the list includes just a small representation. Often, the effects and reactions vary from people to
people, but cases of toxicity have been reported for the species below.
Common name
Angel’s trumpet
Baneberry
Bloodroot
Buckeye
Castor bean
Dieffenbachia
Dutchman’s breech
English ivy
Jimson weed
Mandrake
Marihuana
Mescal bean
Opium poppy
Philodendron
Poinsettia
Poison ivy
Poison oak
Poison sumac
Poke
Water hemlock
Yew
Scientific name
Datura suavolens
Actea rubra
Sanguinaria canadensis
Aesculus spp.
Ricinus communis
Dieffenbachia spp.
Dicentra cucullaria
Hedera helix
Datura spp.
Mandragora officinarum
Cannabis sativa
Sophora secundiflora
Papaver somniferum
Philodendron spp.
Euphorbia pulcherrima
Toxicodendron radicans
Toxicodendron diversilobum
Toxicodendron vernix
Phytolacca americana
Cicuta spp.
Taxus spp.
And many, many other species…
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Plant Part
All parts
Berries
All parts
All parts
Seeds
All parts
All parts
Berries and leaves
All parts, especially seeds
Hallucinogen, poisonous
All parts
Seeds
Unripe fruits
Leaves, stems.
Milky latex
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Roots and mature stem
Roots
All parts, except fruit pulp