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CI 512: Learning Theory Summaries 001.T/Th.AM Behaviorists 1. Name of Theory and Key Theorists -Behaviorism -Skinner (Operant Conditiong), Thorndike, Pavlov/Watson (Classical Conditioning), Bandura (Social Cognitive Theory) 2. What does it mean to Learn? -To adopt a new relatively enduring behavior / A change in behavior Pavlov/Watson - a learned reflex to a certain stimulus Skinner - action that result in certain reinforcements 3. How do we learn? -Watson: We are capable of anything regardless of who our ancestors are. Claims that Nurture (environment) is everything. “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in, and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select: Doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant, chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.” (Watson, 1925, p.82). Behaviorism. New York: Norton. Pavlov/Watson vs. Skinner: “Operant Conditioning is different from Classical Conditioning in that the behaviors studied in Classical Conditioning are reflexive (for example, salivating). However, the behaviors studied and governed by the principles of Operant Conditioning are nonreflexive (for example, gambling). So, compared to Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning attempts to predict non-reflexive, more complex behaviors, and the conditions in which they will occur. In addition, Operant Conditioning deals with behaviors that are performed so that the organism can obtain reinforcement” (http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/conditioning.html) 4. What is the role of the learner? Active - Passive The role of the learner is passive (responding to the environment). 5. What is the role of the teacher? Authority/Director - Facilitator/Guide - Consultant The role of the teacher is to observe and either reward or punish the learner depending on the behaviors performed. For the behavior to continue the teacher needs to reinforce the response intermittently so that the learner cannot know when they will be reinforced. Teachers are essentially behavior modifiers. 6. What characterizes the learning activities that would be seen in the classroom? In the classroom, we see this learning theory practices by rewarding correct answers with immediate positive feedback. If the correct answer is given, the learner can move on to the next item, “but if the answer is wrong, a ‘remedial’ example or question is presented. As Skinner pointed out, the machine only presents material that the student is ready to learn (in the sense that the student got right all the steps that went before). The right answer, and ‘the machine, like a private tutor, reinforces the student for every correct response, using this immediate feedback not only to shape his behavior most efficiently but to maintain it in strength” (28). During a lesson, we an educator can use behaviorism as motivation to understand difficult concepts in a subject area. “To get students to respond, I will positively reinforce any answers that are remotely close. Students are praised for their effort and willingness to answer. (social rewards, Mayer p 249.) As the day or lesson goes on, the answers or responses need to be more accurate to receive reinforcement. In this example, the stimulus (S) is the encouragement or words of praise, the response (R) is the students hand being raised, and the reinforcers are the continued praise and encouragement” (Brad Frey, Lesson 3, http://www.google.com/search?q=classroom+examples+of+operant+conditioning&ie=utf8&oe=utf-8&aq=t&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&client=firefox-a). Classic conditioning would place more emphasis on the stimulus, where as operant conditioning focuses more on the reflex/reaction to enhance learning in the classroom. 7. What are the ‘buzz words’ – key terminology – associated with the theory? Nature: We are who we are based off of our genetics. Nurture: We are who we are based upon our upbringing. Classical conditioning: (Watson) A simple form of learning in which a stimulus that initially had no effect of the individual comes to elicit a response through its association with a stimulus that already elicits the response. Operant Conditioning: (Skinner) A learner’s behavior becomes either more or less probable depending on the consequences it produces. Positive Reinforcement: (Skinner) Something added to a situation to reinforce an action. Negative Reinforcement: occurs when a behavioral tendency is strengthened when something negative or unpleasant is removed from the situation or escaped or avoided after the behavior occurs Negative Punishment - occurs when something unpleasant is removed from the situation following the behavior Human agency: (Bandura) Ways in which people deliberately exercise cognitive control over themselves, their environments, and their lives. (For Lukas) 8. What do the critics say? a) Skinner’s view on the nature of science was narrow b) Models are inadequate to explain phenomena met in linguistics c) Does not take into account cognition (neuroscience) d) Methods do not explain how animals behave in their natural environment (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism/#2) -Bandura Claims that humans are cognitive beings whose active precessing of information plays a critical role in their learning, behavior, and development. (Social cognitive theory, 1977, 1986, 1989, 2000, 2006) 1 Cognitivism: Jerome Bruner, Joseph Schwab, Paul Hirst Gestalt, Wolfgang Kohler 2 -Information processing -Computer metaphor Learning a skill set now that can be applied to future situations. (Human construction designed to make sense of experience) To learn something is to understand it in a way that permits many other things to be related to it meaningfully. Learning things now by understanding the structure of the subject matter so that the student will be able to use the knowledge in the future. To learn is to mentally and/or physically manipulate meaningful elements until a mental connection can be made between all of them. 3 Both through our cognitive abilities and our social setting. We build on our experiences and test new theories/skills and continue to apply and develop our skill set. We learn by making connections between information--an example they used was like cataloguing information in a library, making sure everything is cross referenced to that when it is needed, it can be accessed through multiple mediums. We are able to learn because our eyes and ears can see and hear wholes and patterns. The physics of our nervous system allows insight, and then learning, to occur. 4 I’m going to say closer to active. The learner is active, making connections between what they know and what they are learning. The learner takes on a very active role. 5 The teacher is like a guide to help students make mental connections between what they know and what they are “learning”. The teacher is a facilitator to the student, asking questions that aid the student in connecting what they know with the new material. From the example, the teacher’s only job is to make sure the students have all the elements to make their own connection needed for learning. 6 Experiments/problems that build on each other. Start with a known piece of information and students are asked further questions that can be deduced from and drawn upon from that initial knowledge. Problems, examples and experiments designed to engage the student as well as help them gain perspective (understand the structure) of the The student would be given all the pieces needed to solve a problem and the end result would be understood. But the teacher would not assist the student any further in finding a solution. material. 7 Mental maps Webbing, structure, network, Short term to long term memory 8 It is not clear that a discipline has one, well-defined structure. Not all subject areas fit into the “structure model” of learning/organization. The separation of concepts from methodology within each subject-the authors argue that they are too intertwined for that to happen let alone be an effective educational tool. “organization”, “configuration”, “meaningful patterns”, “organized wholes”, Aha Moment Psychological Constructivist – Piaget 2. What does it mean to Learn? ● Learning is constructing cognitive structures. ● Accommodation and assimilation of new ideas leads to new structures/schema. ● At any time in the process of building cognitive structures (growing up), children interact and react to things that they have come across before. If it is something new there will be a “disequilibration” and the child will have to build new cognitive structures to gain equilibrium again. 3. How do we learn? ● We learn in stages. ● Sensorimotor stage happens from birth to about two years old. This involved actively exploring the environment around you, internalize the environment and how it reacts to your actions. ● The preoperational stage happens from ages two to seven. There is no abstract thought at this stage. Children have difficulty understanding things that are not in front of them and making observations about anything that is not on the surface. (I like the ball of clay example). ● The concrete operation’s stage happens from seven to eleven. Logical structures are constructed. Children are able to have more abstract thought. ● The formal operations stage happens from eleven to fourteen or fifteen. Children will interact with their environment in a way that there cognitive structure has done in the past. ● Post-formal thought relates to wisdom. 4. What is the role of the learner? Active - Passive ● Learners play an active role. ● They are responsible for building the cognitive structure with the information given to them and through their experiences, and no teacher can implant the new schema. ● Contrast to social constructivism where learner and teacher are both responsible (social dimension). 5. What is the role of the teacher? Authority/Director - Facilitator/Guide - Consultant ● Teacher is a facilitator/director. ● Teacher presents challenges to student’s equilibrium that relate to developing interests of learner. ● Teachers ask questions and guide the student through solving the problem they are faced with. 6. What characterizes the learning activities that would be seen in the classroom? ● Classroom activities are more like workshops and group activities that are student lead and teacher supervised. ● The teacher explains the goal of the lesson, gives the students the tools needed and then lets them manipulate their environment to solve the problem and gain knowledge. 7. What are the ‘buzz words’ – key terminology – associated with the theory? ● Adaptation: Adapting to the world through assimilation and accommodation. ● Assimilation: Taking material into their mind from the environment and changing or building new cognitive structures to fit into the environment. ● Accommodation: The changes made to ones mind by assimilating. Assimilation and Accommodation go together. You can’t have one without the other. ● Classification: Grouping things together by common features. ● Class inclusion: Understanding that some groups of objects can be sub-sets of a larger classificaton. ● Conservation: Realizing that some objects stay the same even when they look different. ● Egocentrism: An early stage in development and belief that you are the only person in the world and the inability to see beyond that. ● Operation: The process of working things out in your head. Only learners in the later stages of development perform operation. ● Schema: A set of perceptions, ideas and/or actions in your mind that go together. ● Stage: A period in a child’s life where certain things are understood but not others. 8. What do the critics say? ● Does not account for social interaction ● Stage based but not lifespan focused. ● Generalized but not contextual. Works cited: ● http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/piaget.htm ● Phillips, D.C. & Soltis, J.F. (2004). Perspectives on learning, 4th Ed. New York: Teachers College Press. Social Constructivism Essential Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Name of Theory and Key Theorists Dewey: Pragmatism: John Dewey, William James, and Charles Sanders Pierce. Vygotsky: Social Development Theory: Lev Vygotsky What does it mean to Learn? Dewey: Because he considered thinking and learning to be evolutionary capacities, Dewey suggested that learning occurrs when a problem is identified and solved. Vygotsky: Learning has occurred when Internalization is complete. I have learned how to use a pencil, for example, when I can use it to draw my own sketches, rather than simply duplicate what others have drawn. How do we learn? Dewey: Learning begins when a problem is identified. The process then continues as the mind attempts to further clarify the problem using prior knowledge and observations of the situation. This leads to a plan for testing a solution to the problem. If the hypothesized solution works, Dewey would then say that learning has taken place. The best setting for this practical problemsolving is in communication and collaboration with a community of learners Vygotsky: Through interaction with our culture and other people in the culture who give us feedback. People need to talk about a new concept to understand it. What is the role of the learner? Active ---- Passive Dewey: Learner must actively participate in groups. Vygotsky: Active. Interaction over Observation, interaction is extremely important What is the role of the teacher? Authority/Director ---- Facilitator/Guide/Consultant Dewey: Facilitator/Guide. Provide tasks that stimulate thinking and to participate with the students in a common experience. In no case should the teacher simply tell the students new ideas. It is a reciprocal interaction between teacher and students and the teacher encourages the student to be an active participant in their learning. Vygotsky: Facilitator, Guide, Consultant. Teacher provides the scaffolding (see below) for continued learning without directly revealing the answers. What characterizes the learning activities that would be seen in the classroom? Dewey: Students engaged in meaningful activity where they had to work with others. Vygotsky: Classroom discussions where students share their knowledge to create new learning. When children are younger, they should be able to observe and use the zone of proximal development (explained below). ž What are the ‘buzz words’ – key terminology – associated with the theory? Dewey: Experiential Education: Learning through direct experience. 8. Theory of Experience: Understanding how experience impacts learning. Based on the concepts of continuity and interaction. Continuity: People are impacted by previous experiences. Interaction: Past experiences interact with current situations. Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) -- the range of tasks a child cannot accomplish alone but can accomplish through the guidance of teachers, parents, or classmates Scaffolding -- the level of support a child receives in their ZPD Cultural Mediation -- the interaction of a child with other people (i.e., parents), the child learns the habits of mind of their culture, including language and other symbolic meanings that affect the construction of their knowledge Internalization -- the acquisition of a child of the shared knowledge of their culture. Internalization is “knowing how”, like riding a bicycle. Guided Participation -- the interaction of a learned guide and the student. Example: learning to tie your shoe, or learning to rig a sailboat More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) -- anyone/thing that has a better understanding or higher ability level than the learner What do the critics say? Dewey: Much of the criticism of Dewey’s work focuses around the his perceived support for the use of public education as a political tool and the opinion that his philosophy has been the source for the breakdown of America’s classrooms and educational institutions. Vygotsky: Soviet opponents (his career began about the time of the Bolshevik Revolution) criticized him, putting the Communist regime on watch for him. Former students criticized him but later retracted the criticisms. Worldwide, the general criticism is that he put too much emphasis on the role of language in thought. Also, “learned helplessness” can occur if those who help the child learn help too much.