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Chapter
2
Ecosystems
2.1
ECOLOGY
Ecology is the science that deals with the various principles, which govern the relationship
and interdependence between the organisms and their environment. The term “ecology”
was coined by combining two Greek words, oikos (meaning house) and logas (meaning
the study of) to denote such relationships and interdependence between the organisms
and environment. The term ecology has been defined in various ways. Some important
definitions are:
(i) The ecology has been defined as the study of structure and function of ecosystem. It
may be stated in simple term “It is the study of structure and functions of nature”.
(ii) G.L. Clarke (1954): Ecology is the study of interrelations of plants and animals
with their environment, which includes the influences of other plants and animals
as well as those of the physical features.
(iii) L.R. Taylor (1967): Ecology is the study of the way in which individual organisms,
populations of some species and communities respond to these changes.
(iv) C.J. Krebs (1985): Ecology is the scientific study of interactions between organisms
and nature that determine the range/distribution and abundance of organisms.
2.1.1
Objectives of Ecology
(i) To study the relationships between living organism and environment.
(ii) To provide the true understanding of the structure and functions of the vast
nature.
(iii) To analyze the independence between organisms and environmental
components.
(iv) To evolve scientific approaches for controlling and regulating the welfare of living
organisms.
(v) To provide the comprehensive awareness of all the relations between all the living
organisms and their all environments.
(vi) To evolve mathematical models to relate interaction of environmental components
and predict their effects by employing system analysis approach.
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It is often defined by the vegetation type that dominates the
community. Terrestrial vegetation has a rapid change of oxygen, water and carbon
dioxide. Example, Grassland.
Terrestrial ecosystem:
It is further subdivided as freshwater ecosystem and marine
ecosystem. There are two types of freshwater ecosystems: (a) Running water (lotic)
e.g., river and (b) Stationary water (lentic) e.g., lake. The example of marine water is
deep seas.
Aquatic Ecosystem:
Artificial ecosystem
Artificial ecosystems are maintained artificially by man. A pond constructed as a part of
wastewater treatment plant is an example of artificial ecosystem.
2.2.2 Types of Ecosystem based on Energy Resources
Following are the important ecosystems based on the resources:
Unsubsidized natural solar powered ecosystem
In these types of ecosystem, the only source of power is solar energy. These are unsubsidized
in the sense that there is no auxiliary source of energy available to supplement solar
energy. On human point of view, these ecosystems are most important because here
large volumes of air are purified, water is recycled and climates are controlled, e.g.,
grassland.
Subsidized natural solar powered ecosystem
In these types of ecosystem, the main source of energy is the sun that is augmented by
natural non-solar energy. An extra amount of energy is available to the system that can
be used for the production of more organic matter. The other auxiliary natural source of
energy may be winds, wave or rain. Example, coastal estuary is subsidized by energy of
tides and wave, the back and forth movement of water does a part of necessary work of
recycling minerals and nutrients and transporting food and waste.
Man subsidized solar powered ecosystem
In these types of ecosystem, auxiliary fuel or energy like labour and machine is supplied
by man. For example, in agriculture, the energy input may be in the form of fertilizers,
animals and labour.
Fuel powered ecosystem (Urban-industrial ecosystem)
In these ecosystems, the sun energy is replaced by highly concentrated potential energy
of fuel like chemical or nuclear fuel. These are men’s wealth generating ecosystem, e.g.,
cities.
2.2.3
Structure of a Complete Ecosystem
Ecosystems are composed of a variety of abiotic and biotic components that function in
an interrelated fashion (Fig. 2.1).
28 Environment and Ecology
Abiotic component
It is the non-living component of ecosystem and includes: (a) physical or climatic factors
such as soil, temperature, light and water; and (b) chemical factors constituting the
inorganic and organic substances. The inorganic substances include carbon, hydrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen and sulphur that are involved in mineral (nutrients)
cycle. The organic substances include carbohydrates and proteins.
Biotic component
It includes the living components of the ecosystem and is made of many different
populations of species, which are interdependent upon each other in the ecosystem.
The living components of the ecosystem are further subdivided as:
1. Autotrophic component: It is the component in which the fixation of light energy,
use of simple inorganic substances and build-up of complex organic substances
predominate. The members of autotrophic components are producers, which are
self-nourishing.
2. Heterotrophic component: It is the component in which utilization, rearrangement
and decomposition of complex organic substances predominate. The members of
heterotrophic components are called consumers, which are dependent on others
for food. The heterotrophic components are further subdivided as:
(i) Macroconsumers: These are heterotrophs, which occur in an order in a food
chain as herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.
(ii) Microconsumers (saprotrophs): These are also known as decomposers such
as bacteria and fungi. They feed on organic compound of dead or living
protoplasm of plants and animals for their food and energy. They absorb
some of the decomposition products and release inorganic compounds in the
ecosystem, making them available again to the producers.
2.2.4
Functions of Ecosystem
The functioning of biotic and abiotic components of different ecosystems is so closely
interrelated that sometimes it becomes difficult to demarcate between them. An ecosystem
performs the following functions (Fig. 2.2):
(i) It allows the flow of biological energy, controls the rate of production, respiration
of community.
(ii) It controls the rate of nutrient cycle production and consumption of minerals.
(iii) It regulates the environment by organism and the organism by environment. For
example, nitrogen fixing by bacteria is the process of environment process and
photoperiodism is the process of organism regulation by environment.
(iv) It allows the circulation of chemical elements from environment to organism and
back to the environment. In this way it provides nutrients to the producers, which
build-up organic matter.
Ecosystems
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Ecosystem
Biotic component
Abiotic component
Physical or
climatic factors
Soil
Light
Autotrophic
component
Chemical factors
Green plants
Water Temperature
Inorganic
substances
Organic
substances
Macro
consumers
Hydrogen Sulphur Phosphorus Potassium Nitrogen Proteins Carbohydrates
Fig. 2.1
Heterotrophic
component
Lion
Micro
consumers
Deer Bacteria Fungi
Structure of an ecosystem
Energy
Consumers
Energy
Organic matter
Decomposers
Energy (food)
Producers
To soil and
environment
(nutrients H,
N, O, C, P, S,
K, etc.)
Nutrient pool (soil and environment)
Fig. 2.2
2.3
Function of ecosystem
FOOD CHAIN
In an average ecosystem, food is the source of energy. It is obtained from plants and
consumed by different categories of consumers. Thus, the transfer of food energy occurs
in repeated stages in which it is being eaten by a source of organism. This sequence of
eating and being eaten is termed food chain.
Grass
Cow
Tiger
Algae
Insects
Fish
Man
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Fig. 2.5 Terrestrial food web
Large fish
Turtles
Small fish
Tadpoles
Aquatic insects
Water fleas
Rotifers
Algae
Fig. 2.6
Aquatic food web
Second Trophic Level
Herbivores which are primary consumers fall in this category. They get energy by eating
the producers.
32 Environment and Ecology
Hawk, level 5
Sun
Energy
Trees, level 1
(Producers)
Rabbit, level 2
Grasshopper,
level 2
Snake,
level 4
Grass, level 1
(Producers)
Bird
level 3
Fig. 2.7 Trophic level
Third Trophic Level
Carnivores which are secondary consumers fall in this category. They depend on primary
consumers for their food energy.
Fourth Trophic Level
Omnivores which may be tertiary consumers fall in this category. They depend upon
secondary consumers for energy.
Trophic classification does not employ the categorization of species. All organisms
taking food in same number of steps come under the same trophic level. According to
the source of food assimilated, a given species may occupy one, two or more trophic
levels.
2.5
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of trophic structure in which
the trophic levels are depicted in successive stages.
2.5.1 Types of Ecological Pyramids
There are three types of ecological pyramids:
The numbers of individual organism at different trophic levels
in an ecosystem are depicted. The length of the bar at different levels represents the
number of organisms at that particular trophic level. It is expressed in number per unit
area (Fig. 2.8).
Pyramids of numbers:
Ecosystems
(a)
Tertiary
consumers
(carnivores)
Tertiary
consumers
(carnivores)
Secondary
consumers
(carnivores)
Primary
consumers
(herbivores)
Secondary
consumers
(carnivores)
Primary
consumers
(herbivores)
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Producers
Producers
(b)
Bacteria
Tertiary
consumers
(carnivores)
Secondary
consumers
(carnivores)
Fungi Actinomycetes
Hyperparasites
on lice
and bugs
Lice and
bugs
Parasites on
herbivores
Fruit-eating
birds
Herbivores
Primary
consumers
(herbivores)
Producers
Producers
(c)
(d)
Fig. 2.8
Pyramids of numbers
It is based on the total dry weight of the total amount of living
matter. It is expressed in gram per unit area (Fig. 2.9).
Pyramids of biomass:
When the production of a community is measured in terms of energy,
it is known as pyramid of energy. It is expressed in calorie per unit area per year. There
is always a gradual decrease in energy content at successive level from the producers
to consumers.
Pyramid of energy:
2.6
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
It means ecological development. It refers to the process of gradual change in conditions of
environment and the replacement of older species over the time undergoes automatically.
The occurrence of ecological succession has following characteristics:
(i) It is a systematic process that involves changes in species structure.
(ii) The changes are directional and take place as a function of time.
(iii) The succession occurs due to changes in physical environment and population at
the species.
34 Environment and Ecology
Carnivores
Herbivores
Producers
Carnivores
Carnivores
(c)
Herbivores
(a)
Herbivores
Producers
Fig. 2.9
Fig. 2.10
(b)
Producers
Pyramids of biomass
Pyramids of energy
(iv) The changes also occur due to population explosion of the species.
(v) The changes are predictable.
2.6.1 Types of Succession
There are following two types of succession:
Primary succession: This is the initial stage of development of an ecosystem. It begins with
the creation (birth) of a community (species) on such a location, which was previously
unoccupied by any living organism. Such location may be water, land, a new island and
36 Environment and Ecology
Continuing cause:
These are responsible for changes in population.
Reasons:
(i) Migration for industrialization and urbanization
(ii) Migration for safety against outsider aggregation
(iii) Feeling of competition.
Stability causes: These causes bring stability to the community.
Reasons:
(i) Climatic conditions of the area
(ii) Fertility of agricultural land.
2.6.3
Climax
In this, the final terminal community becomes more or less stabilized for a longer period
of time, which can maintain itself in equilibrium with the climate of the area. The final
community is called climax stage. The climax community is the most complex and stable,
providing food and variety of niches for animals. The climax community can tolerate the
conditions created by itself, and there are no more successful species to replace them.
Following are theoretical approaches to the climax:
Monoclimax theory: This theory was developed largely by Federick Clements. It recognizes
only one climax, determined solely by climate, no matter how great the variety of
environmental condition is at the beginning. The monoclimax theory was supported by
Cowles, Ranganathan, and Puri, but strongly objected by Daubenmire (1968).
Polyclimax theory: This theory was developed by Tansley. It considers that the climax
vegetation of a region consists of not just one type but a mosaic of vegetational climaxes
controlled by soil moisture, soil nutrients, topography, slope exposure, fire and animal
activity.
Climax pattern hypothesis: This theory was developed by Whittaker, Macintosh and
Sellack. According to this theory, the composition, species structure and balance of a
climax community is determined by the total environment of the ecosystem and not by
one aspect, such as climate alone.
2.6.4
Significance of Ecological Succession
(i) Its knowledge helps in maintaining a specific biotic seral stage by interfering the
process of biotic succession, e.g., maintenance of teak forest.
(ii) Dams are protected by preventing siltation and biotic succession.
(iii) It gives information about the techniques to be used during reforestation and
afforestation.
2.7
INCOMPLETE ECOSYSTEM
Almost all ecosystems have all basic components, viz., producers and consumers. It is
possible for a ecosystem to lack one or more basic component.
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Ecosystem Diversity: Depending upon the availability of abiotic resources, an ecosystem
develops its own community of living organisms. That is why, there exists vivid varieties
of ecosystem and they differ widely from each other. Example: A lake ecosystem is
different from an ocean ecosystem and a forest ecosystem is different from an urban area
ecosystem. This biodiversity is assessed at the continental or global level.
Importance of ecosystem diversity
(i) Consumptive values: food, fodder and fuel
(ii) Productive values: timber
(iii) Option values: keeping future possibilities open
(iv) Existence values: knowledge and appreciation
(v) Ethical and moral values: importance for all forms of life.
2.8.2
Measuring Biodiversity
Diversity of different species varies widely. For some species it may be rich (more), and
for others it may be poor. Therefore, to assess the number of species and their evenness,
different geographical scales are adopted. These are given as follows:
Alpha diversity: This scale is used to determine the ‘number of species in a single
community’. It is used to compare with the number of species of other community. This
is the diversity within the space.
Beta diversity: This scale is a measure of ‘change in composition of a species’ with respect
to changes in environment. This is the difference of diversity between habitat.
Gamma Diversity: This scale refers to the ‘rate at which the species with similar habitat’
expand from one geographical area to another. This includes the differences over a large
area such as a continent.
Thus, alpha diversity implies ‘species richness’, beta diversity refers to ‘susceptibility
to change’, and gamma diversity means ‘mobility over larger areas’.
Site 2
Site 1
3 Species
5 Species
Site 3
Fig. 2.11
5 Species
Site 4
Alpha, Beta and Gamma diversity
3 Species
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39
Alpha diversity is measured locally, at a single site as site 1 and 2. Site 1 has higher
alpha diversity than site 2.
Beta diversity measures the amount of change between two sites or along a gradient,
as in regions X and Y. Region Y has higher beta diversity than region X, as there is a
higher turnover of species among the sites in region Y.
Gamma diversity is similar to alpha diversity, only measured over a large scale.
Both alpha and beta diversity contribute to gamma diversity. Region X has high alpha
diversity at its sites, but they are all fairly similar; the region thus has low beta diversity
and only moderate gamma diversity. Region Y has low alpha diversity at its sites, but
the sites differ from each other; the region therefore has high beta diversity, and higher
gamma diversity than region X.
2.8.3 Value of Biodiversity
All species, communities and ecosystems have some economic values. These values are
assessed in respect of:
1. anticipated/estimated price of an existing unutilized resource, i.e., in the process
of getting ready resources in their natural habitat.
2. selling (market) price of harvested resource, i.e., ready to sell resource, and
3. anticipated future price of resources.
The value of biodiversity may have its value in different sense. These may be direct
value (consumptive and productive use value) and indirect value (non-consumptive
use value).
Direct values
Also known as use values and commodity values, these values are assigned to the products
harvested by people. Direct values can be readily estimated by observing the activities of
representative groups of people, monitoring collection points for normal products and
examining the export/import statistics. These are obtained on their destruction. These
values can be further subdivided as:
(i) Consumptive use value: It can be assigned to goods such as vegetables and fuel
wood that are purchased and consumed locally and do not figure in national
and international market. They do not appear also in Gross Domestic Product
(GDP).
(ii) Productive use value: It is assigned to products that are derived from the wild
and sold in commercial markets, both national as well as international markets,
e.g., textile and leather industry.
Indirect values
Indirect values are assigned to benefits by biodiversity that do not involve harvesting
and destroying the natural resource. Such benefits include ecological benefits such as
soil formation, nutrient cycling, waste disposal, air and water purification, education,
recreation, future options for human beings, etc. Indirect value can be further subdivided as:
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41
(iv) To preserve the biodiversity and minimize/avoid the extinction of species
(v) To utilize the natural resources in a sustainable way.
Conservation of biodiversity mainly centres upon the wildlife conservation. The
wildlife can be conserved by protecting both the life of animals as well as plants. These
are protected in safeguard habitats, e.g., zoos, national parks, sanctuaries, botanical
gardens, biosphere reserves, etc. In this regard, following two approaches are adopted
to conserve the wildlife in protected habitats.
In situ (or on situ) conservation
In this approach, the protection is given to wild flora and fauna, and not to the domestically
used plants and animals. Hence, the species are conserved in their own natural ecosystems.
However, if needed, they may also be conserved in artificial ecosystems favourable
to them. In this approach, the emphasis is given to save either protected area or the
endangered species, e.g., zoos and national parks.
Advantages
The in situ conservation approach is advantageous in many respects, but has certain
limitations too. The plus points are:
1. Advantageous for long-term protection.
2. Natural ecosystems spread in larger area and hence provide a good opportunity
for conservation as well as evolution.
3. It is a cheaper means to protect the species in their natural habitat.
Proper protection against environmental pollution may not be enough in
natural types of ecosystems. It is also desired that the protected habitats should not be
used for profitable activities, tourism and logging, etc. For example, the use of camels
for tourism and elephants for logging should be discouraged, otherwise the objective of
biodiversity conservation can be defeated.
Limitations:
Ex situ conservation
In this approach, the protection is given to the endangered and rare species in a man-made
habitat, other than their natural ecosystems. To accomplish this, the species are protected
in artificial conditions under the supervision of biodiversity conservation experts. To
execute the process of protection, the endangered plant species are collected together and
made to breed under desired conditions in seed banks and botanical gardens. Similarly,
the endangered species are collected in zoo.
Advantages
The ex situ conservation is advantageous in following respect:
1. Long-term conservation
2. Due to controlled supervision, better food (assured food), better shelter and
security, the species can survive longer and may breed more offspring than
usual.
3. The quality of offspring may be improved by genetic techniques, if so required.
42 Environment and Ecology
4. Breeding of hybrid species is possible.
5. The captive breeding can be over-exploited to yield an increased number of
offspring, which may later be sent back to their natural ecosystems.
Limitations/disadvantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
Not a viable option for the protection of rare species due to human interference
Can be adopted for only a few kinds of species
Over-protection may result in the loss of naturality
Possible extinction of species due to:
• Breeding in a changed environment
• Demographic variations
• Deteriorated quality of living
• Uneasiness in the presence of exotic species
The ex situ conservation can be more effectively utilized by exposing the species to
varying natural environment, thereby restraining them to elope.
Major problems with biodiversity conservation
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Low priority for conservation of living natural resources
Exploitation of living natural resources for monetary gain
Values and knowledge about the species and ecosystem inadequately known
Unplanned urbanization and uncontrolled industrialization.
Major biodiversity threats (detail)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Habitat destruction
Extension of agriculture
Filling up of wetlands
Conversion of rich biodiversity site for human settlement and industrial
development
(v) Destruction of coastal areas
(vi) Uncontrolled commercial exploitation
2.8.5
India as a Mega Biodiversity Nation
India has a very rich heritage of biodiversity at all three levels, viz., genes, species and
ecosystem. Its richness may be assessed from the fact that it represents almost all the
biogeographical regions of the world. The unique richness of its biodiversity covers a
wide spectrum of habitats ranging from the rainforests to alpine vegetation, and coastal
wetlands to deserts and mountains, etc. Due to the presence of a very large number of
diverse species, India is referred to as mega diversity nation.
Salient Features: Salient features of India’s biodiversity may be enumerated as follows:
1. Ranking: It ranks twelfth amongst the list of mega diversity nations of the world.
Ranking in other respects are:
Ecosystems
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
43
In plant diversity: fourth in Asia and tenth in the world
In mammals diversity: tenth in the world
In endemic vertebrate diversity: eleventh in the world
Agriculture and animal husbandry: seventh in the world
2. Land: Its land area is about 2.4% of the total land area of the world.
3. Biodiversity share: Its biodiversity contribution is about 8.22% of the total global
biodiversity. Other contributions are:
(i) faunal contribution is about 7.31% of the total global fauna
(ii) floral contribution is about 10.88% of the total global flora
4. Plants diversity: Plant diversity is high in bryophyte, angiosperms, family
orchidaceae, etc. There are 47,000 species of plants.
5. Animal diversity: It is too high in insects. 81,000 species of animals are identified
which includes 372 mammals, 1,228 birds, 428 reptiles, 204 amphibians and 2,546
fishes.
6. There are 33 Botanical Gardens, 89 National Parks, and 275 Zoos in India.
7. India is home to five world heritage sites:
(i) Kaziranga National Park—Assam
(ii) Ghana National Park—Rajasthan
(iii) Manas Wildlife Sanctuary—Assam
(iv) Nanda Devi National Park—Uttarakhand
(v) Sunderban National Park—W.B.
8. Marine biodiversity: India’s marine biodiversity is too rich along its 7,515 km long
sea coastline. Its other related details are as under:
(i) There are about 16,000 zooplankton species.
(ii) There are more than 30 species of mangrove algae, 14 species of sea grass, 45
species of mangrove plants, and 342 species of corals.
(iii) Mainly the polychaeta, molluscus and crustacean constitute the fauna. Their
share is about 60%, 20% and 20%, respectively.
(iv) There is a biomass of about 12 gm/m2.
(v) The estuaries, lagoons, mangroves and coral reefs ecosystems cover an area of
more than 200 million sq. km.
9. Agro-diversity: From the viewpoint of agricultural biodiversity, India ranks seventh
in the world. It is one of the 12 centres of origin of cultivated plants. An enormous
variety of agro-products (grain + fruits + vegetable + others) is produced in India.
It is estimated that 30,000 to 50,000 varieties of wheat, rice, pulse, sugar cane,
potato, ginger, turmeric, banana, and pigeon-pea are produced here. Besides there
are about 167 crop species and their wild relatives.
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45
Prevention and mitigation of natural disasters: Forests and grasslands protect
landscapes against erosion, nutrient loss, and landslides through the binding action of
roots. Ecosystems bordering regularly flooding rivers (floodplain forests and wetlands)
help in absorbing excess water, and reducing the damage caused by floods. Certain coastal
ecosystems (salt marshes, mangrove forests, etc.) prevent the erosion of coastlines.
Provision of food security: Biodiversity provides the vast majority of our foodstuffs. The
annual world fish catch, for example, (averaging 100 million metric tonnes), represents
humanity’s most important source of wild animal protein, with over 20 per cent of the
population in Africa and Asia dependent on fish as their primary source of protein.
Terrestrial animals, meanwhile, supply an array of food products: eggs, milk, meat, etc.
Wild biodiversity provides a wide variety of important foodstuffs, including fruits, game
meats, nuts, mushrooms, honey, spices and flavorings. These wild foods are especially
important when agricultural supplies fail. Indeed, wild biodiversity guards against the
failure of even the most advanced agricultural systems. For example, the productivity
of many of the developed world’s agricultural crops is maintained through the regular
assimilation of new genes from wild relatives of these crops. These wild genes offer
resistance to the pests and diseases that pose an ever-evolving threat to harvests.
2.8.7 The Biogeographic Classification of India
An extension of the Tibetan plateau, harbouring high-altitude cold
desert in Laddakh (J&K) and Lahaul Spiti (H.P.) comprising 5.7% of the country’s land
mass.
Trans-Himalayas:
Himalayas: The entire mountain chain running from north-western to north-eastern
India, comprising a diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes, 7.2% of the country’s
land mass.
The extremely arid area west of the Aravalli hill range, comprising both the salty
desert of Gujarat and the sand desert of Rajasthan, 6.9% of the country’s land mass.
Desert:
Semi-arid: The zone between the desert and the Deccan plateau, including the Aravalli
hill range, 15.6% of the country’s land mass.
The hill ranges and plains running along the western coastline, south
of the Tapti river, covering an extremely diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes,
5.8% of the country’s land mass.
Western ghats:
The largest of the zones, covering much of the southern and
southcentral plateau with a predominantly deciduous vegetation, 4.3% of the country’s
land mass.
Deccan peninsula:
Gangetic plain: Defined by the Ganges river system, these plains are relatively homo-
genous, 11% of the country’s land mass.
The plains and non-Himalayan hill ranges of north-eastern India, with
a wide variation of vegetation, 5.2% of the country’s land mass.
North-east India:
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal, with a highly diverse
set of biomes, 0.03% of the country’s land mass coasts. A large coastline distributed both
Islands:
48 Environment and Ecology
As regards the fauna, as many as 315 species of vertebrates belonging to 22 genera are
endemic. These include 12 species of mammals, 13 species of birds, 89 species of reptiles,
87 species of amphibians and 104 species of fish.
The extent of endemism is high in amphibian and reptiles. 117 species of amphibians
are in the region, of which 89 species (i.e., 76%) are endemic. Of the 165 species of
reptiles found in Western Ghats, 88 species are endemic. Many of the endemic and
other species are listed as threatened. Nearly 235 species of endemic flowering plants
are considered endangered. Rare fauna of the region includes Lion Tailed Macaque.
(Fig. 2.13) Nilgiri Langur, Nilgiri Tahr, Flying Squirrel, and Malabar Gray Hornbill (Babu
and Arora 1999).
Fig. 2.13
Lion tailed macaque