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Semester 2 Study Guide Chapter 20 Urinary System I. Introduction A. The organs of the urinary system are ____________________________________________________________ B. The functions of the kidneys are _______________________________________________________________ C. The function of the ureter is ___________________________________________________________________ D. The function of the bladder is _________________________________________________________________ E. The function of the urethra is __________________________________________________________________ II. Kidneys A. Introduction 1. A kidney is __________________ in color and ______________________________________________ shaped. 2. A kidney is enclosed by ______________________________________________________________________ B. Location of Kidneys 2. Retroperitoneally means ______________________________________________________________________ C. Kidney Structure 2. The renal pelvis is ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. The renal pelvis is divided into _________________________________________________________________ 4. Major calyces are divided into _________________________________________________________________ 5. Renal papillae are ___________________________________________________________________________ 6. The renal medulla is _________________________________________________________________________ 7. Renal pyramids are __________________________________________________________________________ 8. The renal cortex is __________________________________________________________________________ 10. The renal capsule is ________________________________________________________________________ D. Functions of the Kidneys 1. The main functions of the kidneys are ___________________________________________________________ E. Renal Blood Vessels 1. Renal arteries arise from ______________________________________________________________________ 7. Afferent arterioles lead to _____________________________________________________________________ F. Nephrons 1. Structure of a Nephron a. Functional units of the kidneys are called _________________________________________________________ b. Each nephron consists of _____________________________________________________________________ c. A renal corpuscle consists of __________________________________________________________________ d. A glomerulus is ____________________________________________________________________________ e. A glomerular capsule is ______________________________________________________________________ f. Afferent arterioles give rise to_____________, which lead to _________________________________________ i. Filtration Slits ______________________________________________________________________________ j. The renal tubule leads away from _______________________________________________________________ k. The parts of the renal tubule are ________________________________________________________________ l. Distal convoluted tubules merge together to form __________________, which empties into ________________ 4. Blood Supply of a Nephron 1. Blood enters a glomerulus through ______________________________________________________________ 2. Blood leaves a glomerulus through _____________________________________________________________ III. Urine Formation A. Introduction 1. The main function of the nephrons is ____________________________________________________________ 2. Urine is ________________________ and contains ________________________________________________ 3. The three processes involved in urine formation are ________________________________________________ 4. In glomerular filtration, blood plasma is _________________________________________________________ 5. The function of tubular reabsorption is __________________________________________________________ 6. The function of tubular secretion is _____________________________________________________________ B. Glomerular Filtration 1. Glomerular filtration is _______________________________________________________________________ 2. Glomerular filtrate is ________________________________________________________________________ IV. Elimination of Urine A. Introduction 1. After forming in the nephrons, urine passes from _____________________ and enters the calyces of the kidney. 2. From the renal calyces, urine passes through ______________________________________________________ B. Ureters 3. Urine is moved through ureters by ______________________________________________________________ C. Urinary Bladder 8. The detrusor muscle is _______________________________________________________________________ 9. The internal urethral sphincter functions to _______________________________________________________ D. Urethra 1. The urethra conveys _________________________________________________________________________ 3. The external urethral sphincter functions to _______________________________________________________ E. Micturition 1. Micturition is ______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 13: Endocrine System I. General Characteristics of the Endocrine System A. The endocrine glands secrete __________________________________________________________________ B. Hormones diffuse from ________________________ into __________________________________________ ___________________ and eventually act on ______________________________________________________ C. Paracrine secretions are ______________________________________________________________________ D. Autocrine secretions are _____________________________________________________________________ E. Exocrine glands secrete substances into __________________________________________________________ F. Endocrine glands and their hormones control _____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ G. Endocrine hormones also play vital roles in ______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ H. The larger endocrine glands are ________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ II. Hormone Action A. Introduction 1. Hormones only affect their ____________________________________________________________________ 2. Target cells have ________________________ for_________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ B. Chemistry of Hormones 1. Introduction a. Steroid hormones are synthesized from __________________________________________________________ b. Nonsteroid hormones are synthesized from _______________________________________________________ 2. Steroid Hormones a. Steroids are ________________________________________________________________________________ b. Examples of steroid hormones are ______________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Nonsteroid Hormones a. Examples of hormones called amines are _________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ b. Protein hormones are composed of______________________________________________________________ c. Examples of protein hormones are ______________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ d. Hormones called glycoproteins are produced by ___________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ e. Peptide hormones are ________________________________________________________________________ f. Peptide hormones come from __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ g. Prostaglandins are _____________________________________________________________________ and are produced ____________________________________________________________________________________ C. Actions of Hormones 1. Introduction a. Hormones exert their effects by ________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ b. Hormones may reach all cells but only affect______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ c. The more receptors the hormone binds on its target cell, the greater ____________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Steroid Hormones a. Steroid hormones are insoluble in__________________________________________________________ but are soluble in ____________________________________________________________________________________ b. Steroid hormones can diffuse __________________________________________________________________ c. Once steroid hormones are inside a cell, they combine with __________________________________________ ___________________ located __________________________________________________________________ d. The binding of a steroid hormone to its receptor usually _____________________________________________ or _____________________________________________________________________________________ a gene. e. Activated genes code for______________________________________________________________________ f. The new proteins may be _____________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ and they bring about cellular changes. 3. Nonsteroid Hormones a. A nonsteroid hormone usually binds with receptors located __________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ b. When a nonsteroid hormone binds to a membrane receptor, this causes the receptor’s activity site to _____________________________________________________________________ c. Receptor binding may alter ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ d. A first messenger is _________________________________________________________________________ e. Second messengers are _______________________________________________________________________ f. Many hormones use ________________________________________________________________ as a second messenger. g. G proteins are activated by ____________________________________________________________________ h. Adenylate cyclase is activated by _______________________________________________________________ i. Adenylate cyclase functions to _________________________________________________________________ j. Cyclic AMP activates ________________________________________________________________________ k. Protein kinases function to ____________________________________________________________________ l. Phosphorylated substrates may be converted from __________________________________________________ to active forms. m. Activated proteins then alter __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ n. Hormones whose actions depend upon cyclic AMP include __________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ o. An example of another second messenger is ______________________________________________________ p. In another mechanism, a hormone binding to its receptor increases ____________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ q. Calcium ions bind to the protein ______________________________________________________ to activate it. r. Activated calmodulin functions to ______________________________________________________________ s. Cells are highly sensitive to changes in concentration of nonsteroid hormones because _____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ D. Prostaglandins 1. Prostaglandins are ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. Some prostaglandins regulate __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. The variety of effects prostaglandins can produce include ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ III. Control of Hormonal Secretions A. Introduction 1. Hormones are continually _________________________________________________ in urine and broken down _____________________________ in the _________________________________________________________ 2. Increasing or decreasing blood levels of hormones requires __________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ B. Control Sources 1. The hypothalamus controls ____________________________________________________________________ 2. Tropic hormones are _________________________________________________________________________ 3. An example of an endocrine organ directly stimulated by the nervous system is ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. Some endocrine glands respond to changes in _____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 5. As a result of____________________________________________________________ , hormone levels remain relatively stable. IV. Pituitary Gland A. Introduction 1. The pituitary gland is located __________________________________________________________________ 2. The infundibulum is _________________________________________________________________________ 3. The two portions of the pituitary are ____________________________________________________________ 4. The anterior lobe secretes the following hormones: _________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 5. The posterior pituitary secretes the following hormones: _____________________________________________ 6. The _________________________________________________ controls most of the pituitary gland’s activities. 7. The posterior pituitary receives impulses from ____________________________________________________ 8. _______________________________________________ from the hypothalamus control the anterior pituitary. 9. The hypophyseal portal veins are _______________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ B. Anterior Pituitary Hormones 1. Somatotropes secrete ________________________________________________________________________ 2. Mammotropes secrete ________________________________________________________________________ 3. Thyrotropes secrete _________________________________________________________________________ 4. Corticotropes secrete ________________________________________________________________________ 5. Gonadotropes secrete ________________________________________________________________________ 6. Actions of growth hormone are ________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 7. The secretion of GH is controlled by ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 8. Actions of prolactin are ______________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 9. The secretion of PRL is controlled by ___________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 10. Actions of thyroid-stimulating hormone are ______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 11. The secretion of TSH is controlled by __________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 12. The actions of adrenocorticotropic hormone are __________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 13. The secretion of ACTH is controlled by _________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 14. Gonadotropins are _________________________________________________________________________ 15. The actions of follicle-stimulating hormone are ___________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 16. The actions of luteinizing hormone are _________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 17. The secretion of FSH and LH is controlled by ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ C. Posterior Pituitary Hormones 1. The posterior pituitary consists of ______________________________________________________________ 2. Specialized neurons in the hypothalamus produce two hormones called _________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. The hormones produced in the hypothalamus travel down ___________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. The actions of antidiuretic hormone are __________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 5. The secretion of ADH is controlled by ___________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 6. The actions of oxytocin are ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 7. The secretion of oxytocin is controlled by ________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ V. Thyroid Gland A. Introduction 1. The thyroid gland consists of __________________________________________________________________ 2. The thyroid gland is located ___________________________________________________________________ B. Structure of the Gland 1. Follicles are _______________________________________________________________________________ 2. Colloid is _________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Thyroglobulin is ____________________________________________________________________________ 4. Extrafollicular cells are located ________________________________________________________________ 5. The follicular cells produce ___________________________________________________________________ C. Thyroid Hormones 1. The three hormones produced by the thyroid gland are ______________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. The actions of thyroxine and triiodothyronine are __________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. The secretion of T3 and T4 are controlled by ______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. Follicular cells require ______________________________________________________ to produce T3 and T4. 5. The actions of calcitonin are ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 6. The secretion of calcitonin is controlled by _______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ VII. Parathyroid Glands A. Introduction 1. Parathyroid glands are located _________________________________________________________________ 2. Usually a person has __________________________________________________________ parathyroid glands. B. Structure of the Glands 1. Each parathyroid gland is covered by ____________________________________________________________ 2. The body of a parathyroid gland consists of _______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ C. Parathyroid Hormone 1. The actions of PTH are _______________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. The secretion of PTH is controlled by ___________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ VIII. Adrenal Glands A. Structure of the Glands 1. The adrenal glands are shaped like ______________________________________________________________ 2. The two parts of an adrenal gland are ____________________________________________________________ 3. The adrenal medulla consists of ________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. The adrenal cortex is composed of ______________________________________________________________ 5. The three layers of the adrenal cortex are _________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ B. Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla 1. The two hormones released by the adrenal medulla are ______________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. The actions of epinephrine and norepinephrine are _________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. The secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine are controlled by _____________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ C. Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex 1. Introduction a. The adrenal cortex produces more than ____________________________________________ different steroids. b. The most important adrenal cortical hormones are__________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Aldosterone a. Aldosterone is secreted by ________________________________________________________________and is called a mineralocorticoid because ________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ b. The actions of aldosterone are _________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ c. The secretion of aldosterone is controlled by ______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Cortisol a. Cortisol is secreted by ____________________________________________________________________and is called a glucocorticoid because ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ b. The actions of cortisol are ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ c. The secretion of cortisol is controlled by _________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ IX. Pancreas A. Structure of the Gland 1. The pancreas is located _______________________________________________________________________ 2. The endocrine portion of the pancreas consists of __________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Three cell types of the pancreatic islets are _______________________________________________________ 4. Alpha cells secrete __________________________________________________________________________ 5. Beta cells secrete ___________________________________________________________________________ 6. Delta cells secrete ___________________________________________________________________________ B. Hormones of the Pancreatic Islets 1. The actions of glucagon are ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. The secretion of glucagon is controlled by ________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. The actions of insulin are _____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. The secretion of insulin is controlled by__________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 5. The function of somatostatin is ________________________________________________________________ X. Other Endocrine Glands A. Pineal Gland 1. The pineal gland is located ____________________________________________________________________ 2. The pineal gland produces the hormone __________________________________________________________ 3. The functions of melatonin are _________________________________________________________________ B. Thymus gland 1. The thymus gland is located ___________________________________________________________________ 2. The thymus gland secretes a group of hormones called ______________________________________________ 3. The function of thymosin is ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ D. Other Hormone-Producing Organs 1. The hormone produced by the heart is ___________________________________________________________ 2. The hormone produced by the kidneys is _________________________________________________________ Chapter 6: Skin and the Integumentary System 6. The two distinct layers of skin are ______________________________________________________________ 7. The outer layer is called___________ and is composed of ___________________________________________ 8. The inner layer is called ______________________________________________________________________ B. Epidermis 1. The epidermis lacks _________________________________________________________________________ 2. The deepest layer of the epidermis is called the ____________________________________________________ 8. Keratinization is ____________________________________________________________________________ 10. The outermost layer of the epidermis is called the _________________________________________________ 11. The epidermis is thickest on _________________ and the __________________________________________ 12. Most areas of epidermis have ____________________________________________________________ layers. 13. The four layers starting with the deepest are _____________________________________________________ 14. An additional layer called ____________________________________________________ is in thickened skin. 19. Specialized cells in the epidermis called________________produce melanin. 20. Melanin provides_______________and absorbs __________________________________________________ C. Dermis 1. The boundary between the dermis and epidermis is uneven because ____________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Fingerprints form from _______________________________________________________________________ 3. The dermis binds _________________________ to ________________________________________________ 4. The dermis is largely composed of ______________________________________________________________ II. Accessory Organs of the Skin A. Hair Follicles 11. White hair of albinos lack ____________________________________________________________________ 12. Red hair contains __________________________________________________________________________ 13. Hairs appear gray from a mix of _______________________________________________________________ 14. An arrector pili muscle is ______________________ and attaches to _________________________________ 15. Goose bumps are produced when ______________________________________________________________ B. Nails 1. Nails are __________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Each nail consists of a___________that overlies a surface of skin called____________________________ 3. The lunula of a nail is ________________________________________________________________________ C. Skin Glands 1. Sebaceous glands contain______________and are associated with______________ 4. Sebum is secreted into_______________________and helps________________________________ 5. Sebaceous glands are not found ________________________________________________________________ 7. Sweat glands are also called ______________________________________________________________ glands. 10. Eccrine glands respond to ____________________________________________________________________ 11. Eccrine glands are common on ________________________________________________________________ 14. Apocrine glands becomes active ______________________________________________________________ III. Regulation of Body Temperature A. Introduction 1. Regulation of body temperature is important because _______________________________________________ 5. As dermal blood vessels dilate,______________escapes to __________________________________________ 6. Skin reddens because ________________________________________________________________________ IV. Skin Color A. Genetic Factors 1. Regardless of racial origin, all people have about the same number of_____________in their skin. C. Burns 11. The treatment of a burn patient requires estimating ________________________________________________ 12. To estimate, physicians use __________________________________________________________________ 13. This rule divides ___________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 7: Skeletal System I. Bone Structure A. Bone Classification 1. The five classes of bone according to shape are _____________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ B. Parts of a Long Bone 1. An expanded end of a long bone is an _____________________________________________ 3. Articular cartilage is located ____________________________________________________ 4. The shaft of a long bone is called a _______________________________________________ 5. Periosteum is ________________________________________________________________ 7. Processes provide sites for ______________________________________________________ 8. The wall of the diaphysis is composed of ______________________________________ bone. 10. The epiphyses are largely composed of _______________________________________ bone. C. Microscopic Structure 1. Introduction a. Youthful bone cells are called _______________________________________________ b. Mature bone cells are called ________________________________________________ c.. Bone cells that crush bone tissue are called _____________________________________ d. Lacunae are _____________________________________________________________ II. Bone Development and Growth 1. Examples of intramembranous bones are __________________________________________ C. Endochondral Bones 1. Most of the bones of the skeleton are______________________________________________ 2. Endochondral bones develop from________________________________________________ C. Blood Cell Formation 1. Hematopoiesis is _____________________________________________________________ 6. Red marrow occupies __________________________________________________________ 8. Yellow marrow stores _________________________________________________________ Use your bone packet to review the names of bones and their features. Chapter 9: Muscular System I. Structure of a Skeletal Muscle 1. Fascia is ____________________________________________________________________ 2. A tendon is __________________________________________________________________ 3. Tendons connect a muscle to ____________________________________________________ 4. An aponeurosis is _____________________________________________________________ 5. Epimysium is ________________________________________________________________ 6. Perimysium is _______________________________________________________________ 7. A fascicle is _________________________________________________________________ 8. Endomysium is ______________________________________________________________ C. Skeletal Muscle Fibers 1. A skeletal muscle fiber is a single ________________________________________________ 2. The sarcolemma is ____________________________________________________________ 3. The sarcoplasm is _____________________________________________________________ 5. Myofibrils are _________________ and are located in the _____________________________ 7. Thick myofilaments are composed of _____________________________________________ 8. Thin myofilaments are composed of ______________________________________________ 9. The organization of myofilaments produce _________________________________________ 21. Actin has a binding site to which ________________________________________ can attach. 22. Troponin and tropomyosin associate with _________________________________________ 23. Sarcoplasmic reticulum is _____________________________________________________ 24. Transverse tubules are ________________________________________________________ 25. Cisternae are _______________________________________________________________ II. Skeletal Muscle Contraction 4. A neuromuscular junction is ____________________________________________________ 5. A motor end plate is ___________________________________________________________ 6. A motor unit is _______________________________________________________________ 7. A synaptic cleft separates _______________________________________________________ 8. Synaptic vesicles store _________________________________________________________ 6. ATP is necessary for both muscle ________________________________________________ and___________________________________________________________________________ G. Energy Sources for Contraction 1. Creatine phosphate is __________________________________________________________ I. Oxygen Debt 2. Under anaerobic conditions, glycolysis breaks down glucose into _______________________ and converts it to ________________________________________________________________ 4. Liver cells can convert lactic acid to ______________________________________________ B. Origin and Insertion 1. The origin of a muscle is _______________________________________________________ 2. The insertion of a muscle is _____________________________________________________ 3. When a muscle contracts, its ____________________________________________________ is pulled toward its ______________________________________________________________ Study the names, general locations, and actions of the muscles. Your muscle packet is the best resource for this. Chapter 17: Digestive System I. Introduction B. Mechanical digestion breaks __________________________________________________________________ C. Chemical digestion breaks ____________________________________________________________________ E. The alimentary canal is composed of ____________________________________________________________ F. The accessory organs of the digestive system are __________________________________________________ II. General Characteristics of the Alimentary Canal C. Movements of the Tube 3. Peristalsis is _______________________________________________________________________________ III. Mouth A. Introduction 1. The functions of the mouth are _________________________________________________________________ 2. Mastication is ______________________________________________________________________________ 4. The oral cavity is ___________________________________________________________________________ C. Tongue 1. The tongue is located ________________________________________________________________________ D. Palate 1. The palate forms__________________and consists of two parts - _____________________________________ 4. The uvula is _______________________________________________________________________________ 5. The function of the uvula is ___________________________________________________________________ IV. Salivary Glands A. Introduction 1. Salivary glands secrete _______________________________________________________________________ 2. The functions of saliva are ____________________________________________________________________ B. Salivary Secretions 4. Amylase digests ____________________________________________________________________________ V. Pharynx and Esophagus A. Introduction 1. The pharynx is _____________________________________________________________________________ D. Esophagus 1. The esophagus is a passageway for _____________________________________________________________ 2. The esophagus propels food from _______________ to the __________________________________________ 4. The esophageal hiatus is ______________________________________________________________________ 6. The lower esophageal sphincter is located______________and functions to _____________________________ VII. Stomach A. Introduction 3. Rugae are _________________________________________________________________________________ 4. The functions of the stomach are _______________________________________________________________ B. Parts of the Stomach 1. The four parts of the stomach are _______________________________________________________________ 2. The cardiac region is ________________________________________________________________________ 3. The fundic region is _________________________________________________________________________ 4. The body of the stomach is ____________________________________________________________________ 5. The pyloric region is _________________________________________________________________________ 6. The pyloric sphincter is located________________and functions to____________________________________ C. Gastric Secretions 1. Gastric pits are _____________________________________________________________________________ 2. The three cell types of gastric glands are _________________________________________________________ 3. Mucous cells secrete _________________________________________________________________________ 4. Chief cells secrete ___________________________________________________________________________ 5. Parietal cells secrete _________________________________________________________________________ 6. Gastric juice is _____________________________________________________________________________ 7. Pepsin is __________________________________________________________________________________ 8. The function of pepsinogen is _________________________________________________________________ 9. The function of hydrochloric acid in the stomach is_________________________________________________ 10. The coating of the stomach is important for ______________________________________________________ 11. The function of intrinsic factor is __________________________________________________________ E. Gastric Absorption 1. The stomach absorbs ________________________________________________________________________ 2. Most nutrients are absorbed in _________________________________________________________________ F. Mixing and Emptying Actions 2. Chyme is __________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Peristaltic waves push chyme __________________________________________________________________ 5. The lower esophageal sphincter prevents _________________________________________________________ VIII. Pancreas B. Pancreatic Juice 1. Pancreatic juice contains _____________________________________________________________________ 2. The function of pancreatic amylase is ___________________________________________________________ 3. The function of pancreatic lipase is _____________________________________________________________ 4. The functions of trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase are _____________________________________ 6. The function of trypsinogen is _________________________________________________________________ 7. The functions of nucleases are _________________________________________________________________ C. Regulation of Pancreatic Secretion 2. The function of secretin is ____________________________________________________________________ 3. The release of cholecystokinin is triggered by _____________________________________________________ 4. The action of cholecystokinin on the pancreas is ___________________________________________________ IX. Liver A. Introduction 1. The largest internal organ is the ________________________________________________________________ C. Liver Functions 8. The liver’s role in digestion is _________________________________________________________________ D. Composition of Bile 2. Bile contains _______________________________________________________________________________ E. Gallbladder 1. The gallbladder is located _____________________________________________________________________ 2. The cystic duct is_______________and opens into _________________________________________________ 3. The common bile duct is formed from_______________________and opens into ________________________ 4. Gallstones form when ________________________________________________________________________ F. Regulation of Bile Release 1. Cholecystokinin triggers the gallbladder to _______________________________________________________ 2. Cholecystokinin is released in response to ________________________________________________________ G. Functions of Bile Salts 2. Emulsification is ____________________________________________________________________________ X. Small Intestine A. Introduction 1. The small intestine extends from _______________________________________________________________ 2. The small intestine receives secretions from ______________________________________________________ 3. The functions of the small intestine are __________________________________________________________ B. Parts of the Small Intestine 1. The three parts of the small intestine are _________________________________________________________ C. Structure of the Small Intestinal Wall 1. The velvety appearance of the inner wall of the small intestine is due to ________________________________ 2. Intestinal villi are ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. The functions of villi are _____________________________________________________________________ 6. Microvilli increase __________________________________________________________________________ F. Absorption in the Small Intestine 1. The most important absorbing organ is the _______________________________________________________ G. Movements of the Small Intestine 4. A peristaltic rush is __________________________________________________________________________ 5. Diarrhea results from ________________________________________________________________________ 6. The ileocecal sphincter joins __________________________________________________________________ XI. Large Intestine A. Introduction 2. The functions of the large intestine are ___________________________________________________________ B. Parts of the Large Intestine 1. The parts of the large intestine are ______________________________________________________________ 2. The cecum is _______________________________________________________________________________ 3. The vermiform appendix is located______________and consists of ____________________________________ 4. The four parts of the colon are _________________________________________________________________ 9. The rectum is ______________________________________________________________________________ 10. The anal canal is ___________________________________________________________________________ 12. The anus is _______________________________________________________________________________ 13. Two sphincters of the anus are ________________________________________________________________ 14. The internal anal sphincter is composed of ______________________________________________________ 15. The external anal sphincter is composed of ______________________________________________________ D. Functions of the Large Intestine 4. The large intestine can absorb _________________________________________________________________ Chapter 10: Nervous System I I. General Functions of the Nervous System A. The nervous system is composed predominately of ____________________________________ tissue, but also includes _______________________________________________________________________ B. Two cell types of nervous tissue are _____________________________________________________ C. Neurons are specialized to _____________________________________________________________ D. Dendrites are _______________________________________________________________________ E. Axons are __________________________________________________________________________ F. Nerve impulses are ___________________________________________________________________ G. Bundles of axons are called ____________________________________________________________ H. Small spaces between neurons are called _________________________________________________ I. Neurotransmitters are _________________________________________________________________ J. The central nervous system contains _____________________________________________________ K. The peripheral nervous system contains __________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ N. Receptors gather ____________________________________________________________________ O. Receptors convert their information into ______________________________________ , which are then transmitted over ____________________________ to _________________________________________ R. The motor functions of the nervous system use neurons to carry impulses from the central nervous system to ________________________________________________________________ S. Examples of effectors are ______________________________________________________________ T. The two divisions of the motor division are _______________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ U. Somatic nervous system is involved in ___________________________________________________ V. The autonomic nervous system is involved in ______________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ W. The nervous system can detect ___________________, make ________________________________ , and stimulate _________________________________________________________________ to respond. II. Classification of Neurons and Neuroglia A. Classification of Neurons 1. The three major classifications of neurons based on structural differences are _____________________________________________________________________________ 2. Bipolar neurons have _____________________________________ processes; one process is a ________________________ and the other an _______________________________________ 3. Bipolar neurons are found ______________________________________________________ 4. Unipolar neurons have ___________________________________________________ process, which divides into an ____________________________________________________________ 7. Multipolar neurons have _________________ dendrites and _______________________ axon. 8. Multipolar neurons are located __________________________________________________ 9. The three classes of neurons based on functional differences are ________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 10. Sensory neurons carry impulses from ____________________________________________ to ____________________________________________________________________________ 11. Sensory neurons have specialized ________________________________________at the tips of their dendrites. 12. Most sensory neurons are _________________ but some are __________________________ 13. Interneurons are located _______________________________________________________ 14. Interneurons are _____________________________________________________________ and form links between ___________________________________________________________ 15. Motor neurons carry nerve impulses from _________________________________________ to ____________________________________________________________________________ X. The three parts all neurons have are _____________________________________________________ B. Classification of Neuroglial Cells 3. Schwann cells are the neuroglia of________________________________________________ 4. The four neuroglial cells of the central nervous system are _____________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 5. Astrocytes are __________________________________________________________ shaped and are commonly found between __________________________________________________ 6. Astrocytes provide ____________________________________________________________ 9. Astrocytes play a role in the blood-brain barrier which ________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 10. Oligodendrocytes occur in _____________________________________________________ and form ______________________________________________________________________ 11. Unlike Schwann cells, oligodendrocytes do not form ________________________________ 12. Microglia function to _________________________________________________________ 13. Ependyma form the inner lining of __________________________________________ of the spinal cord and ________________________________________________________ of the brain. 16. Covering the choroids plexus, ependymal cells also regulate __________________________ III. Cell Membrane Potential A. Introduction 1. Polarized means ____________________________________________________________________________ 2. When a cell membrane is polarized, the inside is_________________________charged with respect to the outside. 3. The polarization of a cell membrane is due to _____________________________________________________ B. Distribution of Ions 1. _______________are the major intracellular positive ion and_______________are the major extracellular cation. 2. The distribution of potassium and sodium is largely created by________________________________________ C. Resting Potential 1. A resting nerve cell is one that is _______________________________________________________________ 2. At rest, a cell membrane gets a slight surplus of positive charges _________________and inside reflects a slight negative surplus of impermeable negatively charged ions because ___________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 3. The cell uses ATP to actively transport __________________________________________________________ 6. The membrane potential is_________________and is measured in ____________________________________ 7. Resting potential is_______________________and has a value of _____________________________________ 8. The negative sign of a resting membrane potential is relative to _______________________________________ ___________________________ and is due to _______________________________________ E. Action Potentials 3. At the resting membrane potential, sodium channels are ______________________________________ but when threshold is reached, sodium channels______________________________________________________________ 4. As sodium ions rush into the cell, the ______________________________________________________ changes and temporarily becomes ________________________________________________________________________ 5. When sodium channels close and potassium channels open, potassium diffuses___________and the inside of the membrane becomes _________________________________________________________________ charged again. 6. Repolarized means __________________________________________________________________________ 7. _________________ are capable of action potentials but ______________________________________ are not. 8. A nerve impulse is __________________________________________________________________________ H. Impulse Conduction 1. Myelin serves as ____________________________________________________________________________ 2. Saltatory conduction is _______________________________________________________________________ 3. ____________________________________________________________ axons exhibit salutatory conduction. 4. _______________________________________________________________ axons send nerve impulses faster than ___________________________________________________________________________________ axons. 5. The diameter of an axon also affects ____________________________________________________________ Chapter 12: Somatic and Special Senses F. Sense of Sight a. Each eyelid is composed of ___________________________________________________________________ b. The orbiculais oculi muscle functions to _________________________________________________________ c. The levator palpebrae muscle functions to ________________________________________________________ k. The six extrinsic muscles of the eye are __________________________________________________________ 3. Structure of the Eye a. The three layers of the eyeball are ______________________________________________________________ c. The two parts of the outer tunic are _____________________________________________________________ i. The ciliary body is ______________________________________________________________________ and its functions include ______________________________________________________________________________ l. Suspensory ligaments extend from _______________________________________________________ and hold ____________________________________________________________________________________________ p. The iris is ____________________________________________________________________ and functions to ____________________________________________________________________________________________ q. The anterior cavity of the eye is ________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ r. The anterior chamber of the eye is ______________________________________________________________ s. The posterior chamber of the eye is _____________________________________________________________ t. Aqueous humor is located __________________________________________________________________ and functions to __________________________________________________________________________________ u. The pupil is ________________________________________________________________________________ v. The size of the pupil changes in response to ______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ w. The inner tunic of the eye consists of ______________________________________________________ which contains the __________________________________________________________________________________ x. The retina has distinct layers including __________________________________________________________ bb. The macula lutea is _________________________________________________________________________ cc. The fovea centralis is _______________________________________________________________________ dd. The optic disc is ___________________________________________________________________________ ee. The posterior cavity of the eye is ______________________________________________________________ ff. Vitreous humor is located _________________________________________________________________ and functions to __________________________________________________________________________________ 5. Visual Receptors a. Two kinds of photoreceptor cells are ____________________________________________________________ b. Rods and cones are found _____________________________________________________________________ c. Rods and cones are stimulated when _________________________________________________ reaches them. d. Rods are ___________________________________________________________________ to light than cones. e. Rods provide vision in ___________________________________________________________________ light. f. Rods produce ____________ vision, whereas cones detect ___________________________________________ i. Erythrolabe is most sensitive to _________________________________________________________________ j. Chlorolabe is most sensitive to _________________________________________________________________ k. Cyanolabe is most sensitive to _________________________________________________________________ G. “Floaters” are due to ________________________________________________________________________ I. Glaucoma is________________________________________________________________________________ J. Cataracts are _______________________________________________________________________________