Download Semester 2 Study Guide

Semester 2 Study Guide
Chapter 20 Urinary System
I. Introduction
A. The organs of the urinary system are ____________________________________________________________
B. The functions of the kidneys are _______________________________________________________________
C. The function of the ureter is ___________________________________________________________________
D. The function of the bladder is _________________________________________________________________
E. The function of the urethra is __________________________________________________________________
II. Kidneys
A. Introduction
1. A kidney is __________________ in color and ______________________________________________ shaped.
2. A kidney is enclosed by ______________________________________________________________________
B. Location of Kidneys
2. Retroperitoneally means ______________________________________________________________________
C. Kidney Structure
2. The renal pelvis is ___________________________________________________________________________
3. The renal pelvis is divided into _________________________________________________________________
4. Major calyces are divided into _________________________________________________________________
5. Renal papillae are ___________________________________________________________________________
6. The renal medulla is _________________________________________________________________________
7. Renal pyramids are __________________________________________________________________________
8. The renal cortex is __________________________________________________________________________
10. The renal capsule is ________________________________________________________________________
D. Functions of the Kidneys
1. The main functions of the kidneys are ___________________________________________________________
E. Renal Blood Vessels
1. Renal arteries arise from ______________________________________________________________________
7. Afferent arterioles lead to _____________________________________________________________________
F. Nephrons
1. Structure of a Nephron
a. Functional units of the kidneys are called _________________________________________________________
b. Each nephron consists of _____________________________________________________________________
c. A renal corpuscle consists of __________________________________________________________________
d. A glomerulus is ____________________________________________________________________________
e. A glomerular capsule is ______________________________________________________________________
f. Afferent arterioles give rise to_____________, which lead to _________________________________________
i. Filtration Slits ______________________________________________________________________________
j. The renal tubule leads away from _______________________________________________________________
k. The parts of the renal tubule are ________________________________________________________________
l. Distal convoluted tubules merge together to form __________________, which empties into ________________
4. Blood Supply of a Nephron
1. Blood enters a glomerulus through ______________________________________________________________
2. Blood leaves a glomerulus through _____________________________________________________________
III. Urine Formation
A. Introduction
1. The main function of the nephrons is ____________________________________________________________
2. Urine is ________________________ and contains ________________________________________________
3. The three processes involved in urine formation are ________________________________________________
4. In glomerular filtration, blood plasma is _________________________________________________________
5. The function of tubular reabsorption is __________________________________________________________
6. The function of tubular secretion is _____________________________________________________________
B. Glomerular Filtration
1. Glomerular filtration is _______________________________________________________________________
2. Glomerular filtrate is ________________________________________________________________________
IV. Elimination of Urine
A. Introduction
1. After forming in the nephrons, urine passes from _____________________ and enters the calyces of the kidney.
2. From the renal calyces, urine passes through ______________________________________________________
B. Ureters
3. Urine is moved through ureters by ______________________________________________________________
C. Urinary Bladder
8. The detrusor muscle is _______________________________________________________________________
9. The internal urethral sphincter functions to _______________________________________________________
D. Urethra
1. The urethra conveys _________________________________________________________________________
3. The external urethral sphincter functions to _______________________________________________________
E. Micturition
1. Micturition is ______________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 13: Endocrine System
I. General Characteristics of the Endocrine System
A. The endocrine glands secrete __________________________________________________________________
B. Hormones diffuse from ________________________ into __________________________________________
___________________ and eventually act on ______________________________________________________
C. Paracrine secretions are ______________________________________________________________________
D. Autocrine secretions are _____________________________________________________________________
E. Exocrine glands secrete substances into __________________________________________________________
F. Endocrine glands and their hormones control _____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
G. Endocrine hormones also play vital roles in ______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
H. The larger endocrine glands are ________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
II. Hormone Action
A. Introduction
1. Hormones only affect their ____________________________________________________________________
2. Target cells have ________________________ for_________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
B. Chemistry of Hormones
1. Introduction
a. Steroid hormones are synthesized from __________________________________________________________
b. Nonsteroid hormones are synthesized from _______________________________________________________
2. Steroid Hormones
a. Steroids are ________________________________________________________________________________
b. Examples of steroid hormones are ______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Nonsteroid Hormones
a. Examples of hormones called amines are _________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
b. Protein hormones are composed of______________________________________________________________
c. Examples of protein hormones are ______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
d. Hormones called glycoproteins are produced by ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
e. Peptide hormones are ________________________________________________________________________
f. Peptide hormones come from __________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
g. Prostaglandins are _____________________________________________________________________ and are
produced ____________________________________________________________________________________
C. Actions of Hormones
1. Introduction
a. Hormones exert their effects by ________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
b. Hormones may reach all cells but only affect______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
c. The more receptors the hormone binds on its target cell, the greater ____________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Steroid Hormones
a. Steroid hormones are insoluble in__________________________________________________________ but are
soluble in ____________________________________________________________________________________
b. Steroid hormones can diffuse __________________________________________________________________
c. Once steroid hormones are inside a cell, they combine with __________________________________________
___________________ located __________________________________________________________________
d. The binding of a steroid hormone to its receptor usually _____________________________________________
or _____________________________________________________________________________________ a gene.
e. Activated genes code for______________________________________________________________________
f. The new proteins may be _____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________ and they bring about cellular changes.
3. Nonsteroid Hormones
a. A nonsteroid hormone usually binds with receptors located __________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
b. When a nonsteroid hormone binds to a membrane receptor, this causes
the receptor’s activity site to _____________________________________________________________________
c. Receptor binding may alter ____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
d. A first messenger is _________________________________________________________________________
e. Second messengers are _______________________________________________________________________
f. Many hormones use ________________________________________________________________ as a second
messenger.
g. G proteins are activated by ____________________________________________________________________
h. Adenylate cyclase is activated by _______________________________________________________________
i. Adenylate cyclase functions to _________________________________________________________________
j. Cyclic AMP activates ________________________________________________________________________
k. Protein kinases function to ____________________________________________________________________
l. Phosphorylated substrates may be converted from __________________________________________________
to active forms.
m. Activated proteins then alter __________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
n. Hormones whose actions depend upon cyclic AMP include __________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
o. An example of another second messenger is ______________________________________________________
p. In another mechanism, a hormone binding to its receptor increases ____________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
q. Calcium ions bind to the protein ______________________________________________________ to activate it.
r. Activated calmodulin functions to ______________________________________________________________
s. Cells are highly sensitive to changes in concentration of nonsteroid
hormones because _____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
D. Prostaglandins
1. Prostaglandins are ___________________________________________________________________________
2. Some prostaglandins regulate __________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. The variety of effects prostaglandins can produce include ____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
III. Control of Hormonal Secretions
A. Introduction
1. Hormones are continually _________________________________________________ in urine and broken down
_____________________________ in the _________________________________________________________
2. Increasing or decreasing blood levels of hormones requires __________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
B. Control Sources
1. The hypothalamus controls ____________________________________________________________________
2. Tropic hormones are _________________________________________________________________________
3. An example of an endocrine organ directly stimulated by the nervous system is
____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Some endocrine glands respond to changes in _____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
5. As a result of____________________________________________________________ , hormone levels remain
relatively stable.
IV. Pituitary Gland
A. Introduction
1. The pituitary gland is located __________________________________________________________________
2. The infundibulum is _________________________________________________________________________
3. The two portions of the pituitary are ____________________________________________________________
4. The anterior lobe secretes the following hormones: _________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
5. The posterior pituitary secretes the following hormones: _____________________________________________
6. The _________________________________________________ controls most of the pituitary gland’s activities.
7. The posterior pituitary receives impulses from ____________________________________________________
8. _______________________________________________ from the hypothalamus control the anterior pituitary.
9. The hypophyseal portal veins are _______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
B. Anterior Pituitary Hormones
1. Somatotropes secrete ________________________________________________________________________
2. Mammotropes secrete ________________________________________________________________________
3. Thyrotropes secrete _________________________________________________________________________
4. Corticotropes secrete ________________________________________________________________________
5. Gonadotropes secrete ________________________________________________________________________
6. Actions of growth hormone are ________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
7. The secretion of GH is controlled by ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
8. Actions of prolactin are ______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
9. The secretion of PRL is controlled by ___________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
10. Actions of thyroid-stimulating hormone are ______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
11. The secretion of TSH is controlled by __________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
12. The actions of adrenocorticotropic hormone are __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
13. The secretion of ACTH is controlled by _________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
14. Gonadotropins are _________________________________________________________________________
15. The actions of follicle-stimulating hormone are ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
16. The actions of luteinizing hormone are _________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
17. The secretion of FSH and LH is controlled by ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
C. Posterior Pituitary Hormones
1. The posterior pituitary consists of ______________________________________________________________
2. Specialized neurons in the hypothalamus produce two hormones called _________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. The hormones produced in the hypothalamus travel down ___________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. The actions of antidiuretic hormone are __________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
5. The secretion of ADH is controlled by ___________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
6. The actions of oxytocin are ___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
7. The secretion of oxytocin is controlled by ________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
V. Thyroid Gland
A. Introduction
1. The thyroid gland consists of __________________________________________________________________
2. The thyroid gland is located ___________________________________________________________________
B. Structure of the Gland
1. Follicles are _______________________________________________________________________________
2. Colloid is _________________________________________________________________________________
3. Thyroglobulin is ____________________________________________________________________________
4. Extrafollicular cells are located ________________________________________________________________
5. The follicular cells produce ___________________________________________________________________
C. Thyroid Hormones
1. The three hormones produced by the thyroid gland are ______________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. The actions of thyroxine and triiodothyronine are __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. The secretion of T3 and T4 are controlled by ______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Follicular cells require ______________________________________________________ to produce T3 and T4.
5. The actions of calcitonin are ___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
6. The secretion of calcitonin is controlled by _______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
VII. Parathyroid Glands
A. Introduction
1. Parathyroid glands are located _________________________________________________________________
2. Usually a person has __________________________________________________________ parathyroid glands.
B. Structure of the Glands
1. Each parathyroid gland is covered by ____________________________________________________________
2. The body of a parathyroid gland consists of _______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
C. Parathyroid Hormone
1. The actions of PTH are _______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. The secretion of PTH is controlled by ___________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
VIII. Adrenal Glands
A. Structure of the Glands
1. The adrenal glands are shaped like ______________________________________________________________
2. The two parts of an adrenal gland are ____________________________________________________________
3. The adrenal medulla consists of ________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. The adrenal cortex is composed of ______________________________________________________________
5. The three layers of the adrenal cortex are _________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
B. Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
1. The two hormones released by the adrenal medulla are ______________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. The actions of epinephrine and norepinephrine are _________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. The secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine are controlled by _____________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
C. Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
1. Introduction
a. The adrenal cortex produces more than ____________________________________________ different steroids.
b. The most important adrenal cortical hormones are__________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Aldosterone
a. Aldosterone is secreted by ________________________________________________________________and is
called a mineralocorticoid because ________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
b. The actions of aldosterone are _________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
c. The secretion of aldosterone is controlled by ______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Cortisol
a. Cortisol is secreted by ____________________________________________________________________and is
called a glucocorticoid because ___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
b. The actions of cortisol are ____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
c. The secretion of cortisol is controlled by _________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
IX. Pancreas
A. Structure of the Gland
1. The pancreas is located _______________________________________________________________________
2. The endocrine portion of the pancreas consists of __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Three cell types of the pancreatic islets are _______________________________________________________
4. Alpha cells secrete __________________________________________________________________________
5. Beta cells secrete ___________________________________________________________________________
6. Delta cells secrete ___________________________________________________________________________
B. Hormones of the Pancreatic Islets
1. The actions of glucagon are ___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. The secretion of glucagon is controlled by ________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. The actions of insulin are _____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. The secretion of insulin is controlled by__________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
5. The function of somatostatin is ________________________________________________________________
X. Other Endocrine Glands
A. Pineal Gland
1. The pineal gland is located ____________________________________________________________________
2. The pineal gland produces the hormone __________________________________________________________
3. The functions of melatonin are _________________________________________________________________
B. Thymus gland
1. The thymus gland is located ___________________________________________________________________
2. The thymus gland secretes a group of hormones called ______________________________________________
3. The function of thymosin is ___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
D. Other Hormone-Producing Organs
1. The hormone produced by the heart is ___________________________________________________________
2. The hormone produced by the kidneys is _________________________________________________________
Chapter 6: Skin and the Integumentary System
6. The two distinct layers of skin are ______________________________________________________________
7. The outer layer is called___________ and is composed of ___________________________________________
8. The inner layer is called ______________________________________________________________________
B. Epidermis
1. The epidermis lacks _________________________________________________________________________
2. The deepest layer of the epidermis is called the ____________________________________________________
8. Keratinization is ____________________________________________________________________________
10. The outermost layer of the epidermis is called the _________________________________________________
11. The epidermis is thickest on _________________ and the __________________________________________
12. Most areas of epidermis have ____________________________________________________________ layers.
13. The four layers starting with the deepest are _____________________________________________________
14. An additional layer called ____________________________________________________ is in thickened skin.
19. Specialized cells in the epidermis called________________produce melanin.
20. Melanin provides_______________and absorbs __________________________________________________
C. Dermis
1. The boundary between the dermis and epidermis is uneven because ____________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Fingerprints form from _______________________________________________________________________
3. The dermis binds _________________________ to ________________________________________________
4. The dermis is largely composed of ______________________________________________________________
II. Accessory Organs of the Skin
A. Hair Follicles
11. White hair of albinos lack ____________________________________________________________________
12. Red hair contains __________________________________________________________________________
13. Hairs appear gray from a mix of _______________________________________________________________
14. An arrector pili muscle is ______________________ and attaches to _________________________________
15. Goose bumps are produced when ______________________________________________________________
B. Nails
1. Nails are __________________________________________________________________________________
2. Each nail consists of a___________that overlies a surface of skin called____________________________
3. The lunula of a nail is ________________________________________________________________________
C. Skin Glands
1. Sebaceous glands contain______________and are associated with______________
4. Sebum is secreted into_______________________and helps________________________________
5. Sebaceous glands are not found ________________________________________________________________
7. Sweat glands are also called ______________________________________________________________ glands.
10. Eccrine glands respond to ____________________________________________________________________
11. Eccrine glands are common on ________________________________________________________________
14. Apocrine glands becomes active ______________________________________________________________
III. Regulation of Body Temperature
A. Introduction
1. Regulation of body temperature is important because _______________________________________________
5. As dermal blood vessels dilate,______________escapes to __________________________________________
6. Skin reddens because ________________________________________________________________________
IV. Skin Color
A. Genetic Factors
1. Regardless of racial origin, all people have about the same number of_____________in their skin.
C. Burns
11. The treatment of a burn patient requires estimating ________________________________________________
12. To estimate, physicians use __________________________________________________________________
13. This rule divides ___________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 7: Skeletal System
I. Bone Structure
A. Bone Classification
1. The five classes of bone according to shape are _____________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
B. Parts of a Long Bone
1. An expanded end of a long bone is an _____________________________________________
3. Articular cartilage is located ____________________________________________________
4. The shaft of a long bone is called a _______________________________________________
5. Periosteum is ________________________________________________________________
7. Processes provide sites for ______________________________________________________
8. The wall of the diaphysis is composed of ______________________________________ bone.
10. The epiphyses are largely composed of _______________________________________ bone.
C. Microscopic Structure
1. Introduction
a. Youthful bone cells are called _______________________________________________
b. Mature bone cells are called ________________________________________________
c.. Bone cells that crush bone tissue are called _____________________________________
d. Lacunae are _____________________________________________________________
II. Bone Development and Growth
1. Examples of intramembranous bones are __________________________________________
C. Endochondral Bones
1. Most of the bones of the skeleton are______________________________________________
2. Endochondral bones develop from________________________________________________
C. Blood Cell Formation
1. Hematopoiesis is _____________________________________________________________
6. Red marrow occupies __________________________________________________________
8. Yellow marrow stores _________________________________________________________
Use your bone packet to review the names of bones and their features.
Chapter 9: Muscular System
I. Structure of a Skeletal Muscle
1. Fascia is ____________________________________________________________________
2. A tendon is __________________________________________________________________
3. Tendons connect a muscle to ____________________________________________________
4. An aponeurosis is _____________________________________________________________
5. Epimysium is ________________________________________________________________
6. Perimysium is _______________________________________________________________
7. A fascicle is _________________________________________________________________
8. Endomysium is ______________________________________________________________
C. Skeletal Muscle Fibers
1. A skeletal muscle fiber is a single ________________________________________________
2. The sarcolemma is ____________________________________________________________
3. The sarcoplasm is _____________________________________________________________
5. Myofibrils are _________________ and are located in the _____________________________
7. Thick myofilaments are composed of _____________________________________________
8. Thin myofilaments are composed of ______________________________________________
9. The organization of myofilaments produce _________________________________________
21. Actin has a binding site to which ________________________________________ can attach.
22. Troponin and tropomyosin associate with _________________________________________
23. Sarcoplasmic reticulum is _____________________________________________________
24. Transverse tubules are ________________________________________________________
25. Cisternae are _______________________________________________________________
II. Skeletal Muscle Contraction
4. A neuromuscular junction is ____________________________________________________
5. A motor end plate is ___________________________________________________________
6. A motor unit is _______________________________________________________________
7. A synaptic cleft separates _______________________________________________________
8. Synaptic vesicles store _________________________________________________________
6. ATP is necessary for both muscle ________________________________________________
and___________________________________________________________________________
G. Energy Sources for Contraction
1. Creatine phosphate is __________________________________________________________
I. Oxygen Debt
2. Under anaerobic conditions, glycolysis breaks down glucose into _______________________
and converts it to ________________________________________________________________
4. Liver cells can convert lactic acid to ______________________________________________
B. Origin and Insertion
1. The origin of a muscle is _______________________________________________________
2. The insertion of a muscle is _____________________________________________________
3. When a muscle contracts, its ____________________________________________________
is pulled toward its ______________________________________________________________
Study the names, general locations, and actions of the muscles. Your muscle packet is the best resource
for this.
Chapter 17: Digestive System
I. Introduction
B. Mechanical digestion breaks __________________________________________________________________
C. Chemical digestion breaks ____________________________________________________________________
E. The alimentary canal is composed of ____________________________________________________________
F. The accessory organs of the digestive system are __________________________________________________
II. General Characteristics of the Alimentary Canal
C. Movements of the Tube
3. Peristalsis is _______________________________________________________________________________
III. Mouth
A. Introduction
1. The functions of the mouth are _________________________________________________________________
2. Mastication is ______________________________________________________________________________
4. The oral cavity is ___________________________________________________________________________
C. Tongue
1. The tongue is located ________________________________________________________________________
D. Palate
1. The palate forms__________________and consists of two parts - _____________________________________
4. The uvula is _______________________________________________________________________________
5. The function of the uvula is ___________________________________________________________________
IV. Salivary Glands
A. Introduction
1. Salivary glands secrete _______________________________________________________________________
2. The functions of saliva are ____________________________________________________________________
B. Salivary Secretions
4. Amylase digests ____________________________________________________________________________
V. Pharynx and Esophagus
A. Introduction
1. The pharynx is _____________________________________________________________________________
D. Esophagus
1. The esophagus is a passageway for _____________________________________________________________
2. The esophagus propels food from _______________ to the __________________________________________
4. The esophageal hiatus is ______________________________________________________________________
6. The lower esophageal sphincter is located______________and functions to _____________________________
VII. Stomach
A. Introduction
3. Rugae are _________________________________________________________________________________
4. The functions of the stomach are _______________________________________________________________
B. Parts of the Stomach
1. The four parts of the stomach are _______________________________________________________________
2. The cardiac region is ________________________________________________________________________
3. The fundic region is _________________________________________________________________________
4. The body of the stomach is ____________________________________________________________________
5. The pyloric region is _________________________________________________________________________
6. The pyloric sphincter is located________________and functions to____________________________________
C. Gastric Secretions
1. Gastric pits are _____________________________________________________________________________
2. The three cell types of gastric glands are _________________________________________________________
3. Mucous cells secrete _________________________________________________________________________
4. Chief cells secrete ___________________________________________________________________________
5. Parietal cells secrete _________________________________________________________________________
6. Gastric juice is _____________________________________________________________________________
7. Pepsin is __________________________________________________________________________________
8. The function of pepsinogen is _________________________________________________________________
9. The function of hydrochloric acid in the stomach is_________________________________________________
10. The coating of the stomach is important for ______________________________________________________
11. The function of intrinsic factor is __________________________________________________________
E. Gastric Absorption
1. The stomach absorbs ________________________________________________________________________
2. Most nutrients are absorbed in _________________________________________________________________
F. Mixing and Emptying Actions
2. Chyme is __________________________________________________________________________________
3. Peristaltic waves push chyme __________________________________________________________________
5. The lower esophageal sphincter prevents _________________________________________________________
VIII. Pancreas
B. Pancreatic Juice
1. Pancreatic juice contains _____________________________________________________________________
2. The function of pancreatic amylase is ___________________________________________________________
3. The function of pancreatic lipase is _____________________________________________________________
4. The functions of trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase are _____________________________________
6. The function of trypsinogen is _________________________________________________________________
7. The functions of nucleases are _________________________________________________________________
C. Regulation of Pancreatic Secretion
2. The function of secretin is ____________________________________________________________________
3. The release of cholecystokinin is triggered by _____________________________________________________
4. The action of cholecystokinin on the pancreas is ___________________________________________________
IX. Liver
A. Introduction
1. The largest internal organ is the ________________________________________________________________
C. Liver Functions
8. The liver’s role in digestion is _________________________________________________________________
D. Composition of Bile
2. Bile contains _______________________________________________________________________________
E. Gallbladder
1. The gallbladder is located _____________________________________________________________________
2. The cystic duct is_______________and opens into _________________________________________________
3. The common bile duct is formed from_______________________and opens into ________________________
4. Gallstones form when ________________________________________________________________________
F. Regulation of Bile Release
1. Cholecystokinin triggers the gallbladder to _______________________________________________________
2. Cholecystokinin is released in response to ________________________________________________________
G. Functions of Bile Salts
2. Emulsification is ____________________________________________________________________________
X. Small Intestine
A. Introduction
1. The small intestine extends from _______________________________________________________________
2. The small intestine receives secretions from ______________________________________________________
3. The functions of the small intestine are __________________________________________________________
B. Parts of the Small Intestine
1. The three parts of the small intestine are _________________________________________________________
C. Structure of the Small Intestinal Wall
1. The velvety appearance of the inner wall of the small intestine is due to ________________________________
2. Intestinal villi are ___________________________________________________________________________
3. The functions of villi are _____________________________________________________________________
6. Microvilli increase __________________________________________________________________________
F. Absorption in the Small Intestine
1. The most important absorbing organ is the _______________________________________________________
G. Movements of the Small Intestine
4. A peristaltic rush is __________________________________________________________________________
5. Diarrhea results from ________________________________________________________________________
6. The ileocecal sphincter joins __________________________________________________________________
XI. Large Intestine
A. Introduction
2. The functions of the large intestine are ___________________________________________________________
B. Parts of the Large Intestine
1. The parts of the large intestine are ______________________________________________________________
2. The cecum is _______________________________________________________________________________
3. The vermiform appendix is located______________and consists of ____________________________________
4. The four parts of the colon are _________________________________________________________________
9. The rectum is ______________________________________________________________________________
10. The anal canal is ___________________________________________________________________________
12. The anus is _______________________________________________________________________________
13. Two sphincters of the anus are ________________________________________________________________
14. The internal anal sphincter is composed of ______________________________________________________
15. The external anal sphincter is composed of ______________________________________________________
D. Functions of the Large Intestine
4. The large intestine can absorb _________________________________________________________________
Chapter 10: Nervous System I
I. General Functions of the Nervous System
A. The nervous system is composed predominately of ____________________________________ tissue,
but also includes _______________________________________________________________________
B. Two cell types of nervous tissue are _____________________________________________________
C. Neurons are specialized to _____________________________________________________________
D. Dendrites are _______________________________________________________________________
E. Axons are __________________________________________________________________________
F. Nerve impulses are ___________________________________________________________________
G. Bundles of axons are called ____________________________________________________________
H. Small spaces between neurons are called _________________________________________________
I. Neurotransmitters are _________________________________________________________________
J. The central nervous system contains _____________________________________________________
K. The peripheral nervous system contains __________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
N. Receptors gather ____________________________________________________________________
O. Receptors convert their information into ______________________________________ , which are then
transmitted over ____________________________ to _________________________________________
R. The motor functions of the nervous system use neurons to carry impulses from the
central nervous system to ________________________________________________________________
S. Examples of effectors are ______________________________________________________________
T. The two divisions of the motor division are _______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
U. Somatic nervous system is involved in ___________________________________________________
V. The autonomic nervous system is involved in ______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
W. The nervous system can detect ___________________, make ________________________________ ,
and stimulate _________________________________________________________________ to respond.
II. Classification of Neurons and Neuroglia
A. Classification of Neurons
1. The three major classifications of neurons based on structural differences are
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. Bipolar neurons have _____________________________________ processes; one process is a
________________________ and the other an _______________________________________
3. Bipolar neurons are found ______________________________________________________
4. Unipolar neurons have ___________________________________________________ process,
which divides into an ____________________________________________________________
7. Multipolar neurons have _________________ dendrites and _______________________ axon.
8. Multipolar neurons are located __________________________________________________
9. The three classes of neurons based on functional differences are ________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
10. Sensory neurons carry impulses from ____________________________________________
to ____________________________________________________________________________
11. Sensory neurons have specialized ________________________________________at the tips
of their dendrites.
12. Most sensory neurons are _________________ but some are __________________________
13. Interneurons are located _______________________________________________________
14. Interneurons are _____________________________________________________________
and form links between ___________________________________________________________
15. Motor neurons carry nerve impulses from _________________________________________
to ____________________________________________________________________________
X. The three parts all neurons have are _____________________________________________________
B. Classification of Neuroglial Cells
3. Schwann cells are the neuroglia of________________________________________________
4. The four neuroglial cells of the central nervous system are _____________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5. Astrocytes are __________________________________________________________ shaped
and are commonly found between __________________________________________________
6. Astrocytes provide ____________________________________________________________
9. Astrocytes play a role in the blood-brain barrier which ________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
10. Oligodendrocytes occur in _____________________________________________________
and form ______________________________________________________________________
11. Unlike Schwann cells, oligodendrocytes do not form ________________________________
12. Microglia function to _________________________________________________________
13. Ependyma form the inner lining of __________________________________________ of the
spinal cord and ________________________________________________________ of the brain.
16. Covering the choroids plexus, ependymal cells also regulate __________________________
III. Cell Membrane Potential
A. Introduction
1. Polarized means ____________________________________________________________________________
2. When a cell membrane is polarized, the inside is_________________________charged with respect to the outside.
3. The polarization of a cell membrane is due to _____________________________________________________
B. Distribution of Ions
1. _______________are the major intracellular positive ion and_______________are the major extracellular cation.
2. The distribution of potassium and sodium is largely created by________________________________________
C. Resting Potential
1. A resting nerve cell is one that is _______________________________________________________________
2. At rest, a cell membrane gets a slight surplus of positive charges _________________and inside
reflects a slight negative surplus of impermeable negatively charged ions because ___________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. The cell uses ATP to actively transport __________________________________________________________
6. The membrane potential is_________________and is measured in ____________________________________
7. Resting potential is_______________________and has a value of _____________________________________
8. The negative sign of a resting membrane potential is relative to _______________________________________
___________________________ and is due to _______________________________________
E. Action Potentials
3. At the resting membrane potential, sodium channels are ______________________________________ but when
threshold is reached, sodium channels______________________________________________________________
4. As sodium ions rush into the cell, the ______________________________________________________ changes
and temporarily becomes ________________________________________________________________________
5. When sodium channels close and potassium channels open, potassium diffuses___________and the inside of the
membrane becomes _________________________________________________________________ charged again.
6. Repolarized means __________________________________________________________________________
7. _________________ are capable of action potentials but ______________________________________ are not.
8. A nerve impulse is __________________________________________________________________________
H. Impulse Conduction
1. Myelin serves as ____________________________________________________________________________
2. Saltatory conduction is _______________________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________ axons exhibit salutatory conduction.
4. _______________________________________________________________ axons send nerve impulses faster
than ___________________________________________________________________________________ axons.
5. The diameter of an axon also affects ____________________________________________________________
Chapter 12: Somatic and Special Senses
F. Sense of Sight
a. Each eyelid is composed of ___________________________________________________________________
b. The orbiculais oculi muscle functions to _________________________________________________________
c. The levator palpebrae muscle functions to ________________________________________________________
k. The six extrinsic muscles of the eye are __________________________________________________________
3. Structure of the Eye
a. The three layers of the eyeball are ______________________________________________________________
c. The two parts of the outer tunic are _____________________________________________________________
i. The ciliary body is ______________________________________________________________________ and its
functions include ______________________________________________________________________________
l. Suspensory ligaments extend from _______________________________________________________ and hold
____________________________________________________________________________________________
p. The iris is ____________________________________________________________________ and functions to
____________________________________________________________________________________________
q. The anterior cavity of the eye is ________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
r. The anterior chamber of the eye is ______________________________________________________________
s. The posterior chamber of the eye is _____________________________________________________________
t. Aqueous humor is located __________________________________________________________________ and
functions to __________________________________________________________________________________
u. The pupil is ________________________________________________________________________________
v. The size of the pupil changes in response to ______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
w. The inner tunic of the eye consists of ______________________________________________________ which
contains the __________________________________________________________________________________
x. The retina has distinct layers including __________________________________________________________
bb. The macula lutea is _________________________________________________________________________
cc. The fovea centralis is _______________________________________________________________________
dd. The optic disc is ___________________________________________________________________________
ee. The posterior cavity of the eye is ______________________________________________________________
ff. Vitreous humor is located _________________________________________________________________ and
functions to __________________________________________________________________________________
5. Visual Receptors
a. Two kinds of photoreceptor cells are ____________________________________________________________
b. Rods and cones are found _____________________________________________________________________
c. Rods and cones are stimulated when _________________________________________________ reaches them.
d. Rods are ___________________________________________________________________ to light than cones.
e. Rods provide vision in ___________________________________________________________________ light.
f. Rods produce ____________ vision, whereas cones detect ___________________________________________
i. Erythrolabe is most sensitive to _________________________________________________________________
j. Chlorolabe is most sensitive to _________________________________________________________________
k. Cyanolabe is most sensitive to _________________________________________________________________
G. “Floaters” are due to ________________________________________________________________________
I. Glaucoma is________________________________________________________________________________
J. Cataracts are _______________________________________________________________________________