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Doklady Biological Sciences, Vol. 383, 2002, pp. 141–143. Translated from Doklady Akademii Nauk, Vol. 383, No. 4, 2002, pp. 571–573.
Original Russian Text Copyright © 2002 by Ostroumov.
GENERAL BIOLOGY
New Definitions of the Concepts and Terms Ecosystem
and Biogeocenosis
S. A. Ostroumov
Presented by Academician L.M. Sushchenya November 14, 2001
Received December 6, 2001
The terms ecosystem and biogeocenosis were
coined by Tansley in 1935 [1] and by Sukachev in the
1940s [2], respectively. These terms are widely used in
biological research [3–10], and there are several definitions of the term ecosystem [4–8]. However, a large
body of new biological information has been accumulated since the time of introduction of these terms.
Therefore, a revision of the currently accepted concepts
of natural objects and interpretation of basic ecological
terms (e.g., ecosystem and biogeocenosis) may be proposed. It seems reasonable to continue the search for
new variants of definitions of these terms.
The goal of this work was to contribute to this
search by suggesting and substantiating specific definitions of two basic ecological terms. I certainly realize
that this problem is very complex and its exhaustive
solution is practically unattainable, because it is impossible to find an ideal definition that would be adequate
to all imaginable situations or satisfy all experts. Nevertheless, it is worth trying to propose modern variants
of refined definitions capable of taking into account
large volumes of new information concerning aquatic
[6, 11–15] and terrestrial [7, 9, 10, 14] ecosystems.
Sometimes, the terms used in the definition require
additional explanation themselves (e.g., trophic structure, biocenosis, community, etc.) [3]. For example,
according to a typical definition, ecosystem is a biological community together with its physical environment
(see p. 679 in [5]). However, this definition by no
means reflects the whole body of experimental findings
and theoretical concepts accumulated in ecology during the past decades. Given the remarks made above in
this work, the following variant of definition can be
suggested:
Ecosystem is the complex of interconnected living
organisms inhabiting particular area or unit of space,
together with their environment and all their interrelationships and relationships with the environment. Ecosystem is characterized by the description of popula-
Moscow State University, Vorob’evy gory, Moscow,
119899 Russia
tions (abundance) of individual species; interspecies
relationships; activity of organisms; physical and
chemical characteristics of environment; flows of matter, energy, and information; and description of changes
of these parameters with time.
This definition does not contain terms such as
trophic structure, trophic levels, biocenosis, biotope,
community, components, systems, and succession.
Because this definition is applicable to both aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems, as well as to natural or model
systems of various ranges and degrees of complexity, it
seems to be quite universal. Specific features of this
definition and their substantiation are briefly summarized in Table 1.
The term biogeocenosis, suggested in the early
1940s by Sukachev [2], has gained wide recognition [7,
8]. This term is widely used in ecological research. The
classical definition given by Sukachev is cited in many
manuals and textbooks. However, a large body of new
ecological information accumulated since the time of
introduction of the term makes it reasonable to consider
new variants of the definition. These definitions should
take into account both recent progress in biological
research and specific features of the current practice of
the use of this term. For example, many researchers
apply this term to aquatic ecosystems. To be applicable
to aquatic ecosystems, the original definition of this
term should be revised. According to the modern taxonomic system, fungi are excluded from the plant kingdom. New findings show that the information flow
plays a significant role in the organization of superorganism structures [9, 14]. Based on a modified definition of V.N. Sukachev, the following definition of biogeocenosis can be suggested:
Biogeocenosis is an aggregate of natural components (atmosphere, rocks, plants, animals, representatives of microorganisms and fungi, soil and hydrological conditions, and bottom sediments in the case of
aquatic systems) in a particular area of land or water.
Biogeocenosis is characterized by specific relationships between components; specific types of matter,
energy, and information flows providing a certain
degree of integrity (unity of components, indivisibility)
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142
OSTROUMOV
Table 1. Specific features of the definition of ecosystem proposed in this work
No. Specific feature of the definition
Examples and comment
on the preceding column
Brief substantiation
1
Indication that “living organisms The universality of the definition is
inhabit a particular area or unit of increased to include situations with
space”
aquatic and soil systems in which
organisms inhabit the bulk of the
water or the bulk of the soil
Biological organisms may inhabit a considerable fraction (in terms of size and environmental diversity) of the system volume in the bulk
of the water [6] and the bulk of the soil [10]
2
Direct indication to the ecosystem The definition is more plain and
characteristics that are important specific; the importance of biolofor its description
gical and nonbiological (physical
and chemical) characteristics of the
system is emphasized
The following characteristics have been shown
to be necessary: abundance of individual species, interrelationships between them [4, 7, 8],
specific physical and chemical environmental
parameters [6, 10], seasonal and succession
changes and their dynamics with time
3
Activity of organisms is put on
the list of ecosystem characteristics required for its description
The importance of the physiological
activity of organisms (e.g., the rate of
photosynthesis, primary productivity,
community respiration rate, rate of
water filtration by hydrobionts, etc.)
Type and functions of ecosystem are mainly
determined by its productivity [5], which
depends on the physiological activity of
organisms. The rate of water filtration by
hydrobionts is important to maintain the
water quality in aquatic ecosystems at a
sufficiently high level [11, 15]
4
Flows of matter and energy have
been introduced instead of the
terms “turnover of matter and
energy” or “exchange of matter
and energy between system
components”
The essence of the processes of matter
and energy transfer is defined more
accurately; because some of these processes are unidirectional, the term flow
is more correct than the term exchange
Transfer of pollutants (including radionuclides) along the trophic chain is unidirectional [13]. Transfer of matter and some
chemical elements (C, N, P, Si, Al)
by pellets settling in water [12] is also an
example of unidirectional transfer (along
the vector of gravity force)
5
Flows of information have been
introduced in addition to flows
of matter and energy
Flows of information are important to
provide contact between organisms,
regulation of their interaction in the
ecosystem, and ecosystem stability
There are many examples of information
transfer by pheromones [9], attractants,
deterrents, and other ecologically important
substances produced by organisms [14]
and their changes with time. Organisms usually contribute to environment formation or modification.
Specific features of the new definition and its comparison with the classical Sukachev’s definition [2] are
briefly described in Table 2. The following specific features of the variant should be emphasized.
(1) Taking into consideration the modern concept of
natural systems called biogeocenoses, the words about
water surface; fungi; and flows of matter, energy, and
information have been added; a new conclusion was
added.
(2) The word “uniformity” is omitted (in the definition by Sukachev it was used in the context of uniform
natural phenomena); the word “exchange” (in the context of energy and matter exchange) has been replaced
by “flows”; the last part of the definition has been omitted (replaced by a new variant discussed above).
(3) It has been noted that living organisms usually
contribute to environment formation or modification.
(4) The problem of unity of the system’s components is considered as adequately and carefully as pos-
sible (“a certain degree of integrity” has been
included).
(5) It is noted that biogeocenoses tend to change
with time.
I realize that the variant of definition suggested in
this work is far from ideal. In many cases other variants
of definition of the term ecosystem are more useful [3–
8]. I hope that the use and discussion of different variants will promote further progress in the development
of the definitions of these basic terms. The evolution of
the terms inevitably occurs as new ecological data, are
accumulated.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful to V.D Fedorov, G.V. Dobrovol’skii,
E.A. Kriksunov, V.L. Kontrimavichus, V.N. Maksimov,
A.S. Vladychenskii, A.P. Melikyan and many other colleagues from Moscow State University and Russian
Academy of Sciences for stimulating discussion of
general ecological problems. I am also grateful to AcaDOKLADY BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Vol. 383
2002
NEW DEFINITIONS OF THE CONCEPTS AND TERMS ECOSYSTEM AND BIOGEOCENOSIS
143
Table 2. Specific features of the definition of biogeocenosis proposed in this work (see the text)
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Difference from the classical
definition by Sukachev (1972) [2]
The universality of the definition and its
applicability to aquatic systems is emphasized
“Land and water surface” is used instead of “land The universality of the definition and its applicability to aquatic
surface”
systems is emphasized
The term “uniform phenomena” is omitted
Studies performed in the past decades gave many examples of
heterogeneity of some parameters (temperature, illuminance, etc.)
and variability of these parameters within the biogeocenosis.
Synusias and consortiums are other examples of heterogeneity [8]
Fungi are added to the list of biotic components Fungi were previously assigned to plants; however, according to the
modern taxonomic system, they are excluded from the plant kingdom
Bottom sediments are added to the list of
The universality of the definition and its applicability to aquatic
biogeocenosis components
systems is emphasized
The word “exchange” in the expression “exchange of This substitution is required to provide higher accuracy, because, in
matter and energy” is replaced by the word “flows” many cases, unidirectional flows rather than bidirectional exchange
take place
The word “information” is added to the expression Studies performed in the past decades gave many examples of the
“flows of matter and energy”
important role of information transfer in the processes of formation
of multiple connections and interactions between the components
of biogeocenoses [8, 9, 14]
It is noted that living organisms usually contribute It is emphasized that living organisms are involved in environment
to environment formation or modification
formation and modification. The examples of this involvement have
been presented by many authors in studies on terrestrial (soil) [10]
and aquatic [11, 15] systems
The last part of the definition is omitted and reMore specific expressions are used; the possibility of changes with
placed by a new variant
time is emphasized. Specific features of community dynamics (reversible and irreversible changes, including seasonal and circadian
rhythms, fluctuations, successions, etc.) were extensively discussed
in ecological literature [2–5, 7, 8]
demician L.M. Sushchenya for reviewing the manuscript, to V.L. Kas’yanov, V.N. Pavlov, and A.I. Azovskii
for valuable criticism of the preliminary version of the
manuscript, and to Dr. Peter J. Wangersky for useful
advise.
This study was supported by IBG.
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