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Phrase Structure Tree Syntactic Rules n n n Break down the sequence using a Phrase Structure Tree Rules of allowable word sequences in a language (grammatically correct) Phrase structure n sentences composed of smaller units (constituents) article Allowable Sequences n Sentences: Phrase Structure Rules n Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase n Noun n n n Verb n n n n Some verbs do not require objects (intransitive) n Set of complicated rules governing syntax n n n Verb: n n (auxiliary) + Verb: Ex: is chewing n n Prepositional Phrase n n n n English -- meaning relies on word order change order -- change meaning ex: can't have two or more noun phrases adjacent interpret initial noun phrases as an adjective red fire engine fire engine red n red engine fire n Ex: Obtain Ex: Sleep We follow them (& know when they are violated) May not be able to describe or explain Preposition + Noun Phrase: Ex: over the moon Are syntactical rules important? n article adjective noun Gets more complicated: Some verbs require objects (transitive) n Phrase: Verb + Noun Phrase: Ex: ate the green grass Verb + Prepositional Phrase: Ex: grazed in the grassy meadow noun Phrase Structure Phrase: (article) + (adjective) + noun : Ex: The spotted cow Pronoun : Ex: She adjective What are we trying to accomplish with language? n n n Convey meaning or information Syntactical rules – aid in conveying information Information – represented in propositional network (e.g., ACT) ??? n 1 Grammatical Sentence n Minimal requirements are a Noun Phrase and a Verb Phrase Jack ran – grammatical n Jack tired – ungrammatical n Why? May be rooted in organization of memory Verb usage n n n n Propositional (subject) -- Noun Phrase n Some information about Doer (action or state) -- Verb Phrase n n e.g., Sleep -- He slept (Propositional network -- certain relations require object?) Phrase Structure n Word order important in specifying the doer, the action, and the object n Other verbs do not require an object (intransitive) n n Agent -- Relation -- (Object) n Doer Word Order n n e.g., Save -- He saved the dog Networks n Proposition: n Some verbs require an object (transitive) n provides a "road map" for understanding Mapping onto propositional representation Ate a worm the bird -- meaning is clear Ate a shark the man -- meaning is ambiguous Meaning changes if we change the word order If road map unclear . . . Psychological Reality of Syntax He wants to discuss sex with Dr. Phil. n n Grammatical categories are psychologically real n Evidence: n n n Dr. P e.g., Nouns vs. verbs Kim et al (1991) – studied how we “verb” nouns Treated differently than corresponding/similar irregular verbs Dr. P 2 Examples n Examples Gretzky got a penalty for hitting the goalie with a high stick. n n Gretzky high-sticked the goalie. n Gretzky high-stuck the goalie. n n Brian needed nerves of steel to face the ordeal. n n Pete tried to stick the tape on the wall again and again. Benzinger was good at stealing bases. n n Pete re-sticked the tape on the wall. n Pete re-stuck the tape on the wall. n Examples n General Patton ordered his artillery to form a ring around the city. n n n Songs of freedom ringed through the land. Songs of freedom rang through the land. Psychological Reality of Syntax n n Songs of freedom were ringing through the land. n Process/organize by phrase structure Example: Caplan (1972) n He always puts the pig on a spit to roast it over a fire. n He quickly ringed the city with artillery. n He quickly rang the city with artillery. n Last night, Benzinger stealed second base twice. Last night, Benzinger stole second base twice. Examples n n Brian steeled himself for the ordeal. Brian stole himself for the ordeal. Again last night, he spitted the pig. Again last night, he spat the pig. Whenever I come up with a suggestion, he always spits on it. n n Again last night, he spitted on my idea. Again last night, he spat on my idea. Caplan (1972) n Sentences read to subjects n n constructed special sentences n Most recent phrase – most active/accessible n n n n Now that artists are working fewer hours oil prints are rare Now that artists are working in oil prints are rare Ex: probed with "oil" n n Afterwards – Asked if a probe word was present? faster in the first type of sentence -- oil in last phrase slower in second type of sentence -- oil in first phrase Probe words – identical in position & wording Differ only in phrase (last vs. not last) 3 Reality of Syntax n Subject paced reading Ex: Aaronson & Sarborough (1977) n single word presentation n Press key to continue paced reading” golfcourse, Mounts Woods bought After Tiger soda. draft beat cold the Dr. on a n “subject measured time spent on each word n pauses between phrases n Factors affecting comprehension n n Negative vs. Positive forms of sentences Sherman (1976) -- tested comprehension affirmative sentences n 1 , 2 , 3 , or 4 negatives n n ex: n Passive Sentences n n n active sentences typically easier to comprehend sequence of doer, action, object ex: Obler Obler,, Fein, Nicholas, & Albert (1991) n Few people strongly deny that the world is not flat n The n affirmative: 100% n4 n negatives: 59% n n Active advantage depends on meaning The girl caught the ball n The ball was caught by the girl n n n woman rescued the dog dog was rescued by the woman 94% correct on active 81% correct on passive "I looked over, and there ain't wasn't nothing there no more” Caveat on Passive Sentences n gave adults in their 30's active and passive sentences n The Comprehension can't confuse subject and object No advantage for active Sentence Parsing n n How do we extract a sentence's phrase structure and meaning? Assign each word a syntactic role in that sentence n n n n n running -- adjective, noun, verb? Evidence suggests that we parse and begin to comprehend "on line” actively setting up phrase structure while sentence is coming in Use both syntax and semantics Extract phrases -- compile and then proceed 4 Syntax as a guide to parsing/comprehension n Articles -- a noun is coming ly -- signals an adverb – a verb is coming Can’t have two nouns in a row . . . was “verbed “verbed”” . . .-.-- passive structure n A dorgon was fuppily veeped by the vardy raglimore raglimore.. n Who did what to whom? n n n Minimal Attachment Assumption of minimal attachment n n n n n n n what is the simplest phrase structure that will accommodate sentence up to this point? e.g., simplest -- NP + V Semantics as a guide to parsing knowledge about the meaning and use of words does the verb require an object? if yes -- know that a noun phrase is coming evaluate meaning before the end of the sentence Evidence that we interpret on line n Garden path sentences The horse raced past the barn fell. After the musician had played the piano was quickly taken off the stage. n Fat people eat accumulates. n The old man the ships. n The cotton clothing is made of grows in Mississippi. n We painted the wall with cracks. n n n Part of the way through the sentence – discover phrase structure we are using doesn’t work 5