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Symbolic Interactionism
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Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that is influential in many
areas of the sociological discipline. It is particularly important in
microsociology and social psychology. Symbolic interactionism is derived from
American pragmatism and particularly from the work of George Herbert Mead.
Herbert Blumer, a student and interpreter of Mead, coined the term "symbolic
interactionism" and put forward an influential summary of the perspective:
people act toward things based on the meaning those things have for them; and
these meanings are derived from social interaction and modified through
interpretation.
Sociologists working in this tradition have researched a wide range of topics
using a variety of research methods. However, the majority of interactionist
research uses qualitative research methods, like participant observation, to study
aspects of (1) social interaction and/or (2) individuals' selves.
History
Symbolic interactionism originated with two key theorists, George Herbert
Mead and Charles Horton Cooley. Mead argued that people's selves are social
products, but that these selves are also purposive and creative (needs citation),
and believed that the true test of any theory was that "It was useful in solving
complex social problems" (Griffin 59). Mead’s influence on symbolic
interactionism was said to be so powerful that other sociologists regard him as
the one “true founder” of symbolic interactionism tradition. Although Mead
taught in a philosophy department, he is best known by sociologists as the
teacher who trained a generation of the best minds in their field. Strangely, he
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never set forth his wide-ranging ideas in a book or systematic treatise. After his
death in 1931, his students pulled together class notes and conversations with
their mentor and published Mind, Self and Society in his name. (Griffin 59). 'It
is a common misconception that John Dewey was the leader of this sociological
theory; however, according to The Handbook of Symbolic Interactionism, Mead
was undoubtedly the individual who “transformed the inner structure of the
theory, moving it to a higher level of theoretical complexity.” (Herman-Kinney
Reynolds 67).
Herbert Blumer was a social constructionist, and was influenced by Dewey; as
such, this theory is very phenomenologically based. He believed that the "Most
human and humanizing activity that people engage in is talking to each other"
(Griffin 60). Two other theorists who have influenced Symbolic interaction
theory are Yrjö Engeström and David Middleton. Engeström and Middleton
explained the usefulness of symbolic interactionism in the communication field
in a variety of work settings, including "courts of law, health care, computer
software design, scientific laboratory, telephone sales, control, repair, and
maintenance of advance manufacturing systems." Other scholars credited for
their contribution to the theory are Thomas, Park, James, Horton, Cooley,
Znaniecki, Baldwin, Redfield, and Wirth.
Basic premises and approach
The term "symbolic interactionism" has come into use as a label for a relatively
distinctive approach to the study of human life and human conduct (Blumer,
1939). With Symbolic interactionism, reality is seen as social, developed
interaction with others. Most symbolic interactionists believe a physical reality
does indeed exist by an individual's social definitions, and that social definitions
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do develop in part or relation to something "real". People thus do not respond to
this reality directly, but rather to the social understanding of reality; i.e., they
respond to this reality indirectly through a kind of filters or eyeglasses
(perspectives). This means that humans exist not in the physical space
composed of realities, but in the "world" composed only of "objects".
According to Blumer, the "objects" can be divided into three types: physical
objects, social objects, and abstract objects.
Both individuals and society cannot be separated far from each other for two
reasons. One, being that they are both created through social interaction, and
two, one cannot be understood in terms without the other. Behavior is not
defined by forces from the environment or inner forces such as drives, or
instincts, but rather by a reflective, socially understood meaning of both the
internal and external incentives that are currently presented (Meltzer et al.,
1975).
Herbert Blumer (1969) set out three basic premises of the perspective:
 "Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to
those things."
 "The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social
interaction that one has with others and the society."
 "These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretative
process used by the person in dealing with the things he/she encounters."
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The first premise includes everything that a human being may note in their
world, including physical objects, actions and concepts. Essentially, individuals
behave towards objects and others based on the personal meanings that the
individuals has already given these items. The second premise explains the
meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction
that one has with other humans. Blumer, following Mead, claimed people
interact with each other by interpreting or defining each other's actions instead
of merely reacting to each other's actions. Their "response" is not made directly
to the actions of one another but instead is based on the meaning which they
attach to such actions. Thus, human interaction is mediated by the use of
symbols and signification, by interpretation, or by ascertaining the meaning of
one another's actions (Blumer 1962). Meaning is either taken for granted and
pushed aside as an unimportant element which need not to be investigated or it
is regarded as a mere neutral link or one of the causal chains between the causes
or factors responsible for human behavior and this behavior as the product of
such factors. (Blumer 1969). Social interaction is the source of meaning, and
out of which the typical communication media which have meanings, i.e., the
language arises, and is negotiated through the use of it. We have the ability to
name things and designate objects or actions to a certain idea or phenomenon.
The use of symbols is a popular procedure for interpretation and intelligent
expression. Blumer contrasted this process with behaviorist explanations of
human behavior, which does not allow for interpretation between stimulus and
response.
In Blumer's third premise the idea of minding comes into play. Symbolic
interactionists describe thinking as an inner conversation. (Griffin 62). Mead
called this inner dialogue minding. Minding is the delay in one's thought
process that happens when one thinks about what they will do next. The third
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premise is that these meanings are handled in, and modified through, an
interpretative process used by the person in dealing with the things he
encounters. We naturally talk to ourselves in order to sort out the meaning of a
difficult situation. But first, we need language. Before we can think, we must be
able to interact symbolically. (Griffin 62). The emphasis on symbols, negotiated
meaning, and social construction of society brought on attention to the roles
people play. Role-taking is a key mechanism that permits people to see another
person's perspective to understand what an action might mean to another person.
Role-taking is a part of our lives at an early age. Playing house and pretending
to be someone else are examples of this phenomena. There is an improvisational
quality of roles; however, actors often take on a script that they follow. Because
of the uncertainty of roles in social contexts, the burden of role-making is on the
person in the situation. In this sense, we are proactive participants in our
environment.
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